1

SOLAR
PHOTOVOLTAI
C
CHAPTER-III
 PV System 2
 This is the technology in which the PV (photo-voltaic) cells are utilized to
convert the solar energy directly into electricity.
 When the sun shines onto a solar panel, photons from the sunlight are
absorbed by the cells in the panel, which creates an electric field across
the layers and causes electricity to flow.
 The PV cell is composed of semiconductor material; the “semi” means that
it can conduct electricity better than an insulator but not as well as a good
conductor like a metal.
 3
 A photovoltaic cell is made of two thin slices of silicon sandwiched
together and attached to metal wires.
 The top slice of silicon, called the N-layer, is very thin and has a
chemical added to it that provides the layer with an excess of free
electrons.
 The bottom slice, or P-layer, is much thicker and has a chemical added
to it so that it has very few free electrons.
 When the two layers are placed together, an interesting thing happens-
an electric field is produced that prevents the electrons from traveling
from the top layer to the bottom layer.
 This one-way junction with its electric field becomes the central part of
the PV cell.
 4
 When the PV cell is exposed to sunlight, bundles of light energy known as
photons can knock some of the electrons from the bottom P-layer out of
their orbits through the electric field set up at the P-N junction and into
the N-layer.
 The N-layer, with its abundance of electrons, develops an excess of
negatively charged electrons.
 This excess of electrons produces an electric force to push the additional
electrons away.(depletion region)
 These excess electrons are pushed into the metal wire back to the bottom
P-layer, which has lost some of its electrons.
 This electrical current will continue flowing as long as radiant energy in the
form of light strikes the cell and the pathway, or circuit, remains closed.
 5
 The efficiency of a PV cell is simply the amount of electrical power
coming out of the cell compared to the energy from the light shining on
it, which indicates how effective the cell is at converting energy from
one form to the other.
 The amount of electricity produced from PV cells depends on the
characteristics (such as intensity and wavelengths) of the light available
and multiple performance attributes of the cell.
 An important property of PV semiconductors is the bandgap, which
indicates what wavelengths of light the material can absorb and
convert to electrical energy.
 If the semiconductor’s bandgap matches the wavelengths of light
shining on the PV cell, then that cell can efficiently make use of all the
available energy.
Silicon Solar Cell Materials 6
 Silicon is, by far, the most common semiconductor material used in solar cells,
representing approximately 95% of the modules sold today.
 It is also the second most abundant material on Earth (after oxygen) and the
most common semiconductor used in computer chips.
 Crystalline silicon cells are made of silicon atoms connected to one another to
form a crystal lattice.
 This lattice provides an organized structure that makes conversion of light into
electricity more efficient.
 Solar cells made out of silicon currently provide a combination of high
efficiency, low cost, and long lifetime.
 Modules are expected to last for 25 years or more, still producing more than
80% of their original power after this time.
THIN-FILM PHOTOVOLTAICS 7
 A thin-film solar cell is made by depositing one or more thin layers of PV
material on a supporting material such as glass, plastic, or metal.
 There are two main types of thin-film PV semiconductors on the market
today: cadmium telluride (CdTe) and copper indium gallium diselenide
(CIGS).
 Both materials can be deposited directly onto either the front or back of
the module surface.
 CdTe is the second-most common PV material after silicon, and CdTe cells
can be made using low-cost manufacturing processes.
 While this makes them a cost-effective alternative, their efficiencies still
aren't quite as high as silicon.
 8
 CIGS cells have optimal properties for a PV material and high efficiencies
in the lab, but the complexity involved in combining four elements makes
the transition from lab to manufacturing more challenging.
 Both CdTe and CIGS require more protection than silicon to enable long-
lasting operation outdoors.
PEROVSKITE PHOTOVOLTAICS 9
 Perovskite solar cells are a type of thin-film cell and are named after their
characteristic crystal structure.
 Perovskite cells are built with layers of materials that are printed, coated, or
vacuum-deposited onto an underlying support layer, known as the substrate.
 They are typically easy to assemble and can reach efficiencies similar to
crystalline silicon.
 In the lab, perovskite solar cell efficiencies have improved faster than any
other PV material, from 3% in 2009 to over 25% in 2020.
 To be commercially viable, perovskite PV cells have to become stable enough
to survive 20 years outdoors, so researchers are working on making them
more durable and developing large-scale, low-cost manufacturing
techniques.
ORGANIC PHOTOVOLTAICS 10
 Organic PV, or OPV, cells are composed of carbon-rich (organic)
compounds and can be tailored to enhance a specific function of the PV
cell, such as bandgap, transparency, or colour.
 OPV cells are currently only about half as efficient as crystalline silicon
cells and have shorter operating lifetimes, but could be less expensive to
manufacture in high volumes.
 They can also be applied to a variety of supporting materials, such as
flexible plastic, making OPV able to serve a wide variety of uses.
MULTIJUNCTION 11

