Chemical Bonding

Chemical Bonding
Chemical Bonding
• The periodic table can be viewed as containing the ingredients
of life.
• The atoms, depending on their properties, can form chemical

bonds with other atoms to form compounds.
• For example:
2 atoms of Hydrogen and 1 atom of Oxygen can bond together
to form Water, H2O.
1 atom of Carbon and 4 atoms of Hydrogen can bond together

to form Methane, CH4.
1 atom of Sodium and 1 atom of Chlorine can bond together to

Chemical Bonding
• With chemical bonding there are 6 things you need to know:
1. Unlike charges attract.
2. Like charges repel.
3. Electrons tend to pair. (For the sake of simplicity)
4. Valence electrons occupy the outer shells of atoms.
5. Atoms with filled outer shells or with 8 electrons in the outer

shell are called noble gases and are said to have achieved an
octet.
6. The noble gases are stable and tend not to form chemical
Chemical Bonding
• Chemical bonds are stable linkages:
1. between combining atoms
2. and can be formed between atoms of identical or

different elements.
• Examples include:
Oxygen---Oxygen = O2
Carbon---Hydrogen = CH4
Chemical Bonding
• Atoms use their outer shell electrons
more commonly refered to as
_______________ electrons.
• When they do this each atom in the

bond acquires a stable electron
configuration often similar to that of
the noble gases.
Chemical Bonding
• A stable structure, compound, can be achieved in one of the
following ways:
a. Metals with 1, 2 or 3 electrons in their valence/outer shells

may LOSE these electrons to become positively charged ions
(cations).
b. Non-metals with 5, 6 or 7 electrons in their valence/outer

shells may GAIN electrons, acquiring the electronic structure of
the next noble gas, and become negatively charged ions (anions).
c. Two or more non-metallic elements with 4-7 valence electrons

may also SHARE electrons with each other to attain an electronic
structure similar to that of the noble gases.
Chemical Bonding
• The major types of chemical bonds, along with some
common materials in which they occur are:
a. The ionic or electrovalent bond.

Lattices such as sodium chloride, copper(II) sulphate and
calcium oxide contain these types bonds.
b. The covalent bond.

Molecular structures such as water, glucose, propane and
PVC contain these types of bonds.
c. The metallic bond.

Metals such as iron, aluminum and zinc contain these
Types of Chemical Bonding
Ionic Bonding
• IONIC BONDS are formed when electrons are
transferred from a METAL atom to a NON-
METAL atom.
• The metal atom upon LOSING an electron(s)

becomes a positive ion often referred to as a
CATION.
• The non-metal atom upon GAINING an

electron(s) becomes a negative ion often
referred to as an ANION.
Ionic Bonding
• Sodium chloride, NaCl, magnesium chloride,
MgCl2 and lithium oxide Li2O are examples of
compounds with ionic bonds.
• Note well that Na, Mg and Li are all METALS

while Cl and O are all NON-METALS.
• Attractions between the oppositely charged

ions provide the binding FORCES which hold
ionic compounds together.
Ionic Bonding
• Using Lewis dot structures let us draw the
electron arrangement of the valence electrons
in the sodium and chlorine atoms.
• Sodium has 11 electrons while chlorine has 17.

Determine how many valence electrons each
atom has.
Ionic Bonding
• The sodium atom would therefore lose 1
valence electron making it
a(n)_____________ while the chlorine
atom would gain an electron making it
a(n)_____________.
• Both the sodium and chloride ions would

have achieved a noble configuration or a
stable octet.
Ionic Bonding
• Using Lewis dot structures let us show how
sodium and chlorine would look after they
react with each other.
• Please note that upon the gain of an electron

chlorine goes from being a halogen to a halide
and is refered to as a chloride ion. We will
learn of this in later chapters.
Ionic Bonding
• Sodium chloride is a crystal lattice
which has a giant structure.
• It is an orderly arrangement of ions in

which attractions between oppositely
charged ions outweigh repulsions
between ions of the same charge.
The lattice only includes Na+ and Cl- ions.
• The sodium chloride structure is a regular, repeating arrangement of

