UNIT3

Transistor as Switch
Operating Modes of Transistor

• Active mode: In this mode transistor is generally used as a current amplifier. In

active mode, two junctions are differently biased that means emitter-base
junction is forward biased whereas collector-base junction is reverse biased. In
this mode current flows between emitter and collector and amount of current
flow is proportional to the base current.
Cutoff mode

In this mode, both collector base junction and emitter base junction are reverse biased. This in turn not allows
the current to flow from collector to emitter when the base-emitter voltage is low. In this mode device is
completely switched off as the result the current flowing through the device is zero.
Saturation mode

In this mode of operation, both the emitter base and

collector base junctions are forward biased. Current flows
freely from collector to emitter when the base-emitter
voltage is high. In this mode device is fully switched ON.
Transistor as switch
TRANSISTOR AS A SWITCH
A transistor can be used as a switch. It has three regions of operation. When both emitter- base and collector-
base junctions are reverse biased, the transistor operates in the cut-off region and it acts as an open switch. When
the emitter base junction is forward biased and the collector base junction is reverse biased, it operates in the
active region and acts as an amplifier. When both the emitter-base and collector-base junctions are forward
biased, it operates in the saturation region and acts as a closed switch. When the transistor is switched from cut-
off to saturation and from saturation to cut-off with negligible active region, then transistor is operated as a
switch. When the transistor is in saturation, junction voltages are very small but the operating currents are large.
When the transistor is in cut-off, the currents are zero (except small leakage current) but the junction voltages are
large.
In Figure 3.6 the transistor Q can be used to connect and disconnect the load RL from the source Vcc When Q is
saturated it is like a closed switch from collector to emitter and when Q is cut-off it is like an open switch from
collector to emitter.
 Example of NPN Transistor as a Switch

Consider the below example where base resistance Rb = 50 k ohm, collector resistance Rc = 0.7k ohm, Vcc is
5V and the beta value is 125. At the base input a signal varying between 0 and 5V is given so we are going
to see the output at the collector by varying the Vi at two states that is 0 and 5V as shown in figure.
• Ic = Vcc/Rc when VCE = 0
• Ic = 5V/0.7k ohm
• Ic = 7.1 mA
• Base Current Ib = Ic / β
• Ib = 7.1 mA/125
• Ib = 56.8 µA
• From the above calculations, the maximum or peak value of the collector
current in the circuit is 7.1mA when Vce is equal to zero. And the correspond
base current to which collector current flows is 56.8µA. So, it is clear that
when the base current is increased beyond the 56.8 micro ampere then the
transistor comes into the saturation mode.
• Consider the case when zero volt is applied at the input. This causes the base
current zero and as the emitter is grounded, emitter base junction is not
forward biased. Therefore, the transistor is in OFF condition and the collector
output voltage is equal to 5V.
• When Vi = 0V, Ib = 0 and Ic =0,
• Vc = Vcc – (IcRc)
• = 5V – 0
• = 5V
• Consider that input voltage applied is 5 volts, then the base current
can be determined by applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law.
• When Vi = 5V
• Ib = (Vi – Vbe) / Rb
• For silicon transistor Vbe = 0.7 V
• Thus, Ib = (5V – 0.7V)/ 50K ohm
• = 86 µA which is greater than 56.8 µA
• Therefore the base current is greater than 56.8 micro ampere current,
the transistor will be driven to saturation that is fully ON when 5V is
applied at the input. Thus the output at the collector becomes
approximately zero.
The intersection of the load line with the IB - Ibe(sat) curve is called the saturation point. At
this point, the base current is IB(sat) and the collector current is maximum. At saturation, the
collector diode comes out of cut-off and again the normal transistor action is lost, i.e. Ic(sat) =
Vcc/RL. Ibe(sat) represents the minimum base current required to bring the transistor into
saturation. For 0 < IB < IB(sat), the transistor operates in the active region. If the base current is
greater than IB(sat), the collector current approximately equals VCC/IC and the transistor appears
like a closed switch.
Transistor switch with Inductive load
Input to the switch and output
Fig “a’ shows a transistor switch in which the load is inductor L shunted by resistor. The arbitrary signal is
applied to the base of transistor having some dc level, because of the clamping in the base circuit the transistor
goes from saturation to cutoff. The additional resistor Rc is included in collector circuit to control the collector
current when transistor is in saturation. At steady state, inductor will be carrying a current I 0.
Io = [Vcc – Vce(sat)] / Rc
To calculate the output voltage when switch is in cut-off the equivalent circuit must flow current is shown here
we have neglected small leakage current. The inductor current which must flow through R, decays from I o to zero
with time constant L/R. the output voltage is shown in fig and is given by