PHOTOVOLTAICS
 Another strategy to improve PV cell efficiency is layering multiple
semiconductors to make multijunction solar cells.
 These cells are essentially stacks of different semiconductor materials, as
opposed to single-junction cells, which have only one semiconductor.
 Each layer has a different bandgap, so they each absorb a different part of
the solar spectrum, making greater use of sunlight than single-junction cells.
 Multijunction solar cells have demonstrated efficiencies higher than 45%,
but they’re costly and difficult to manufacture, so they’re reserved for space
exploration.
 The military is using them in drones, and researchers are exploring other
uses for them where high efficiency is key.
HISTORY OF SOLAR PV 12
 Solar energy has been used in various ways since the 7th century BC.
 The history of solar energy is an interesting story.
 The sun’s rays were amplified and used to create fire.
 In the third century B.C. the Greeks and Romans used ‘burning mirrors’ to
light torches for religious purposes. It has been said that in the 2nd century
B.C. Archimedes used the reflective properties of brass to set fire to Roman
ships attacking Syracuse.
 The world’s first ‘solar collector cell’ was designed and constructed in 1767.
 He constructed an insulated box with an opening and three layers of
glass. This glass magnified the sun’s heat to temperatures in excess of 230
degrees Fahrenheit and was used in a variety of ways.
 13
 In 1839 we encountered a major milestone in the evolution of solar
energy: the defining of the photovoltaic effect.
 It was, however, Russell Ohl who patented the modern junction
semiconductor solar cell in 1946.
 The first practical photovoltaic cell was developed in 1954 at Bell
Laboratories by Daryl Chaplin, Gerald Pearson and Calvin Souther
Fuller.
Advantages and disadvantages of solar panel 14
Advantages
 Fuel source for solar panel is direct and endless so no external fuels required.
 Sunlight - free of cost.
 Unlimited life of solar modules, fast response and high reliability.
 Can operate under high temperature and in open.
 Inherently short circuit protected and safe under any load condition.
 Pollution free.
 Minimum maintenance
 Independent working
 Operation is simple and no electrochemical reaction and no liquid medium.
 15
 Noise free as there are no moving parts.
 No AC to DC conversion losses as DC is produced directly.
 No transmission losses as installed in the vicinity of the load.
 Suitable for remote, isolated and hilly places.
 Suitable for moving loads/objects.
 Since it is in modular form, provision of future expansion of capacity is
available.
 It can generate powers from milli-watts to several mega watts.
 It can be used almost everywhere from small electronic device to large
scale MW power generation station.
 It can be installed and mounted easily with minimum cost.
Disadvantages 16
 Initial cost is high
 Dependent on sunlight
 Additional cost for storage battery.
 Climatic condition, location, latitude, longitude, altitude, tilt angle, ageing,
bird dropping, etc. affect the output.
 It has no self-storage capacity.
 Manufacturing is very complicated process.
 Solar photo voltaic (SPV) module 17
 The power generated by a single cell is small and therefore several cells are
interconnected in series/parallel combination to get the required voltage
and current.
 When a number of solar cells are connected in series to get a specific
voltage the unit so formed is called as solar module.
 Charging batteries is the primary use of SPV module.
 Therefore normally 36 cells are joined in series to form a standard module,
which is capable of charging 12 volts battery.
 A terminal box is provided on the backside of the module for external
connections.
 18

 A bypass diode is connected across +ve and –ve

in the terminal box.
 Cathode of the diode will be at +ve terminal and
anode will be at –ve terminal of the module.
 This diode protects the module cells from overheating
due to shadowing of the module or any cell breakage,
generally the rating of bypass diode is 1.5 times of the
maximum current of module.
Solar panel 19

 A solar panel consists of a number of solar modules, which are

connected in series and parallel configuration to provide specific voltage
and current to charge a battery.
 A diode is connected on the +ve terminal of such string in forward bias.
 This is called blocking diode and it is provided so that in daytime current
can flow from module to battery, but at night or in cloudy day current
should not flow back from battery to module or from one string to
another string.
20
Main components of solar photo voltaic system 21

 The solar power system consists of the following components:

i) Solar array.
ii) Battery Bank.
iii) Solar Charge Controller.
iv) Inverter.
v) Field Junction Box.
vi) Solar Module Mounting Structure.
vii) Earthing kit.
viii) Cables.
Solar array 22
 Solar array consists of series/parallel combination of modules, which are
mounted on the metallic structure in sunny and shadow free area at a fixed
angle as recommended by designer.
 Cables from the array area will come to the control and battery room
through junction boxes from panels of modules.
 Solar panels should always face true south if you are in the northern
hemisphere, or true north if you are in the southern hemisphere.
 True north is not the same as magnetic north.
 If you are using a compass to orient your panels, you need to correct for the
difference, which varies from place to place.
 True north is a fixed point on the globe. Magnetic north is quite different.
Magnetic north is the direction that a compass needle points to as it aligns
with the Earth's magnetic field.
23
Battery bank 24

 The battery bank is one of the most complicated and costly components of
any off-grid power system.
 Battery storage needs to be large enough to supply power year-round.
 Nothing is more frustrating than suffering a power outage because battery
bank doesn’t store enough charge.
 On the other hand, too much battery capacity means system won’t be able
to fully recharge.
 If battery bank is too large, batteries can’t get the full charge, which can ruin
the batteries.
 Dialing in on the right battery bank is an important step to designing your
off-grid system.
 25
 A battery bank can be composed of a single battery, or multiple
interconnected batteries that are wired to work as one larg battery at a
certain voltage and amp-hour capacity.
 The Sun is not always available and it is not regular.
 However, loads are to be fed any time of the day.
 Therefore power should be stored in a battery bank.
 The capacity of this battery bank is given in Ampere-Hour (AH) and bus bar
voltage.
 The bus-bar voltage is decided by the voltage requirement of the load.
 There are mainly two type of solar battery.
 i) Tall tubular solar battery
 ii) Lithium-ion solar battery
Tall tubular solar battery 26

 Lead acid tall tubular solar battery is the upgraded version of normal
batteries that used at home and other places.
 This solar battery is specially designed as per solar application
requirement.
 Solar tubular batteries are fully tested and reliable solar batteries that
has been used in off grid solar system, hybrid solar system, solar home
lighting system and solar street lights since decades.
 A lead acid tall tubular solar battery require to top-up with water in
every 3 to 6 month.
 For solar application, these batteries required to be charge on low
ampere.
 27
 These solar batteries can store more power than any other battery.
 But if we compare than these solar batteries have comparatively short
life and lower DoD(measure of amount of energy that we can draw from
the battery, usually expressed in terms of %).
 Tall tubular battery is the most success, oldest and reliable technology in
batteries.
 Mostly, we need either 12V 150AH solar battery for home.
 Following are some of the best tubular batteries in Pakistan
 Phoenix TX-1100 Phoenix TX-1800
 Volta TA-1200 Volta TA-2000
 Osaka TA-1200 Osaka TA-2000
Depth of Discharge 28

 A battery’s depth of discharge (DoD) indicates the percentage of the

battery that has been discharged relative to the overall capacity of the
battery.
 Depth of Discharge is defined as the capacity that is discharged from a
fully charged battery, divided by battery nominal capacity.
 Depth of discharge is normally expressed as a percentage. For, example,
if a 100 A h battery is discharged for 20 minutes at a current of 50 A, the
depth of discharge is 50 * 20 / 60 / 100 = 16.7 %.
Pros – Advantage 29

 High efficiency solar batteries i.e. 1500 life cycles.

