Structure and Bonding

Why do atoms want to bond?...

Atoms are unstable because most except for group VIII atoms do not have full
valence shells.
So how can they attain stability??
Atoms can gain stability in three main ways.

1. Lose electrons from their valence shells to resemble the nearest group VIII
atom
2. Gain electrons into their valence shells to resemble the nearest group VIII
atom.
3. Share valence electrons with other atoms.
Which atoms loses electrons??
Metal atoms donates electrons to non metal atoms to become metal ions. Also,
the resulting ion is positive and is called a cation.
Metal atoms have few valence electrons so it is easier to lose a few
electrons rather than gain many more electrons to gain stability.
So which atoms gain electrons??
Non-metal atom gain electrons from metal atoms to become stable ions. The
resulting ion is negative and are called anions.

It is easier for non-metal atoms to gain a few electrons to become stable

than to lose many electrons to attain stability.
Question:
1. If sodium has to gain electrons how many would it need to fill its valence
shell??

2. If chlorine had to lose electrons to become stable how many would it have to
lose?
What about sharing of electrons??
Non metal atoms share electrons with each other in their valence shell to attain
stability.
 Chemical Bonding
The force of attraction between atoms as they redistribute electrons to attain
stability.

There are three types of chemical bonding:

1. Ionic Bonding - Bonding between metals and non metals
2. Covalent Bonding - Bonding between non metals
3. Metallic Bonding - Bonding in metals
 Writing Chemical Formulae
In Ionic and covalent bonding, the new compounds formed have a chemical
formula, showing the elements involved in bonding. There are different types of
chemical formulae.
Empirical Formula- Simplest whole number ratio of elements in a compound

Molecular Formula- Actual number of elements in the formula of a compound.

Structural formula - A displayed drawing of the arrangement of the atoms in a

molecule of the compound.

( Go back to the previous slide a see Glucose)

 Valency
Knowing the number of valence electrons will help to write chemical formulae for
simple compounds.
If you know the group number of the element you know the valency of the atom of
the element.

What is the valency of Aluminium and Chlorine???...

Using Valency to write chemical formula
Question:
What is the chemical formula for the bonding between Aluminium and chlorine
atoms??
 Ionic Bonding
The electrostatic force of attraction when metal atoms and non metals atoms bond
with one another.
The metal atoms transfers its electrons to the non metal atoms to form a cation
and anion respectively. These oppositely charged ions now attract each other
Ionic bonding
► In ionic compounds, the strong electrostatic forces of attraction between
the positive cations and negative anions (ionic bonds) hold these ions
together in a crystal lattice.
► A crystal lattice is a three-dimensional regular arrangement of particles.
Question:
1. Draw a dot cross diagram to show how aluminium and chlorine bond?
Common Cations and anions
 Covalent Bonding
The sharing of electrons between non metal atoms is called covalent bonding.
The valency of the atoms tells of how many bonds could be formed between the
two atoms. Chlorine has a valency of one hence it forms one bond with itself.
Valency and covalent bonding
Element Valence number Number of covalent
bonds formed
Hydrogen 1 1
Fluorine 1 1
Chlorine 1 1
Bromine 1 1
Iodine 1 1
Oxygen 2 2
Sulfur 2 2
Nitrogen 3 3
Carbon 4 4
Exercise
• Use shell diagrams to represent covalent bonding in the
following:
• Hydrogen, H2
• Phosphorus trifluoride, PF3
• Hydrogen bromide, HBr
• Carbon disulfide, CS2

• Draw the shell diagram of the covalent bonding between

carbon and chlorine and give the formula of the compound.
Polar and Nonpolar covalent molecules
When one of the atoms in a covalent bond is very electronegative the electron pair that is
shared is closer to that atom. Because of that uneven distribution, the more electronegative
atom takes on a negative charge and the other atom a positive charge.
 Metallic Bonding
A metallic bond is a simple bond formed
in metals.

A metallic bond is the electrostatic

force of attraction between the mobile
electrons and cations in metals.
Properties of metals
• High mp. and bp. - This is due to the strength of the attraction between
mobile electrons and cations.

• High density- They have many atoms packed into a small space.

• Good conductors of heat and electricity - Due to the movement of the

electrons throughout the metals.

• Metals are malleable and ductile- This is due to the fact that the atoms are all
the same size in a metal and are able to slide over each other without
breaking the metallic bond.
 Structure and Properties of solids
There are four basic structures formed by the type of bonding between atoms,
molecules or ions.