Thus, driving the switch to cutoff develops at collector a positive spike of amplitude I o superimposed on the supply voltage.
When the switch is returned to saturation again at t = T 2 the inductor acts initially as an open circuit. The transistor current and
hence the current through R is
(c) Equivalent circuit for finding output when switch is open
(d) Equivalent circuit for finding output when switch is closed
Let Io’ represents the transistor current which flows at the moment the switch is turned ON. The current through R will
decay from Io’ zero with time constant L/R’, in which R’ is the parallel of R and R c . The output for t > T2 is

And has a negative spike as shown in fig. superimposed on supply voltage. The negative spike is always
smaller than the supply voltage because the collector voltage cannot reverse in polarity. The time constant
of negative spike is larger than that of the positive spike and therefore the negative decays more slowly. The
circuit will act as peaking circuit.
Transistor Switch with Capacitive load

Fig. (a) Transistor switch with a capacitive load

Fig. (b) equivalent circuit for calculating output voltage when transistor is OFF
Fig. (d) the input voltage vi, the collector current ic, and the output voltage vo waveforms
Consider the circuit shown in Fig a . At t = 0 - , when the transistor is in saturation, the output voltage v o and the
collector current ic is given by

These quantities since this voltage reverse-biases the collector junction, the transistor remains in its active
region and a collector current Ic = hfe Ib= I’o results. The discharge of the capacitor as shown in fig c , where I’o
is constant. The output voltage starts at a value Vcc and falls exponentially with a time constant R cCs towards a
steady-state value of Vcc - I’oRc. for t ≥ T2 and until the transistor returns to saturation, the output is given by

These condition are shown in Fig d . In drawing the wave forms in fig d we have implicitly as R cCs is much
smaller than T2 or T1. If RcCs is greater than T2, then the exponential rise can be approximated by a linear
increase. The circuit will behave as integrator and step is converted into ramp output
 Multivibrators
A Multivibrator is a two-stage resistance coupled amplifier with positive feedback from the output of one
amplifier to the input of the other.
Two transistors are connected in feedback so that one controls the state of the other. Hence the ON and OFF
states of the whole circuit, and the time periods for which the transistors are driven into saturation or cut off are
controlled by the conditions of the circuit.
There are two possible states of a Multivibrator. In first stage, the transistor Q1 turns ON
while the transistor Q2 turns OFF. In second stage, the transistor Q1 turns OFF while the
transistor Q2 turns ON. These two states are interchanged for certain time periods
depending upon the circuit conditions.
Depending upon the manner in which these two states are interchanged, the Multivibrators
are classified into three types. They are
Astable Multivibrator
An Astable Multivibrator is such a circuit that it automatically switches between the two
states continuously without the application of any external pulse for its operation. As this
produces a continuous square wave output, it is called as a Free-running Multivibrator. The
dc power source is a common requirement.
The time period of these states depends upon the time constants of the components used.
As the Multivibrator keeps on switching, these states are known as quasi-stable or
halfstable states. Hence there are two quasi-stable states for an Astable Multivibrator.
Monostable Multivibrator
A Monostable Multivibrator has a stable state and a quasi-stable state. This
has a trigger input to one transistor. So, one transistor changes its state
automatically, while the other one needs a trigger input to change its state.
As this Multivibrator produces a single output for each trigger pulse, this is
known as One-shot Multivibrator. This Multivibrator cannot stay in quasi-
stable state for a longer period while it stays in stable state until the trigger
pulse is received.
Bistable Multivibrator
A Bistable Multivibrator has both the two states stable. It requires two trigger
pulses to be applied to change the states. Until the trigger input is given, this
Multivibrator cannot change its state. It’s also known as flip-flop multivibrator.
As the trigger pulse sets or resets the output, and as some data, i.e., either high
or low is stored until it is disturbed, this Multivibrator can be called as a Flip-
flop.
There are few types in Bistable Multivibrators. They are as shown in the following figure
Bistable Multivibrator

Two similar transistors Q1 and Q2 with load resistors RL1 and RL2 are connected in feedback to one

another.
The base resistors R3 and R4 are joined to a common source –VBB. The feedback resistors R1 and R2 are

shunted by capacitors C1 and C2 known as Commutating Capacitors.

The transistor Q1 is given a trigger input at the base through the capacitor C3 and the transistor Q2 is given

a trigger input at its base through the capacitor C4.