 Long estimated working life around 5-7 years.
 Cost effective solar product.
 Easy to maintain, install and access.
 No need of heavy maintenance
 Very low repair/maintenance cost.
Cons – Disadvantage 30

 Tall tubular solar batteries are heavy in weight.

 You need to refill these solar battery timely.
 More space required compare to lithium-ion batteries.
Lithium-ion solar battery 31

 There are different types in lithium-ion solar batteries.

 The best type of lithium ion battery for solar power application is lithium
iron phosphate (LiFePO4).
 LiFePO4 batteries are completely safe, not burnable, stable for 15 to 20
years and maintenance free.
 It has good electrical performance with low resistance.
 Lithium ion solar battery is generally used in all in one solar street light,
solar power vehicles and mobile battery banks.
 The main advantage of this battery is the good thermal stability, increased
safety, in addition to the high current rating and long cycle life if misused.
 32
 Solar batteries for home with solar panel are increasingly focused on
lithium based batteries, which have seen a steady reduction in costs in
recent years.
 The biggest benefit of lithium-ion batteries is it’s extremely high life-
cycle (up to 5000 cycles) and its high charge and discharge capabilities
that help harvest more energy from solar panel.
 They also lose less capacity at idle, which is useful in solar installations
where energy is rarely used.
 For these reasons, lithium ion batteries are a good choice for any solar
system whether it is small or large, off grid system or on grid system.
 The biggest disadvantage is its high price tag. Lithium-ion solar battery
can cost 2-4 times more than a lead acid battery system.
Lead-Acid vs Lithium-Ion Batteries 33

 Before the invention of lithium-ion batteries in the 1970s, lead-acid

batteries were predominantly used in many applications.
 The lithium-ion battery has begun to dominate the lead-acid battery in
the market as they are even more durable.
1. The Materials Used
In a lead-acid battery, lead is used as the anode, and lead oxide is used as a
cathode.
In a lithium-ion battery, carbon is used as the anode, and lithium oxide is
used as the cathode.
Lead-acid batteries use sulphuric acid as an electrolyte, and li-ion batteries
use lithium salt as an electrolyte.
2. Cost 34

 Lead-acid batteries are cheaper and are easier to install when compared
to Lithium-ion batteries.
 The price of a lithium-ion battery is two times higher than a lead-acid
battery with the same capacity.
 However, if we compare the life of the batteries, lithium-ion lasts longer
than a lead-acid battery.
 Hence, lead-acid batteries are cheaper only for short-term applications
than lithium-ion batteries.
3. Battery Capacity 35

 Battery capacity is the amount of energy stored in a battery per unit

volume.
 It is a direct indicator of the active material stored inside the battery.
 Lithium batteries have higher battery capacity when compared to lead-
acid batteries.
4. Energy Density or Specific Energy 36

 Energy density is a significant factor in determining the type of battery

needed for a specific application.
 It indicates the relation between battery capacity and the weight of the
battery.
 Energy Density = (Nominal Battery Voltage (V) x Rated Battery Capacity
(Ah)) ÷ Weight of Battery.
 Lithium batteries have high specific energy when compared to lead-acid
batteries. Hence, Li-ion batteries are used in EV applications.
5. Weight and Size 37

 The energy density and battery capacity value of lithium batteries are
high when compared to lead-acid batteries.
 Therefore, the weight and size of lithium batteries are much lower in
comparison to lead-acid batteries with the same capacity.
6. Depth of Discharge (DOD) 38
 Depth of Discharge indicates the maximum energy of a fully charged
battery that can be used without recharging.
 If a battery's Depth of Discharge is 50%, you can use up to 50% of the
battery capacity and recharge it.
 If you have used it more than 50%, the battery's life cycle will get affected.
 The depth of discharge is 50% for lead-acid batteries, and 80% for lithium
batteries, respectively.
 This means you can use the lithium-ion battery for a longer period without
recharging.
 The modern li-ion battery that is manufactured today is even more
efficient, with a DOD of 100%.
7. Durability 39

 The durability of the battery is determined by the time duration it can

last.
 Lead-acid batteries can last up to 2 years if well maintained, i.e.
recharging it after 50% of the battery is utilized.
 If it is fully drained or above 80%, it can sustain only for 350 cycles or
one year.
 Instead, a lithium-ion battery has a warranty period of 10 years and
can sustain for 10,000 cycles.
8. Cycle Life 40

 Cycle life is the number of charging and discharging cycles a battery can
undergo without compromising its performance.
 Usually, lithium-ion batteries possess a cycle life of 5000, and complete
discharge does not affect the life cycle.
 Whereas a lead-acid battery lasts for 300 to 500 cycles.
 The complete discharge of the battery significantly affects its life cycle.
9. Charging Time 41

 Lithium-ion batteries charge much faster than lead-acid batteries.