ions. Each sodium ion is surrounded by six chloride ions as nearest
neighbours. Each chloride ion in turn has six sodium ions as its nearest
neighbours. This arrangement of ions results in a closely packed 3-
dimensional structure. Ionic compounds are said to consist of a ‘giant
structure of ions’.
Ionic Bonding
• It must be noted that when ionic bonds are formed:
a. Each atom involved in the combining process ends up with a stable

electronic configuration like that of the noble gases. What does this
mean?
b. The ionic compound has different properties from the elements

from which it is derived from. How so?
c. The charge on each ion depends on the number of protons and

electrons in it. For example, the sodium ion, Na+ would now have 10
electrons as opposed to the 11 electrons it had before. While the
chloride ion, Cl-, would now have 18 electrons as opposed to the 17
electrons it had before.
Ionic Bonding
• Try reacting potassium with fluorine.
First ask yourself these questions:

a. How many valence electrons does potassium, K, have?
b. What is potassium’s electronic configuration?
c. How many valence electrons does fluorine, F, have?
d. What is fluorine’s electronic configuration?
e. How many electrons does K have to lose or gain in order for it to achieve a
stable octet?
f. How many electrons does F have to lose or gain in order for it to achieve a
stable octet?
Using the information above show how the bond(s) between potassium and
Ionic Bonding
• Try reacting Magnesium, Mg, with oxygen, O.
Again, ask yourself these questions:

a. How many valence electrons does magnesium, Mg, have?
b. What is magnesium’s electronic configuration?
c. How many valence electrons does oxygen, O, have?
d. What is oxygen’s electronic configuration?
e. How many electrons does Mg have to lose or gain to achieve a stable

octet?
f. How many electrons does O have to lose or gain to achieve a stable octet?
Using the information above show how the bond(s) between magnesium
and oxygen will form.
Ionic Bonding
• Try the following questions. Use Lewis dot structures to show the
bonding between each species.
1. LiCl
2. MgS
3. NaF
4. CaI2
5. BaCl2
6. Al2O3
Ionic Bonding
• The following are properties of ionic compounds.
Ionic compounds:
a. Are, brittle crystalline solids;
b. Have high melting points and heats of fusion
c. Conduct electricity well, when molten or when dissolved in

water
d. Do not conduct electricity in the solid state. Can salt conduct

electricity?
e. Most of them dissolve readily in water

Ionic Bonding
• Below are reasons tabulated to demonstrate why
ionic properties are the way they are
Properties of ionic compounds Reasons for ionic compounds

having these properties
This is due to regular arrangement of
Crystalline solid ions, resulting from strong
attractions between opposite
charges
On melting, ions are set free. These
Conduct electricity when molten ions move to an oppositely charged
electrode when a voltage is applied
High melting point, These high values indicate that the
High boiling points, ions are strongly held, therefore lots
High heats of fusion, of energy is needed to separate the
High heats of vaporization ions
Ionic Bonding
• Right about now you must be wondering how do you write the
formula for ionic compounds.
• A formula, in chemistry, is a chemical expression showing what

type and how many of each atom are bonded together.
For example H2O is a formula which tells us that there are 2

atoms of hydrogen and 1 atom of oxygen.
• Oxidation states are specific to the group in which atoms are

located.
• When atoms react they become ions and are said to be

oxidised.
Ionic Bonding
• Oxidation states of ions correspond to the groups they are in.
Here is an easy way for remembering the oxidation numbers
of elements found in particular groups:
Group 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Oxidation +1 +2 +3 +4 -3 -2 -1 0
States
• Let’s consider the compound, CaCl2.
The positive charge on the calcium ion = +2
The negative charge on the chloride ion = -1
Why is this so?

Ionic Bonding
• The formula of calcium chloride is written such that
the total positive charge equals the total negative
charge.
• Each Ca2+ ion needs two (2) Cl- ions to balance the
charges.
• The formula is thus CaCl2.