The capacitors C1 and C2 are also known as transpose or Speed-up Capacitors, as they reduce

the transition time,

which means the time taken for the transfer of conduction from one transistor to the other.
The following figure shows the circuit diagram of a fixed-biased Bistable Multivibrator.
Output Waveforms

The output waveforms at the collectors of Q1 and Q2 along with the trigger inputs given at the
bases of Q1 and Q2 are shown in the following figures.
Advantages

The advantages of using a Bistable Multivibrator are as follows −

•Stores the previous output unless disturbed.
•Circuit design is simple
Disadvantages
The drawbacks of a Bistable Multivibrator are as follows −
•Two kinds of trigger pulses are required.
•A bit costlier than other Multivibrators.
Applications
Bistable Multivibrators are used in applications such as pulse generation and digital
operations like counting and storing of binary information.
Fixed biased Transistor Bistable Multivibrator
A self-biased transistor Bistable multivibrator
Astable Multivibrator
OPERATION OF ASTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR

• As no transistor characteristics are alike, one of the two transistors say Q1 has its collector current
increase and thus conducts. The collector of Q1 is applied to the base of Q2 through C1. This
connection lets the increased negative voltage at the collector of Q1 to get applied at the base of
Q2 and its collector current decreases. This continuous action makes the collector current of Q 2 to
decrease further. This current when applied to the base of Q1 makes it more negative and with
the cumulative actions Q1 gets into saturation and Q2 to cut off. Thus the output voltage of Q1 will
be VCE (sat) and Q2 will be equal to VCC.
• The capacitor C1 charges through R1 and when the voltage across C1 reaches 0.7v, this is enough
to turn the transistor Q2 to saturation. As this voltage is applied to the base of Q2, it gets into
saturation, decreasing its collector current. This reduction of voltage at point B is applied to the
base of transistor Q1 through C2 which makes the Q1 reverse bias. A series of these actions turn
the transistor Q1 to cut off and transistor Q2 to saturation. Now point A has the potential VCC. The
capacitor C2 charges through R2. The voltage across this capacitor C2 when gets to 0.7v, turns on
the transistor Q1 to saturation.
• Hence the output voltage and the output waveform are formed by the alternate switching of the
transistors Q1 and Q2. The time period of these ON/OFF states depends upon the values of biasing
resistors and capacitors used, i.e., on the RC values used. As both the transistors are operated
alternately, the output is a square waveform, with the peak amplitude of V CC.
Frequency of Oscillations
The ON time of transistor Q or the OFF time of transistor Q is given by
1 2

t = 0.69R C
1 1 1

Similarly, the OFF time of transistor Q or ON time of transistor Q is

1 2

given by
t = 0.69R C
2 2 2

Hence, total time period of square wave

t = t + t = 0.69(R C + R C )
1 2 1 1 2 2

As R = R = R and C = C = C, the frequency of square wave will be

1 2 1 2

f = 1/t = 1/1.38RC = 0.7/RC

MONOSTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR

A monostable multivibrator, as the name implies, has only one stable state. When the
transistor conducts, the other remains in non-conducting state. A stable state is such a state
where the transistor remains without being altered, unless disturbed by some external trigger
pulse. As Monostable works on the same principle, it has another name called as One-shot
Multivibrator.
Construction of Monostable Multivibrator
Two transistors Q1 and Q2 are connected in feedback to one another. The collector of transistor
Q1 is connected to the base of transistor Q2 through the capacitor C1. The base Q1 is connected
to the collector of Q2 through the resistor R2 . Another dc supply voltage –VBB is given to the
base of transistor Q1 through the resistor R3. The trigger pulse is given to the base of Q1 through
the capacitor C2 to change its state. RL1 and RL2 are the load resistors of Q1 and Q2.
One of the transistors, when gets into a stable state, an external trigger pulse is given to change
its state. After changing its state, the transistor remains in this quasi-stable state or Meta-stable
state for a specific time period, which is determined by the values of RC time constants and
gets back to the previous stable state.
Operation of Monostable Multivibrator

Firstly, when the circuit is switched ON, transistor Q1 will be in OFF state and Q2 will be in ON state.
This is the stable state. As Q1 is OFF, the collector voltage will be VCC at point A and hence C1 gets
charged. A positive trigger pulse applied at the base of the transistor Q1 turns the transistor ON. This
decreases the collector voltage, which turns OFF the transistor Q 2. The capacitor C1 starts
discharging at this point of time. As the positive voltage from the collector of transistor Q 2 gets
applied to transistor Q1, it remains in ON state. This is the quasi-stable state or Meta-stable state.
The transistor Q2 remains in OFF state, until the capacitor C1 discharges completely. After this, the
transistor Q2 turns ON with the voltage applied through the capacitor discharge. This turn ON the
transistor Q1, which is the previous stable state.
The width of this output pulse depends upon the RC time constant. Hence it depends on the
values of R1C1. The duration of pulse is given by
T=0.69R1C1
The trigger input given will be of very short duration, just to initiate the action. This triggers the
circuit to change its state from Stable state to Quasi-stable or Meta-stable or Semi-stable state,
in which the circuit remains for a short duration. There will be one output pulse for one trigger
pulse.
Advantages
The advantages of Monostable Multivibrator are as follows −
• One trigger pulse is enough.
• Circuit design is simple
• Inexpensive
Disadvantages
The major drawback of using a monostable multivibrator is that the time between the
applications of trigger pulse T has to be greater than the RC time constant of the circuit.
Applications
Monostable Multivibrators are used in applications such as television circuits and control
system circuits.
Methods to Improve resolution