 If a lead-acid battery takes eight hours to charge, a lithium-ion battery
would probably take less than two hours to charge, provided they both
have the same capacity.
 Li-ion batteries are eight times faster than lead-acid batteries while
charging.
 This is one of the reasons why Lithium-ion batteries are deployed in
most EVs.
10. Safety 42

 There are many reasons for failures that can occur in batteries.
 It is our responsibility to be cautious while using batteries of high
voltage.
 In both lead-acid and lithium-ion batteries, overcharging may lead to an
explosion.
 The sulfuric acid in the lead-acid battery is highly corrosive, and there is
a chance of leakage.
 If overcharged, hydrogen and oxygen gases may evolve, leading to an
explosion.
 In lithium-ion batteries, there are high chances for thermal runaway.
 43
 Thermal runaway is the condition that occurs when the heat generated
within the battery exceeds the heat dissipated to the surroundings.
 The thermal runaway also has the potential to trigger a battery explosion.
 It is the responsibility of the BMS engineer to build robust battery pack
systems to reduce the risk of failures.
 To compare the advantages of lead-acid vs a lithium-ion battery, we must
first decide on the application.
 For EV applications and areas that require a long-lasting power supply, a
lithium-ion battery would be the ideal option.
 For power backup applications like UPS for computers and inverters, a
lead-acid battery may be the cost-effective option.
Solar charge controller 44
 Charge controller is the interface between array and battery bank.
 It protects the battery from overcharging and moderate charging at
finishing end of charge of battery bank.
 Therefore it enhances the life of the battery bank.
 It also indicates the charging status of batteries like battery
undercharged, overcharged or deep discharged through LEDs indications.
 Some switches and MCBs are also provided for manual or accidental cut-
off of charging.
 In some charge controllers load terminals are also provided through a low
battery charge cut-off device so that it can protect the battery bank from
deep discharge.
 45
 The technology adopted nowadays for manufacturing solar charge
controller is MOSFET/IGBT technology.
 With this technology the idle current of the controller is less than 50mA
depending upon the rating of the charge controller and its current.
 First the controller is connected to battery bank and then it is connected
to solar array/solar module for sensing the voltage from the module.
 When the system is put into operation, the SPV modules starts charging
the battery bank.
 Care should be taken that in case the battery connections are removed
from the controller terminals when the system is in operation, otherwise
SPV voltage may damage the charge controller, since the Solar voltage is
always higher than the battery voltage.
 46
Types of charge controller
i)PWM
ii)MPPT
PWM charge controller 47
 PWM solar charge controllers are the standard type of charge controller
available to solar shoppers.
 They are simpler than MPPT controllers, and thus generally less expensive.
 PWM controllers work by slowly reducing the amount of power going into
your battery as it approaches capacity.
 When the battery is full, PWM controllers maintain a state of “trickle”,
which means they supply a tiny amount of power constantly to keep the
battery topped off.
 With a PWM controller, the solar panel system and home battery need to
have matching voltages.
 48
 In larger solar panel systems designed to power the whole home, panel
and battery voltage aren’t typically the same.
 As a result, PWM controllers are more suited for small DIY solar systems
with a couple of low voltage panels and a small battery.
MPPT charge controller 49
 The maximum power point tracking (MPPT) charge controller takes the
PWM to the next level, by allowing the array voltage to vary from the
battery voltage.
 By varying the array input, the charge controller can find the point at which
the solar array produces the maximum power. The MPPT process works like
this.
 The MPPT charge controller ensures that the loads receive maximum
current to be used (by quickly charging the battery).
 Maximum power point could be understood as an ideal voltage at which
the maximum power is delivered to the loads, with minimum losses.
 This is also commonly referred to as peak power voltage.
What is the maximum power point 50
(MPP)?
 The maximum power point (MPP) describes the point on a current
voltage (I-V) curve at which the solar PV device generates the largest
output i.e. where the product of current intensity (I) and voltage (V) is
maximum.
 The MPP may change due to external factors such as temperature, light
conditions and workmanship of the device.
 In order to ensure maximum power output (Pmax) of a solar PV device in
view of these external factors, maximum power output trackers (MPPT)
may be operated to regulate the resistance of the device.
How do MPPT charge controllers work? 51

 It is a well known fact that the voltage of the battery varies with its
charge content.
 As current flows from a high potential to low potential, the steeper the
gradient or voltage difference, the greater is the flow of current.
 This potential gradient could be made steeper by two ways:
(i) By increasing the output voltage of the Solar Panel
(ii) By decreasing the voltage of the battery (discharging the battery)
Using increased panel voltage to deliver maximum power 52
 Now batteries could only be charged if the output voltage of the solar panel
is greater than that of the batteries, to facilitate a flow of current from the
panel to the battery.
 The output voltage of the panel depends on different factors, including the
weather (irradiance).
 On a sunny day the output voltage may be higher than the rated output
voltage, while during a cloudy day the output voltage is probably less.
 Normal controllers do not have the capacity to utilize this higher output
voltage to deliver more power.
 However MPPT charge controllers have the ability to adjust the voltage in
order to get a boost of current during times of peak demand. MPPT delivers
higher than rated charge to the battery as they can adjust the voltage to
current ratio.
Using battery voltage for delivering maximum 53
power
 Current and Voltage are inversely proportional to each other.
 In other words, if the current increases, the voltage drops and vice versa.
 By lowering the current by introducing some resistance in the path of the
current, the MPPT charge controller can boost up the voltage.
 This voltage to current ratio adjustment is called Maximum power point
tracking.
 MPPT typically increases the current to the battery by approximately 25%
to 30%.
 54
 Important to keep in mind is that a 80% discharged battery will charge
faster than a 50% discharged battery.
 The reason for this is that when the battery starts to discharge, its
voltage also reduces.
 The larger the gap between the solar panel output voltage and the
battery voltage, the more current will flow into the battery, and the
faster the battery will be charged.
Inverter 55
 Solar inverter also know as solar power inverter or solar energy inverter
and it is the heart of solar power system.
 It is an equipment that converts solar panel’s DC (direct current) power
into AC (alternating current) power.
 This intelligent solar inverter also matches the required frequency, volt
etc with electrical grid to run our load to be used at household and
commercial premises.
 Apart from solar panel, the most important part of any solar system is
solar inverter, because it converts power from the sun into useful energy.
 56
 Before buying solar inverter, few points should be clear.
Types – On grid, Off-grid or Hybrid
Technology – PWM or MPPT
Feature – Remote or web monitoring
Warranty – 2 / 5 years
Types of solar inverter 57

 Solar inverters are classified into three major types:

i. On grid solar inverter
ii. Off grid solar inverter
iii. Hybrid solar inverter
On grid solar inverter 58

 On grid inverter also called grid tie or grid connected inverters, generally
used with on grid solar system.
 On grid solar inverter will continue run the load and send power to the
power grid when solar produce extra electricity.
 These inverters are fully automatic and intelligent inverter with inbuilt
protections which protect the complete solar system and solar panel
from any fault.
 Generally, on grid solar inverter are used for home and commercial use
in urban and industrial areas where electricity bills are high.
59
Pros – Advantage 60
 Utilization of 100% solar power.
 No limitation of load.
 Export extra electricity to grid.
 Up to 70% subsidy on on-grid solar.
 Less space for installation.