Ionic Bonding
• Please note that a lone + or – charges denote a physical notation of 1 and is left
out of the equation. Therefore this is incorrect, Ca1Cl2, since the 1 is
understood.
• Charges naturally fall as a subscript for the opposite ion that it is reacting with.
• Elements placed within groups also tell you how many valence electrons are
present in that atom. Barium is a metal that can be found in group two. What
is its oxidation state and how many valence electrons does it have?
• Try writing the formulae of the ionic compounds below:

Metal Non – metal Ionic Formulae
Al3+ O2-
Na+ S2-
Ba2+ Cl-
Covalent Bonding
• Covalent bonds are formed between non-metals atoms.
• They share electrons to achieve a stable electron arrangement similar to

that of a noble gas.
• They share one or more pairs of electrons.
• In simple covalent bonding each of the combining atoms contributes one

or more electrons to the bond. The bond therefore consists of electrons
shared between the two atoms.
• Attraction between the nuclei of the atoms and the shared pair(s) of
electrons provides the binding force which holds the atoms together.
Covalent Bonding
• Simple covalent bonds are formed between non-
metal atoms of:
a. The same element, for example fluorine, F2,

oxygen, O2 and nitrogen, N2.
b. Different elements, for example hydrogen and

chlorine atoms, combine to form hydrogen chloride
(HCl). On the other hand nitrogen and hydrogen
atoms combine to form ammonia, NH3.
Covalent Bonding
• Covalent bonds are also formed when one atom of a
molecule, such as ammonia and water, donates both
electrons for the bond.
• The nitrogen atom in ammonia and the oxygen atom

in water both have valence electrons which are not
involved in bonding.
Covalent Bonding
• These molecules are able to use these ‘non-bonding’ electron
pairs to form covalent bonds with another element.
• In ammonium chloride, NH4Cl, the nitrogen atom in the

ammonia molecule donates both electrons for the bond
between ammonia and hydrogen chloride. This is called a
dative or co-ordinate covalent bond.
Covalent Bonding
• While ionic bonding involves the giving and taking away
of electrons covalent bonding involves the sharing of
electrons.
• Take for example the bonding in ammonia, NH3. The

bonding is usually shown using only the valence shell of
electrons overlapping each other.
• Since the atom nitrogen is found in group 5 it has

_____________ valence electron(s) while hydrogen
which is found in group 1 has _______ valence
electron(s).
Covalent Bonding
• Usually x’s are used to represent electrons however
if another atom is present dots are used for
differentiating purposes.
• Take a look at the bonding experienced in ammonia.

Covalent Bonding
• Let us try to draw out the covalent bonding in
methane, CH4.
• If carbon is in group 4 and hydrogen is in group

1 how many valence electrons are there in
each?
• How many of each atom is needed for this

molecule based on the chemical formula?
Covalent Bonding
• When illustrating the formation of covalent bonds:
a. Only the valence electrons are shown when combining atoms.
b. The electrons are all the same. Dots (.) and crosses (x) merely indicate
the source of the electrons.
c. A line or dash between the symbols for the atoms (as in F-F)
represents a bonding pair of electrons; a double line as in O=O
represents two bonding pairs of electrons and so on.
d. One bond represents an electron pair which means there are 2

electrons which make a bond. Two bonds are equal to 2 electron pairs
which means there are 4 electrons. How many electrons are there in a
triple bond?
Covalent Bonding
• From the information on the previous page let us try to draw the
covalent bonds existing between:
a(i) the oxygen molecule, O2, which has two bonds between it?
a.(ii) Which group is oxygen found in?
b.(i) The nitrogen molecule, N2, which has three bonds between it?
b.(ii) Which group is nitrogen found in?
Did you notice that there are some electrons in both molecules that are
not being used? These electrons are referred to as lone pairs.
Look back at the figures you drew. Count how many lone pairs there are
in the molecule O2 and N2?
Covalent Bonding
• Covalent bonds may also be represented as:
a. In N2 b. In H2
c. In O2
Covalent Bonding
• Molecules, because they bond covalently, their shapes are altered by the lone
pairs present. Of course there are exceptions to the table depicted. At this
level this is all you need to become acquainted with.
Number of Number of Shape of

bonds lone pairs molecule
4 0 Tetrahedral
3 1 Pyramidal
2 2 Bent
1 0 Linear
Covalent Bonding
Covalent Bonding
• Please note that the table can be followed for single bonding however,
with triple and double bonding molecules are usually linear because of
the immobility that such bonds cause. This is so because the more
bonds between two atoms the shorter they are.
• Single bonds are longer than double or triple bonds and allows for
rotation of atoms about the bonds.
• Such examples include the:
a. carbon dioxide molecule, CO2 b. Nitrogen molecule, N2