The transistor bistable multivibrator has advantage that we can use a much smaller collector circuit
resistance Rc. The collector swing will be nearly equal to the supply voltage, although the collector
swing need only be a few times larger than the several tenths of a volt that will carry a transistor
from cutoff to saturation. If Rc being small then it allow to reduce the R1 and R2 in the transistor
circuit. The recovery time will be reduced as decrease in values of resistances and it will also allow
all shunting capacitors to charge more rapidly consequently improvement in transition speed.

The situation which normally prevails in transistor bistable multivibrators is that the speed is limited
by internal mechanism of transistor. An inherent and serious limitation on resolution time is the
interval required to draw the stored charges out of the base of transistor which is in saturation, this
delay is called storage time. Therefore, where resolution is premium, the transistor should not be
allowed to saturate.
A Nonsaturating Bistable Multivibrator
Comparison between saturated and nonsaturated bistable multibirators

Saturated nonsaturated
Simple circuit Complicated circuit
Less power dissipation (Off transistor has low High power dissipation As transistor in on
current and On transistor low voltage condition operates in High voltage(Vz) and current
Voltage swing is more stable with temp., aging and Unstable swing
replacement

A nonsaturated multivibtors are only used for applications where extreme speed is required.

Saturated multivibrators with high frequencies transistors can be used.

Triggering of Bistable Multivibrator
• The triggering signals employed induce a transition from one state to
the other state is either a pulse of short duration or step voltage. This
triggering signal is introduced in such a manner so as to produce
either symmetrical or unsymmetrical triggering.
• In unsymmetrical triggering the triggering signal is effective in
inducing in only one direction. A second triggering signal from a
separate source must be introduced in a different manner to achieve
the reverse transition. In this we use two triggering sources.
• In symmetrical triggering each successive triggering signal induces a
transition, regardless of the state in which the bistable happens to be.
Unsymmetrical triggering (Fig10.13)
Triggering Unsymmetrical through a unilateral device Fig 10.14 (a)
Fig10.14(b)
Symmetrical Triggering
Triggering of Bistable Multi without Auxiliary Diodes
Schmitt trigger
Schmitt trigger is an electronic circuit with positive feedback
which converts a sinusoidal or any analog signal to digital signal.
Schmitt trigger is a comparator circuit with hysteresis, that is the
output transition from high to low and low to high will occur at
different thresholds. Schmitt trigger belongs to the class of
bistable Multivibrator, which have two opposite operating states.
Schmitt trigger is level sensitive and the output switches
between two trigger levels, Lower Trigger Level (LTL) and Upper
Trigger Level (UTL). Figure shows the circuit of a Schmitt trigger.
It contains two identical transistors Q1 and Q2 coupled through
an emitter resistance RE. The output of transistor Q1 is coupled
to the input of transistor Q2 through resistor R1.
Schmitt Trigger
WORKING
When the power is applied to the circuit, the resistor R1, R2 and RE forming
a potential divider across Vcc and ground. Which slightly forward biases the
transistor Q2 and Q2 start conducting. The current flows through Resistor RE
and it produces a voltage drop across it. Because of this voltage drop,
transistor Q1 is reverse biased and drives to cutoff. Then the collector voltage
of transistor Q1 rises towards Vcc and this rising voltage is coupled to the
input of transistor Q2 through resistor R1. This drives transistor Q2 further
into saturation and holds there.
When an input AC signal is applied to the base of transistor Q1, as it is
increases to the voltage sufficient to overcome the reverse bias of transistor
Q1 or reaches above the upper trigger level, the transistor Q1 starts
conducting. The point at which the transistor Q1 start conducting is called
Upper Trigger Level(UTL) .
when the transistor Q1 starts conducting, the voltage drop at the collector of Q1 drops to
minimum. This negative going signal is coupled to the base of transistor Q2 through resistor
R1 reduces it’s forward bias and thus emitter current , and hence the voltage drop across
resistor RE. As a result reverse bias of transistor Q1 reduces and conducts more. Thus the
collector voltage of transistor Q1 drops and transistor Q2 further driven into cutoff.
This process continue till transistor Q1 driven into saturation and transistor Q2 into cutoff.
After a half a cycle of the input AC signal, it will be negative going. The transistor Q2
continue in cutoff till the input voltage falls below the lower trigger level. When it crosses
LTL , transistor Q1 becomes reverse biased due to negative going input signal. As a result
the collector voltage of transistor Q1 rises towards Vcc and it is applied to the base of
transistor Q2 through resistor R1. This makes transistor Q2 to conduct. The point at which
transistor Q2 start conducting is called Lower Trigger Level (LTL). When the transistor Q2
start conducting, voltage drop across resistor RE increases and it drives transistor Q1 in to
cutoff. This state continue till the input AC signal again crosses the Upper Trigger Level.
Therefore a positive going pulse is generated at the output.
This completes one cycle and it is repeated as the input AC signal repeat it’s cycle.
APPLICATIONS
Used in signal conditioning applications to remove noise from
signals in digital circuits.
Used as squaring circuit.
Used as amplitude comparator or level detector.
Used as flip-flop circuit. Used for reshaping the worn out pulses
Used to implement relaxation oscillator in function generators
and switching power supplies.
Time Base Generator