Cons – Disadvantage
 Don’t work without grid.
 No electricity generation during power cut.
 No battery back-up.
Off grid solar inverter 61

 Off grid solar inverter also known as standalone solar inverter or solar
battery inverter, are used in off grid solar system.
 These inverters draw DC power from solar battery & solar panel and
convert into usable AC power.
 These systems place where no electricity is available such as in rural
areas, off grid inverter based system is independent system.
 The major benefit is that power outages and other technical issues that
the utility grid faces will no longer be effective, as you have your own
independent power system.
62
Pros – Advantage 63
 Stand alone inverter and system.
 Work even without grid/electricity.
 No dependency on govt. electricity.
 Peace of mind with battery backup.

Cons – Disadvantage
 Load limitation.
 Cannot export the electricity to grid.
 Costly compare to on grid solar.
Hybrid solar inverter 64
 Hybrid inverter is the combination of on-grid and off-grid solar inverter.
 This inverter manage solar panel arrays, battery storage and utility grid at
the same time.
 These modern all-in-one inverter are generally highly versatile and can be
used for grid-tie, stand-alone or backup applications.
Pros – Advantage 65
 Stand alone system.
 Can work without grid.
 Store electricity to batteries.
 Peace of mind with electricity backup.
 Export excess electricity to government grid.

Cons– Disadvantage
 Expensive compare to on grid and off grid solar.
 Limitation of load.
Field Junction box (FJB) 66
 FJB is the interface between solar panels and the charge controller.
 All the incoming/outgoing cables/wires from solar panel to charge
controller are terminated at FJB.
Solar module mounting structure 67

 This is made up of galvanized iron frames and angles.

 In this structure flexibility is provided to change the module-mounting
angle seasonally.
 This structure is grouted by small civil work and modules are mounted
subsequently.
 Also, this mounting structure should be earthed suitably at several places
if voltage of the array is more than 50 Volts.
Earthing kit 68

 Earthing kit is provided to ground the mounting structure.

 When installing a solar photo-voltaic system (PV), it is extremely
important to ground all the equipment correctly.
 Failure to ground the entire system can be devastating, especially in an
area that experiences lightning on a regular basis.
 Electricity follows the path of least resistance, and while it’s almost
impossible to know its exact path, we can take reasonable steps to try
and direct the electricity someplace safe when a surge occurs.
Cables 69

 Different types of cables are required to connect module to module,

modules to charge controller, charge controller to battery, or connect
battery to load as required.
 The cable size used for interconnection of SPV module, charge controller
and battery shall be minimum 2 x 2.5 sq. mm Cu. cable.
 As far as some hardware is concerned the screws and bolts/nuts are of
chrome plated, stainless steel and brass so that rusting should not be
take place.
Factors affecting output 70
i) Standard test conditions:
Solar modules produce dc electricity.
The dc output of solar modules is rated by manufacturers under Standard
Test Conditions (STC).
These conditions are easily recreated in a factory, and allow for consistent
comparisons of products, but need to be modified to estimate output
under common outdoor operating conditions.
STC conditions are: solar cell temperature = 25 °C; solar irradiance
(intensity) = 1000 W/m2 (often referred to as peak sunlight intensity,
comparable to clear summer noon time intensity); and solar spectrum as
filtered by passing through 1.5 thickness of atmosphere (ASTM Standard
Spectrum).
 71
 A manufacturer may rate a particular solar module output at 100
watts of power under STC, and call the product a “100-watt solar
module.”
 This module will often have a production tolerance of +/-5% of the
rating, which means that the module can produce 95 Watts and still
be called a “100-watt module.”
ii) Temperature: 72

 Module output power reduces as module temperature increases.

 When operating on a roof, a solar module will heat up substantially,
reaching inner temperatures of 50-75 °C.
 For crystalline modules, a typical temperature reduction factor
recommended is 89% or 0.89.
 So the “100-watt” module will typically operate at about 85 Watts (95
Watts x 0.89 = 85 Watts) in the middle of a spring or fall day, under full
sunlight conditions.
iii) Dirt and dust: 73

 Dirt and dust can accumulate on the solar module surface, blocking
some of the sunlight and reducing output.
 Although typical dirt and dust is cleaned off during every rainy season,
it is more realistic to estimate system output taking into account the
reduction due to dust build-up in the dry season.
 A typical annual dust reduction factor to use is 93% or 0.93.
 So the “100-watt module,” operating with some accumulated dust may
operate on average at about 79 Watts (85 Watts x 0.93 = 79 Watts).
iv) Mismatch and wiring losses: 74

 The maximum power output of the total PV array is always less than
the sum of the maximum output of the individual modules.
 This difference is a result of slight inconsistencies in performance from
one module to the next and is called module mismatch and amounts
to at least a 2% loss in system power.
 Power is also lost to resistance in the system wiring.
 These losses should be kept to a minimum but it is difficult to keep
these losses below 3% for the system.
 A reasonable reduction factor for these losses is 95% or 0.95.
v) DC to AC conversion losses: 75

 The dc power generated by the solar module must be converted into

common household ac power using an inverter.
 Some power is lost in the conversion process, and there are additional
losses in the wires from the rooftop array down to the inverter and out to
the house panel.
 Modern inverters commonly used in residential PV power systems have
peak efficiencies of 92-94% indicated by their manufacturers, but these
again are measured under well-controlled factory conditions.
 Actual field conditions usually result in overall dc-to-ac conversion
efficiencies of about 88-92%, with 90% or 0.90 a reasonable compromise.
 76