1. Ionic crystals
2. Giant covalent crystals
3. Simple molecular crystals
4. Metallic crystals.
 Ionic crystals
These are the three dimensional ionic lattices formed as a result of ionic bonding.
Ions are held in these structures in regular three dimensional repeating patterns.
Example: A unit of Sodium chloride can be seen below.
 Properties of sodium chloride
Property Explanation
High melting point- The high melting point is due to the very strong electrostatic forces between the sodium
about 801oC ions and chloride ions. A large amount of heat energy is needed to weaken these forces
and separate the ions from each other, allowing the solid to melt.
Hard and brittle The sodium and chloride ions are closely packed and held together by strong
electrostatic forces making the solid hard. When pressure is applied to the crystal
lattice, the ion layers move slightly with respect to each other and ions with the same
charges come to lie next to each other. Repulsion occurs between the like charges and
the lattice breaks apart, i.e. it is brittle.
Soluble in water When sodium chloride is added to water the ions can separate resulting in sodium
chloride being soluble in water. The partial positive ends of the polar water molecules
attract the negative chloride ions and the partial negative ends attract the positive
sodium ions. This pulls the ions out of the lattice and the crystal dissolves. The ions
become surrounded by the water molecules and new forces of attraction now exist
between the ions and the water molecules.
Conducts electricity For a substance to conduct an electric current it must contain charged particles which
when molten, i.e. are able to move. In molten (melted) sodium chloride, the ions are no longer held
NaCl (l) or dissolved together by ionic bonds and they are able to move allowing sodium chloride to conduct
in water, i.e. NaCl electricity in the liquid state. When sodium chloride dissolves in water, the ions move
(aq) freely throughout the water, allowing an aqueous solution of sodium chloride to conduct
Simple Molecular Crystals
• A simple molecular crystal is made of a molecular
lattice in which weak forces of attraction called
intermolecular forces hold small molecules
together in a regular 3-D arrangement.
• Represented by molecular formula
• E.g. ice, dry ice, iodine, glucose
Distinguishing between ionic and simple molecular
solids
Property Ionic solids Simple molecular solids
Structure Composed of ions held together by strong ionic Composed of molecules with strong covalent bonds
bonds (electrostatic forces) between the atoms in the molecules and weak
intermolecular forces between molecules.
Melting point High- the strong ionic bonds between the ions Low- the weak intermolecular forces between the
require large amounts of heat energy to break, molecules require little heat energy to break
which allows the solid to melt.
Solubility Most are soluble in water, a polar solvent, but are Most are soluble in non-polar organic solvents, but are
insoluble in non-polar organic solvents such as insoluble in water. Polar compounds are soluble in
kerosene, gasoline and tetrachloromethane water. E.g. glucose

Conductivity Do not conduct electricity when solid-ions are held Do not conduct electricity in any state- they do not have
together by strong ionic bonds and are not free to any charged particles which are free to move.
move.

Do conduct electricity when molten (melted) or

dissolved in water- the ionic bonds have broken
and the ions are free to move and carry electricity.

Examples You must include examples here You must include examples here
 Giant Molecular Crystals
These are composed of non metal atoms held by strong covalent
bonds, in a regular three dimensional structure to form a giant
molecular lattice.

Examples are:
• Diamond - Made from bonding of carbon atoms
• Graphite - Made from the bonding of carbon atoms
• Silicon dioxide- Made from the bonding between silicon and
oxygen.
 Diamond
Each carbon atom is bonded to four other carbon atom in a tetrahedral
arrangement.

Property Explanations

High m.p. 3550 Very strong covalent bonding in all directions

Extremely Hard Hardest natural substance known to man, due

to strong covalent bonding.

Does not conduct No free electrons to carry a charge in this

electricity structure.
 Graphite
Each carbon atom is bonded to three other carbon atoms forming
hexagonal rings. There is therefore one free electron per carbon.

Property Explanations

High m.p. 3600 Very strong covalent bonding between carbon

atoms.

Soft and lubricating Weak bonds between the layers slip and slide
over each other making it soft and giving
lubricating properties to it.

Conducts electricity Each carbon atom has a free electron that can
carry a charge within the layer.
 Allotropy
This is the existence of different structural forms of the same element, in the
same physical state.

Allotropes- An allotrope is different structural forms of the same element in the

same physical state. E.g Diamond and graphite are allotropes of carbon.
 Recap questions
1. What types of elements lose electrons to become cations?
2. Which elements form anions?
3. Metals and nonmetals form what kind of bonds?
4. Which elements share electrons to form covalent bonds?
5. What is a metallic bond?
6. Write the formula for the bonding between:
(a)Sodium and Oxygen
(b)Phosphorus and Chlorine
(c) Aluminium and Hydroxide ion
1. When bonding, what are the 4 main three dimensional structures formed
by elements?
2. What is Allotropy?
3. Explain the differences in the structures of two allotropes of carbon.