An Electronic generator that generates the high frequency saw tooth waves can be termed as
a Time Base Generator. It can also be understood as an electronic circuit which generates an output
voltage or current waveform, a portion of which varies linearly with time. The horizontal velocity of a
time base generator must be constant.

To display the variations of a signal with respect to time on an oscilloscope, a voltage that varies
linearly with time, has to be applied to the deflection plates. This makes the signal to sweep the beam
horizontally across the screen. Hence the voltage is called as Sweep Voltage. The Time Base
Generators are called as Sweep Circuits.
Features of a Time Base Signal
To generate a time base waveform in a CRO or a picture tube, the deflecting voltage increases
linearly with time. Generally, a time base generator is used where the beam deflects over the
screen linearly and returns to its starting point. This occurs during the process of Scanning. A
cathode ray tube and also a picture tube works on the same principle. The beam deflects over
the screen from one side to the other (generally from left to right) and gets back to the same
point.

This phenomenon is termed as Trace and Retrace. The deflection of beam over the screen
from left to right is called as Trace, while the return of the beam from right to left is called
as Retrace or Fly back. Usually this retrace is not visible. This process is done with the help of
a saw tooth wave generator which sets the time period of the deflection with the help of RC
components used.
In the above signal, the time during which the output increases linearly is called as Sweep
Time (T ) and the time taken for the signal to get back to its initial value is called
S

as Restoration Time or Fly back Time or Retrace Time (T ). Both of these time periods
r

together form the Time period of one cycle of the Time base signal.
Actually, this Sweep voltage waveform we get is the practical output of a sweep circuit
whereas the ideal output has to be the saw tooth waveform shown in the above figure.
Types of Time base Generators
There are two types of Time base Generators. They are −
 Voltage Time Base Generators − A time base generator that provides an output voltage waveform that varies linearly with time is called as a
Voltage Time base Generator.

 Current Time Base Generator − A time base generator that provides an output current waveform that varies linearly with time is called as a
Current Time base Generator.

Applications
Time Base Generators are used in CROs, televisions, RADAR displays, precise time measurement systems, and time
modulation.
Errors of Sweep Signals
After generating the sweep signals, it is time to transmit them. The transmitted signal may be subjected to deviation
from linearity. To understand and correct the errors occurred, we must have some knowledge on the common errors
that occur.

The deviation from linearity is expressed in three different ways. They are −
 The Slope or Sweep Speed Error
 The Displacement Error
 The Transmission Error
The Slope or Sweep Speed Error (e ) s

A Sweep voltage must increase linearly with time. The rate of change of sweep voltage with time
must be constant. This deviation from linearity is defined as Slope Speed Error or Sweep
Speed Error.
Slope or Sweep speed error es = difference in slope at the beginning and end of
sweep / initial value of slope

= (dV0/dt)t=0 − (dV0/dt)t=Ts / (dV0/dt)t=0

The Displacement Error (e ) d

An important criterion of linearity is the maximum difference between the actual sweep voltage
and the linear sweep which passes through the beginning and end points of the actual sweep.

This can be understood from the following figure.

The displacement error ed is defined as :
ed = (actualspeed)∼(linear sweep that passes beginning and ending of actual sweep) /
Amplitude of sweep at the end of sweep time
= (Vs−V's)max / Vs

Where Vs is the actual sweep and V’s is the linear sweep.

The Transmission Error (et)
When a sweep signal passes through a high pass circuit, the output gets deviated
from the input as shown below.
This deviation is expressed as transmission error.