 So the “100-watt module” output, reduced by production tolerance,

heat, dust, wiring, ac conversion, and other losses will translate into
about 68 Watts of AC power delivered to the house panel during the
middle of a clear day (100 Watts x 0.95 x 0.89 x 0.93 x 0.95 x 0.90 = 67
Watts).
DESIGNING OF SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC 77
SYSTEM
DESIGNING OF SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC 78
SYSTEM
 Definitions
The following definitions are very important in designing a solar photo
voltaic system.
i) Solar Cell
The basic photovoltaic device, which generates electricity when exposed
to sunlight, shall be called a “solar cell”.
ii) Solar Module
The smallest complete environmentally protected assembly of
interconnected solar cells shall be called “module”.
iii) Solar Panel 79
A group of modules fastened together, pre-assembled and interconnected,
designed to serve as an installable unit in an array shall be called “panel”.
iv) Solar Array
A mechanically integrated assembly of modules or panels together with support
structure, but exclusive of foundation, tracking, thermal control and other
components, as required to form a dc power producing unit shall be called an
“array”.
v) Solar Irradiation
On any given day the solar radiation varies continuously from sunrise to sunset and
depends on cloud cover, sun position and turbidity of the atmosphere.
The maximum irradiance is available at solar noon which is defined as the midpoint,
in time, between sunrise and sunset.
The total solar radiant power incident upon unit area of an inclined surface
(Watt/m²) is called total solar irradiance.
 80
vi) Insolation
Insolation differs from irradiance because of the inclusion of time. Insolation
is the amount of solar energy received on a given area over time measured
in kilowatt-hours per square meter (kW-hrs/m2) - this value is equivalent to
"peak sun hours".
vii) Peak Sun Hours
Peak sun hours is defined as the equivalent number of hours per day, with
solar irradiance equaling 1000 W/m2, that gives the same energy received
from sunrise to sunset.
Peak sun hours is of significance because PV panel power output is rated
with a radiation level of 1000W/m2.
Primary phases of designing an SPV system 81
 The primary phases of designing a photovoltaic system consists of the following
steps:
I. Planning
II. Collection of information/data
III. Load calculation
IV. Deciding battery capacity
V. Selection of charge controller
VI. Deciding inverter capacity
VII. Selecting solar module.
VIII. Module mounts
IX. Structure
X. Wiring
(i) Planning 82
 Before designing a solar photovoltaic system, several considerations are to
be kept in mind such as:
 The cost of the system should not be unusually high and at the same time
the quality should also not suffer.
 Initial costs and lifetime costs shall also be taken into consideration.
 The system should be simple in design as far as possible with high
reliability and efficiency.
 Whether central generation is beneficial or distributed is to be worked out.
 The system to be planned so as to cater for expected future growth.
(ii) Collection of Information/Data 83

 Following types of information are to be gathered

i) Load/Application
 Voltage system e.g. AC or DC or both
 Operating voltage range of load
 Daily consumption
 Daily duty cycle
 (Duty cycle is the ratio of time a load or circuit is ON compared to the
time the load or circuit is OFF)
 Criticality of loads
 Monthly/weekly load profile
 84
ii) Climatic conditions
 Insolation
 Latitude, Longitude
 Temperature
 Accessibility to site
iii) User compatibility
 Understanding technical issues.
 Maintenance schedules and mentality.
 Whether the controls are field adjustable.
 Budget constraints.
(iii) Load Calculation 85
 For calculation of load first need to calculate the number of appliances in
home, their power ratings and number of hours they are running in a day.
So let's begin with a sample example as shown below for a house.
 A house where the appliances, their power rating and their running hours
are as follows:
 5x LED Bulb, Power=15W, running hours=10hrs
 3x Fans, Power=60W, running hours=12hrs
 1x Refrigerator, Power=250W, running hours=12hrs
 1xWashing Machine, Power=500W, running hours=1hrs
 1xTV, Power=250W, running hours=5hrs
 86
 Now we have the input data for calculation of load, lets understand how to
calculate total load requirement of a house by below table:
 87

 The total load in a day for a particular house we have

calculated as 7660wh.
 7660wh=7.6 kwh or unit.
IV. Deciding Battery Capacity 88

 For calculating the capacity and number of batteries, first the number
of back up days are to be decided, based on number of consecutive
sunless days.
 For example back up days for residential load = 3 to 5 days
 Back up days for industrial load = 7 to 14 days
 Back up days for poor weather = 7 to 14 days
 Check manufacturer’s recommended maximum depth of discharge
(DoD) normally it is 80%.
 Check the temperature variations of site and determine the maximum
DoD as per data given by battery manufacturer.
 89
 Battery Capacity (In AH) = (AH rating X No. of back up days) / Max DoD
 No. of series Batteries = System DC Voltage / Battery Voltage
 No. of Parallel Batteries = Total AH Required / AH of Individual Battery
 If we use lead acid battery/tubular battery then the depth of discharge(DoD)
will be 50%, but if we use Li-ion battery then depth of discharge will be 80%
to 90%.
 From previous example we have energy requirement of 7.6kwh, now here
comes a trick , we consider the 20% losses in inverter then the energy taken
out from the battery by inverter will be 7.6kwh x 120% = 7.6 x 1.2 = 9.12 kwh.
 It is clear that we required 9.12kwh of energy from the battery to fulfil our
load requirement.
 So the battery capacity for one day storage and 50% DoD is given by:
 90
 Required battery capacity=9.12 x 1/0.5 = 18.24kwh.
 Now suppose we are using 12V and 200 Ah batteries to store power
then energy storage in one battery is 12v x 200 Ah=2400wh =2.4kwh
 Now number of batteries can be given by required capacity divided by
energy storage in one battery as:
 Number of battery = 18.24/2.4 = 7.6 or 8 batteries
 So we requires 8 batteries of 12V and 200 Ah to fulfil our requirement
of 7.6kwh/day.
 The fact is when battery stores charge then some power is lost in the
battery in the form of heat, so to proceed for the calculation of charge
controller and solar module we need to consider the energy lost in
battery, we generally consider it as 15%.
V. Selection of Charge Controller 91
 Charge controllers are included in most PV systems to protect the batteries
from overcharge and/or excessive discharge.
 The minimum function of the controller is to disconnect the array when
the battery is fully charged and keep the battery fully charged without
damage.
 The charging routine is not the same for all batteries.
 A charge controller designed for lead- acid batteries should not be used to
control Ni-Cd batteries.
 Charge controllers can be used in parallel to add more modules to a battery
bank.
 The charge controller consumes some power so the transfer of power is
not 100%. The typical efficiency of charge controller is 85% to 95%.
Salient feature of Charge Controller 92
 Power devices should be of solid state, high efficiency with two stage
charging technique.
 Protection against transient/surge.
 Prevent discharge of battery through solar panel during night.
 Protection against overcharge of the battery.
 Protection against reverse connection of battery and module.
 Robust enclosure and cooling with heat sink.
 Control, temperature compensated set points and equalization.
 Suitable MCB’s provided at solar input of 100 Amp.
VI. Deciding Inverter Capacity 93