Covalent Bonding
• Given the previous information try to draw
the covalent bonding and shapes of the
following molecules:
a. Water, H2O
b. Ammonia, NH3
c. Methane, CH4
Covalent Bonding
• The following are some general properties of molecular
substances
Properties of molecular substances Comment
Some are liquids or gases at room temperature They consist of small molecules with weak
attractive forces between them (known as Van
der Waal forces)
Low melting and boiling temperatures, low Due to weak intermolecular forces (attractive
heats of fusion and vapourization forces between the molecules)
Some are soluble in water, while some are also The non-polar molecular substances dissolve in
soluble in non-polar organic solvents such as non-polar solvents
methylbenzene
Do not conduct electricity when molten Due to the absence of ions (Note: A few react
with water to produce ions. The resulting
‘solution’ conducts electricity)
Do not usually react as quickly as ionic Energy is required to break down the bonds in
compounds these substances, while there are ions present
in ionic compounds
Covalent Bonding
• Some covalent substances have high melting and boiling points as well as
high heats of fusion and vaporization. In these compounds, covalent bonds
link atoms together in a three-dimensional network called a giant structure
of atoms or a giant molecule. Silica, silicon dioxide, SiO2, graphite and
diamond are examples of substances with giant structures of atoms.
• In diamond, each carbon atom is bonded

to four others. There are strong bonds in
all directions. Diamond is one of the hardest
substances known and is widely used in cutting
and drilling. Due to the absence of free electrons,
combined electrons, diamond does not conduct electricity.
Covalent Bonding
• In graphite, the atoms are arranged in flat six-
membered rings. The bonds are strong in two
directions but weak in the third (shown by the broken
lines).
• Why do you think graphite is

able to conduct electricity?
• The lubricating properties of graphite

can be explained in terms of the
ability of the planes to slide past
Covalent Bonding
• Carbon exists in two allotropic forms, these are diamond and graphite.
• Allotrophy is the presence of more than one form of an element in the

same physical state. These different forms have the same chemical
properties but different physical properties.
• The physical properties of diamond and graphite are different in that

diamond is hard and a non-conductor of electricity whereas graphite is
___________________ and a _____________________ of electricity.
• On the other hand, when the same amount of diamond and graphite are
heated in excess oxygen they produce equal amounts of carbon dioxide
gas which proves they are chemically the same.
Covalent Bonding
• Sulphur and iodine have simple molecular crystals.
• They are held together by weak Van der Waals forces between the
molecules. Since their molecules are not held together strongly their
melting and boiling points are low. Iodine sublimes. What is sublimation
again?
• In covalent bonds between identical atoms, example H2, O2 and Cl2, the
shared pair of electrons lies midway between the two nuclei.
• The shared pair is equally attracted by both nuclei. This type of covalent
bond is referred to as non-polar since neither atom develops a
permanent electrical charge.
• Non-polar covalent bonds exist only between atoms of the same element.
•
Covalent Bonding
By contrast, for covalent bonds between different elements the shared electron pair(s)
tend to be closer to one of the combining atoms.
• This uneven sharing of the electron pair(s) causes the bond to be slightly negative at one
end and slightly positive at the other end. This type of bond is described as polar.
• The more unequally the paired electrons are shared the more distorted the bond.
• Molecules with polar bonds include water, hydrogen chloride and ammonia.
• The polarity of the bond affects both the physical and chemical properties of the
molecules.
Metal Bonding
• Metals contain free electrons.
• They normally have a few electrons in their

outer/valence shell and can be located in
groups 1, 2 and 3.
• They do not achieve the stable octet or

electronic configuration of the nearest noble
gas by forming either covalent or ionic bonds
with other metal atoms .
Metal Bonding
• Metal atoms can achieve a stable structure
when they bond only if electrons can be shared
communally among them.
• To be communally shared, electrons have to be

mobile or free.
• Since free or mobile electrons exist, it follows

that the atoms from which they came must exist
as positive ions within the metal structure.
Metal Bonding
• 1. The mobile electrons
spread or drift through
the entire metal structure.
2. Free electrons and

positive ions mutually
attract each other, and
it is this attraction
that is responsible
for the rather unusual
bonding in metals.
• Metals are viewed as an orderly arrangement of positive ions held