Transmission Error = (input)∼(output) / input at the end of the sweep.

et=V's−V /V's

Where V’s is the input and Vs is the output at the end of the sweep i.e. at t = Ts.

If the deviation from linearity is very small and the sweep voltage may be approximated by the sum of
linear and quadratic terms in t, then the above three errors are related as

ed = es / 8 = et /4
es = 2et = 8 ed
The sweep speed error is more dominant than the displacement error.
Voltage Time base Generator

A time base generator that provides an output voltage waveform that varies linearly with time is called as a
Voltage Time base Generator.
A basic simple RC time base generator or a Ramp generator or a sweep circuit consists of a capacitor C which
charges through VCC via a series connected resistor R2. It contains a BJT whose base is connected through the
resistor R1. The capacitor charges through the resistor and discharges through the transistor.
The following figure shows a simple RC sweep circuit.
When the transistor turns ON it provides a low resistance path for the
capacitor to discharge quickly. When the transistor is in OFF condition, the
capacitor will charge exponentially to the supply voltage V , according to the
CC

equation
V0=VCC[1−exp(−t/RC)]
Where
 VO = instantaneous voltage across the capacitor at time t
 VCC = supply voltage
 t = time taken
 R = value of series resistor
 C = value of the capacitor

The circuit just we had discussed, is a voltage time base generator circuit as
it offers the output in the form of voltage.
By the application of a positive going voltage pulse, the transistor Q turns ON to
saturation and the capacitor rapidly discharges through Q and R1 to VCE (sat). When the
input pulse ends, Q switches OFF and the capacitor C starts charging and continues to
charge until the next input pulse. This process repeats as shown in the waveform below.
Current Time base Generator

A time base generator that provides an output current waveform that varies linearly with time is
called as a Current Time base Generator.
A Simple Current Time base Generator
A basic simple RC time base generator or a Ramp generator or a sweep circuit consists of a
common-base configuration transistor and two resistors, having one in emitter and another in
collector. The VCC is given to the collector of the transistor. The circuit diagram of a basic ramp
current generator is as shown here under.
A transistor connected in common-base configuration has its collector current vary linearly with its emitter current.
When the emitter current is held constant, the collector current also will be near constant value, except for very
smaller values of collector base voltages.

As the input voltage V is applied at the base of the transistor, it appears at the emitter which produces the emitter
i

current i and this increases linearly as V increase from zero to its peak value. The collector current increases as the
E i

emitter current increases, because i is closely equal to i .

C E

The instantaneous value of load current is

iL or iC ≈ (vi−VBE) / RE
The input and output waveforms are as shown below.
A bootstrap sweep generator is a time base generator circuit whose output is fed back to the input
through the feedback. This will increase or decrease the input impedance of the circuit. This process
of bootstrapping is used to achieve constant charging current.
Bootstrap Time Base Generator
The boot strap time base generator circuit consists of two transistors, Q which acts as a switch and Q which
1 2

acts as an emitter follower. The transistor Q is connected using an input capacitor C at its base and a resistor
1 B

R through V . The collector of the transistor Q is connected to the base of the transistor Q . The collector of
B CC 1 2

Q is connected to V while its emitter is provided with a resistor R across which the output is taken.
2 CC E

A diode D is taken whose anode is connected to V while cathode is connected to the capacitor C which is
CC 2

connected to the output. The cathode of diode D is also connected to a resistor R which is in turn connected to
a capacitor C . This C and R are connected through the base of Q and collector of Q . The voltage that appears
1 1 2 1

across the capacitor C provides the output voltage V .

1 o

The following figure explains the construction of the boot strap time base generator.
Operation of Bootstrap Time Base Generator
Before the application of gating waveform at t = 0, as the transistor gets enough base drive from
V through R , Q is ON and Q is OFF. The capacitor C charges to V through the diode D. Then a
CC B 1 2 2 CC

negative trigger pulse from the gating waveform of a Monostable Multivibrator is applied at the base of
Q which turns Q OFF. The capacitor C now discharges and the capacitor C charges through the resistor
1 1 2 1

R. As the capacitor C has large value of capacitance, its voltage levels (charge and discharge) vary at a
2

slower rate. Hence it discharges slowly and maintains a nearly constant value during the ramp generation
at the output of Q . 2

During the ramp time, the diode D is reverse biased. The capacitor C provides a small current I for the
2 C1

capacitor C to charge. As the capacitance value is high, though it provides current, it doesn’t make much
1

difference in its charge. When Q gets ON at the end of ramp time, C discharges rapidly to its initial value.
1 1

This voltage appears across V . Consequently, the diode D gets forward biased again and the capacitor
O

C gets a pulse of current to recover its small charge lost during the charging of C . Now, the circuit is
2 1

ready to produce another ramp output.