 An inverter is called the heart of the system because all electronic

management is done by the inverter.
 As inverter have electronic components which consumes energy so the
efficiency of the inverter will never be 100%.
 Typical efficiency of inverter is 80% to 90%.
 For good efficient inverter efficiency is 90% to 95%.
 For deciding inverter we first see the load.
 The capacity of inverter must be slightly above of the load requirement,
lets assume for above sample example we have load of 1255 Watt, so we
would consider an inverter of lets say 1500 Watt or 1.5kva.
VII. Selecting Solar Module 94

 To make your technology selection, you must first be aware of several

considerations.
 PV modules have standard power ratings and so in order to determine
the amount of modules to be connected you must first establish the
load that you want to feed in kw.
I. NOCT and STC 95
 As a reference to compare performances of SPV modules, manufacturers
establish the so-called standard test conditions (STC) and nominal operating
cell temperature (NOCT) which have specific test conditions that allow you to
compare the virtues of each module between them.
 STC assume 1kw/m2, 25°C of module operating temperature and 1.5 AM (Air
Mass), while NOCT assume 800W/m2, 45°C operating temperature, 1m/s wind
speed, 20°C ambient temperature and that the module has a ground mounted
feature (for air circulation). Under these conditions you must evaluate:
 Open circuit voltage
 Short circuit current
 Nominal power and current
 Voltage and power at MPP
2. Efficiency 96

 This parameter is associated with the use of available space in m2 to

supply the same amount of power.
 In other words, the higher the efficiency, the smaller the panel is to
provide the same amount of DC power.
3. Temperature Coefficients 97
 Rising temperature values affect the performance of PV modules, they
reduce the efficiency, voltage and current as well.
4. Voltage 98
 It is known that connecting modules in series would lead to higher
voltages.
 Inverters have a range of voltage for MPPT (maximum power point
tracking).
 It is to make sure that the operating voltage of array (at 20°C and 60°C
of temperature module) will be within the MPPT range of the inverter.
 Besides, there is another limitation in the voltage of the array, each
string cannot exceed 600 Vdc according to American norms and 1000
Vdc according to European norms.
5. Tolerance 99

 Manufacturing processes are not perfect.

 That is why manufacturers will provide a tolerance value for the
nominal power output of the module.
 Less the tolerance is, the more accurate design will be.
6. Solar Panel Dimension 100

 Finally, the ultimate consideration is to watch out for the panels

dimensions, you must make sure that the width and length of the
panel, suits your available space, whether it is on the roof or on the
ground.
 The losses in solar panel are considered as 25%.
 Suppose we need the load of 10kwh then we require solar panel of
capacity 1.25x10=12.25kwh.
 101
 Sample Example: In the trail sample example we have the energy
requirement of 9.12kwh energy from the battery, now we'll add battery
losses(15%) in it, so it will be
9.12+0.15x9.12 = 10.49kwh
 Now we add charge controller losses(5%) then it will be
10.49+10.49x0.05 = 11.015kwh
 We need 11.015kwh energy from the solar panel,
 Now considering the panel losses(25%) then we have
11.015+11.015x0.25 = 13.77kwh
Important point to consider is the value of solar power potential, means
for how much time the sun is available for the location in a day.
 102
 Now if we consider for country with 5 hrs of sunshine so the module
power will come
 13.77kwh/5hr = 2.75kw
 If we use solar module of 250Watt power then we require 11 module to
fulfil the load requirement of 1255 W.
VIII. Module Mounts 103
 While mounting the modules, following points should be considered for
getting maximum output from the solar modules:
 Modules should be oriented to face the Sun.
 The modules produce more power at STC 25°C.
 The mounting and colour of the modules can sometimes be chosen to
blend with the architecture.
 Tracking the Sun increases the amount of power from an array.
IX. Structure 104

 Select type of structure i.e. ground mount, rooftop mount, pole mount
or tracker.
 A group of modules mounted on a single unit of structure and
interconnected together is called panel.
 Module mounting structures are made of three types of materials.
 They are hot dip galvanized iron, aluminium and mild steel (MS).
Mounting Structure Base 105

 The mounting structure base has to be strong enough to carry the

entire load of the solar PV module mounting structure, solar PV
module, other balance of systems that are placed below the solar PV
module.
 In case of slope roofs and ground mounting, the base has to be drilled
into the roof.
 In case flat roofs, the base can be drilled into the roof or can be
concealed with a concrete.
Direction of Solar Modules: 106