together by a sea of freely moving electrons.
• The mobile electrons are mainly

Metal Bonding
• The main features of metallic conduction are as follows:
a. The charge carriers in metals are electrons
b. The passage of an electric current through a metallic

conductor does not alter it chemically
c. Alloys, being solid solutions of metals (mainly), are

electrically conducting
d. Electrical conductivity decreases with increasing

temperature
Metal Bonding
• Electricity has been used to divide
elements into metals and non-metals.
• The electron sea model of metals

explains other physical properties of
metals such as their thermal
conductivity, malleability and metallic
lustre.
Metal Bonding
Thermal conduction:
• Metals are good conductors of heat in both the solid and liquid
state.
• The more quickly this happens the better the thermal conducting
properties of the metal.
How is this thermal energy passed on throughout the metal?
• The following are metals with high thermal conductivity:

silver, copper, gold, aluminum, tungsten, zinc and iron.
• Can you identify one use each for copper, aluminum and tungsten
which are all related to their thermal conducting properties?
Metal Bonding
Malleability:
• Metals can be bent and molded into shape.
Ductility:
• Metals can be drawn into wires.

Metal Bonding
• The following table compares the properties of metals and non-metals
Most metals Most non-metals

Solids of high melting Gases or low melting point
points, giving high boiling solids, giving low boiling
point liquids point liquids
Shiny, reflecting light of Dull, reflecting light poorly
many wavelengths or absorbing strongly
High density Low density
Usually hard Usually soft
Malleable, ductile, strong Often brittle, weak
Good conductors of heat Insulators
and electricity

Chemical Bonding

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Chemical Bonding

• The atoms, depending on their properties, can form chemical

1 atom of Carbon and 4 atoms of Hydrogen can bond together

1 atom of Sodium and 1 atom of Chlorine can bond together to

1. Unlike charges attract.

2. Like charges repel.

3. Electrons tend to pair. (For the sake of simplicity)

4. Valence electrons occupy the outer shells of atoms.

5. Atoms with filled outer shells or with 8 electrons in the outer

1. between combining atoms

2. and can be formed between atoms of identical or

• When they do this each atom in the

a. Metals with 1, 2 or 3 electrons in their valence/outer shells

b. Non-metals with 5, 6 or 7 electrons in their valence/outer

c. Two or more non-metallic elements with 4-7 valence electrons

a. The ionic or electrovalent bond.

b. The covalent bond.

c. The metallic bond.

• The metal atom upon LOSING an electron(s)

• The non-metal atom upon GAINING an

• Note well that Na, Mg and Li are all METALS

• Attractions between the oppositely charged

• Sodium has 11 electrons while chlorine has 17.

• Both the sodium and chloride ions would

• Please note that upon the gain of an electron

• It is an orderly arrangement of ions in

• The sodium chloride structure is a regular, repeating arrangement of

a. Each atom involved in the combining process ends up with a stable

b. The ionic compound has different properties from the elements

c. The charge on each ion depends on the number of protons and

First ask yourself these questions:

b. What is potassium’s electronic configuration?

c. How many valence electrons does fluorine, F, have?

d. What is fluorine’s electronic configuration?

Again, ask yourself these questions:

b. What is magnesium’s electronic configuration?

c. How many valence electrons does oxygen, O, have?

d. What is oxygen’s electronic configuration?

e. How many electrons does Mg have to lose or gain to achieve a stable

a. Are, brittle crystalline solids;

b. Have high melting points and heats of fusion

c. Conduct electricity well, when molten or when dissolved in

d. Do not conduct electricity in the solid state. Can salt conduct

e. Most of them dissolve readily in water

Properties of ionic compounds Reasons for ionic compounds

• A formula, in chemistry, is a chemical expression showing what

For example H2O is a formula which tells us that there are 2

• Oxidation states are specific to the group in which atoms are

• When atoms react they become ions and are said to be

• Let’s consider the compound, CaCl2.

The positive charge on the calcium ion = +2

The negative charge on the chloride ion = -1

Why is this so?

• The formula is thus CaCl2.

• Try writing the formulae of the ionic compounds below:

• They share electrons to achieve a stable electron arrangement similar to

• They share one or more pairs of electrons.

• In simple covalent bonding each of the combining atoms contributes one

a. The same element, for example fluorine, F2,