The capacitor C2 which helps in providing some feedback current to the capacitor C1 acts as a boot
strapping capacitor that provides constant current.
Output Waveforms
The output waveforms are obtained as shown in the
following figure.

The pulse given at the input and the voltage V which denotes the charging and discharging of
C1

the capacitor C which contributes the output are shown in the figure above.
1

Advantage
The main advantage of this boot strap ramp generator is that the output voltage ramp is very
linear and the ramp amplitude reaches the supply voltage level.
The transistor Miller time base generator circuit is the popular Miller integrator circuit that
produces a sweep waveform. This is mostly used in horizontal deflection circuits.
Let us try to understand the construction and working of a Miller time base generator circuit.

Miller Sweep Generator

The Miller time base generator circuit consists of a switch and a timing circuit in the initial stage,
whose input is taken from the Schmitt gate generator circuit. The amplifier section is the following
one which has three stages, first being an emitter follower, second an amplifier and the third
one is also an emitter follower.
An emitter follower circuit usually acts as a Buffer amplifier. It has a low output
impedance and a high input impedance. The low output impedance lets the circuit drive a
heavy load. The high input impedance keeps the circuit from not loading its previous circuit. The
last emitter follower section will not load the previous amplifier section. Because of this, the
amplifier gain will be high.
The capacitor C placed between the base of Q 1 and the emitter of Q3 is the timing capacitor. The
values of R and C and the variation in the voltage level of V BB changes the sweep speed. The
figure below shows the circuit of a Miller time base generator.
Operation of Miller Sweep Generator
When the output of Schmitt trigger generator is a negative pulse, the transistor Q turns
4

ON and the emitter current flows through R . The emitter is at negative potential and the
1

same is applied at the cathode of the diode D, which makes it forward biased. As the
capacitor C is bypassed here, it is not charged.
The application of a trigger pulse, makes the Schmitt gate output high, which in turn, turns
the transistor Q OFF. Now, a voltage of 10v is applied at the emitter of Q that makes the
4 4

current flow through R which also makes the diode D reverse biased. As the transistor
1

Q is in cutoff, the capacitor C gets charged from V through R and provides a rundown
4 BB

sweep output at the emitter of Q . The capacitor C discharges through D and transistor
3

Q at the end of the sweep.

4

Considering the effect of capacitance C , the slope speed or sweep speed error is given by
es=(Vs / V ) (1−A + R /Ri + C /Ci)
1

Applications
Miller sweep circuits are the most commonly used integrator circuit in many devices. It is a
widely used saw tooth generator.
An oscillator is a circuit that provides an alternating voltage or current by its
own, without any input applied. An Oscillator needs an amplifier and also
a feedback from the output. The feedback provided should be regenerative
feedback which along with the portion of the output signal, contains a component
in the output signal, which is in phase with the input signal. An oscillator that
uses a regenerative feedback to generate a nonsinusoidal output is called
as Relaxation Oscillator.

Blocking Oscillator
A blocking oscillator is a waveform generator that is used to produce narrow
pulses or trigger pulses. While having the feedback from the output signal, it
blocks the feedback, after a cycle, for certain predetermined time. This feature
of blocking the output while being an oscillator, gets the name blocking
oscillator to it.
In the construction of a blocking oscillator, the transistor is used as an
amplifier and the transformer is used for feedback. The transformer
used here is a Pulse transformer. The symbol of a pulse transformer
is as shown below.
Pulse Transformer
A Pulse transformer is one which couples a source of rectangular pulses of electrical energy to
the load. Keeping the shape and other properties of pulses unchanged. They are wide band
transformers with minimum attenuation and zero or minimum phase change.

The output of the transformer depends upon the charge and discharge of the capacitor
connected.

The regenerative feedback is made easy by using pulse transformer. The output can be fed back
to the input in the same phase by properly choosing the winding polarities of the pulse
transformer. Blocking oscillator is such a free-running oscillator made using a capacitor and a
pulse transformer along with a single transistor which is cut off for most of the duty cycle
producing periodic pulses.

Using the blocking oscillator, Astable and Monostable operations are possible. But Bistable
operation is not possible. Let us go through them.
Monostable Blocking Oscillator
If the blocking oscillator needs a single pulse, to change its state, it is called as a Monostable blocking oscillator
circuit. These Monostable blocking oscillators can be of two types. They are
 Monostable blocking oscillator with base timing
 Monostable blocking oscillator with emitter timing

In both of these, a timing resistor R controls the gate width, which when placed in the base of transistor becomes
base timing circuit and when placed in the emitter of transistor becomes emitter timing circuit.

Transistor Triggered Monostable blocking oscillator with Base timing

A transistor, a pulse transformer for feedback and a resistor in the base of the transistor constitute the circuit of a
transistor triggered Monostable blocking oscillator with base timing. The pulse transformer used here has a turns
ratio of n: 1 where the base circuit has n turns for every turn on the collector circuit. A resistance R is connected
in series to the base of the transistor which controls the pulse duration.

Initially the transistor is in OFF condition. As shown in the following figure, VBB is considered zero or too low,
which is negligible.
The voltage at the collector is V , since the device is OFF. But when a negative trigger is
CC

applied at the collector, the voltage gets reduced. Because of the winding polarities of the
transformer, the collector voltage goes down, while the base voltage rises.

When the base to emitter voltage becomes greater than the cut-in voltage, i.e.
VBE>Vγ
Then, a small base current is observed. This raises the collector current which decreases the
collector voltage. This action cumulates further, which increases the collector current and
decreases the collector voltage further. With the regenerative feedback action, if the loop gain
increases, the transistor gets into saturation quickly. But this is not a stable state.
When the transistor gets into saturation, the collector current increases and the base current is constant.
Now, the collector current slowly starts charging the capacitor and the voltage at the transformer reduces.
Due to the transformer winding polarities, the base voltage gets increased. This in turn decreases the base
current. This cumulative action, throws the transistor into cut off condition, which is the stable state of the
circuit.

The output waveforms are as follows −

The main disadvantage of this circuit is that the output Pulse width cannot be
maintained stable. We know that the collector current is
ic=hFEiB
As the h is temperature dependent and the pulse width varies linearly with this,
FE

the output pulse width cannot be stable. Also h varies with the transistor used.
FE

Anyways, this disadvantage can be eliminated if the resistor is placed in emitter,

which means the solution is the emitter timing circuit. When the above
condition occurs, the transistor turns OFF in the emitter timing circuit and so a
stable output is obtained.
Astable Blocking Oscillator
If the blocking oscillator can change its state automatically, it is called as an Astable blocking
oscillator circuit. These Astable blocking oscillators can be of two types. They are
 Diode controlled Astable blocking oscillator
 RC controlled Astable blocking oscillator

In diode controlled Astable blocking oscillator, a diode placed in the collector changes the state
of the blocking oscillator. While in the RC controlled Astable blocking oscillator, a timing resistor
R and capacitor C form a network in the emitter section to control the pulse timings.

To have a clear understanding, let us discuss the working of Diode controlled Astable blocking
oscillator.
Diode controlled Astable blocking oscillator
The diode controlled Astable blocking oscillator contains a pulse transformer in the collector circuit. A
capacitor is connected in between transformer secondary and the base of the transistor. The transformer
primary and the diode are connected in the collector.

An initial pulse is given at the collector of the transistor to initiate the process and from there no pulses are
required and the circuit behaves as an Astable Multivibrator. The figure below shows the circuit of a diode
controlled Astable blocking oscillator.
Initially the transistor is in OFF state. To initiate the circuit, a negative trigger pulse is applied at the collector.
The diode whose anode is connected to the collector, will be in reverse biased condition and will be OFF by
the application of this negative trigger pulse.

This pulse is applied to the pulse transformer and due to the winding polarities (as indicated in the figure),
same amount of voltage gets induced without any phase inversion. This voltage flows through the capacitor
towards the base, contributing some base current. This base current, develops some base to emitter voltage,
which when crosses the cut-in voltage, pushes the transistor Q to ON. Now, the collector current of the
1

transistor Q raises and it gets applied to both the diode and the transformer. The diode which is initially OFF
1

gets ON now. The voltage that gets induced into the transformer primary windings induces some voltage into
the transformer secondary winding, using which the capacitor starts charging.

As the capacitor will not deliver any current while it is getting charged, the base current i stops flowing. This
B

turns the transistor Q OFF. Hence the state is changed.

1

Now, the diode which was ON, has some voltage across it, which gets applied to the transformer primary,
which is induced into the secondary. Now, the current flows through the capacitor which lets the capacitor
discharge. Hence the base current i flows turning the transistor ON again. The output waveforms are as
B

shown below.
As the diode helps the transistor to change its state, this circuit is diode
controlled. Also, as the trigger pulse is applied only at the time of initiation,
whereas the circuit keeps on changing its state all by its own, this circuit is an
Astable oscillator. Hence the name diode controlled Astable blocking oscillator is
given.

Another type of circuit uses R and C combination in the emitter portion of the
transistor and it is called as RC controlled Astable blocking oscillator circuit.