 The solar modules should be placed in such a way that most of the
sunlight falls on them.
 The best direction to place the solar modules is the place them facing
the equator.
 This means, in the northern hemisphere the solar PV modules should
be placed facing true south as the equator is lying to the south of the
northern hemisphere.
 In case of regions in the southern hemisphere, the solar PV modules
should be placed facing the true north as the equator is lying to the
north of the southern hemisphere.
X. Wiring 107
 Selecting the correct size and type of wire will enhance the performance
and reliability of PV system.
 The size of the wire must be large enough to carry the maximum current
expected without undue voltage losses.
 All wire has a certain amount of resistance to the flow of current.
 This resistance causes a drop in the voltage from the source to the load.
 Voltage drops cause inefficiencies, especially in low voltage systems (12V
or less).
 108
 Typical values of module current and voltages are provided by the
manufacturer.
 Based on system voltage and current decide size of wire/cable to be
used for module interconnection.
 Calculate output current and voltage of the panel and decide
specifications of wire/cable for panel interconnection.
 Always use minimum possible wire lengths.
 Always use suitable lugs, connecters etc for connection.
 Decide number and type of switches, fuses and circuit breakers as per
load, system and user requirement.
Sample system design 109
 The designing of a system can be better understood by the following
examples: Find out the size of components(battery, panel etc).
Example 1:
 As we know the 'current' in a solar photo-voltaic system always flows in 110
order as shown below(for an AC system):

But for the designing purpose we consider the path in reverse order as
shown below (that means we first figure out the load requirement then
we choose the inverter, then we go for solar batteries, then we look for
charge controller and finally we decide the sizing solar panel):
 Now we have calculated the total load in the table above as 1785W and
111
energy requirement as 9110 Wh/day or 9.1kWh/day.
 Now the process for designing the solar system is given as below:
1) Inverter:
For 1785W power requirement the inverter of capacity 2kW or 2kVA
matches very well.
As inverter converts power from dc to ac so there is power loss within the
inverter in the form of heat so we consider the loss as 20%.
So the energy required from the battery will be:
9.1kWh +0.2x9.1 kWh = 10.9kWh
 112
2) Battery:
All energy stored in the battery is not available to us, this is determined by
the depth of discharge.
There are two technologies; one is lead-acid which have 50% DOD and
second is Li-ion which have 90% DOD.
We are taking example of lead-acid then we have
Battery Size = Energy Required/DOD
Battery Size = 10.9kWh/0.5 = 21.8kWh
So the energy storage will be 21.8kWh but we require energy per day is
only 10.9kWh.
 113
 Now remember batteries are available in the market in V & Ah rating.
 Suppose we have battery of 12V & 200Ah, then number of batteries
required will be come out as
 No. of batteries required = 21.8kWh/(12V x 200Ah) = 9.08
 If we round it off then the number of battery will be '9’.
 But it's difficult to connect 9 batteries together so we take 8 or/10
batteries or other option available is the different sizing of battery.
 We have calculated battery sizing for one day storage, for 2 days
storage we double the number of batteries.
 Now input given by charge controller to battery is 10.9kWh plus the
losses in battery(15% battery loss):
 Input to battery = 10.9kWh + 10.9x0.15kWh = 12.5kWh
3) Charge Controller: 114
The charge controller takes care of battery charging & discharging so it has
some electronic components that consumes energy.
Lets consider the losses as 4% then we have required energy from the panel
as
Input to charge controller = 12.5kWh + 12.5x0.04kWh = 13kWh
 115
4)Solar Panel:
Energy, panel should supply = 13kWh
Losses within solar panel = 25%
Total energy panel must generate=13kWh + 0.25 x 13kWh
=16.25kWh per day
Suppose we have 5.5 hrs of solar radiation per day then,
Power of solar panel =16.25/5.5 = 2.95kW
Suppose we take 250W panel from market(remember this is peak or
maximum power rating)
Number of panels required= 2950W/250W = 12 Panels
Solar system summary 116

 Load energy required = 9.1 kWh per day

 Inverter power rating = 2kVA
 Battery storage (1 day) = 21.8 kWh, 9 batteries, 12V, 200Ah
 Solar Panel = 2.95kW, 12 panel of 250 W.
117
INSTALLATION OF SOLAR PANEL 118

 Solar modules are to be installed firmly and permanently on metallic

structures.
 The structures depend on the application and size of the system.
 For smaller systems like solar home systems, simple module mounting
structures are used.
 For systems like solar streetlights, solar powered signal lighting, solar
pumps etc. pole mounting module frames are used.
 For bigger systems like solar power plants and solar powered railway
signalling installations, bigger array mounting structures are used.
Testing 119
 Any electrical system can be tested to verify performance and to
evaluate the condition of the wiring systems and equipment.
 This is particularly important for PV installations, which are
subjected to extreme environmental conditions and deteriorating
effects of the elements over many years.
 To help ensure the long-term safe operation of these systems,
quality PV installation and service contractors execute a thorough
commissioning process followed by a regular periodic testing and
maintenance program.
 These practices can help promote safety and optimize performance,
and provide essential information required to effectively
troubleshoot, diagnose and remedy problems with the system.
Testing before installation 120

 Before installation the solar panels are tested at the manufacturing

unit to check for the following parameters:
 Voc-open circuit voltage
 Isc-short circuit current
 Vmp- maximum power voltage
 Imp- maximum power current
 Pmp- maximum power point at standard test conditions or peak
power output.
PV Module Performance 121
 Photovoltaic cells, modules and arrays produce dc power when
exposed to sunlight.
 Their electrical performance is represented by their current-voltage (I-
V) characteristic.
 An I-V curve represents an infinite number of current and voltage
operating point pairs for a PV generating device, at a given solar
irradiance and temperature operating condition.
 PV modules produce voltage and current output that varies with solar
irradiance and temperature.
 These rated I-V parameters are the basis for sizing and designing the
photovoltaic source and output circuits, and for comparing with field
measurements on PV arrays.
 122

I-V curves represent the electrical

performance for PV modules and arrays.
 123
 Open-circuit voltage (Voc) is the maximum dc voltage on a given I-V
curve, and is the operating point for a PV device with no connected
load.
 Voc corresponds to an open-circuit condition, and zero current and zero
power output.
 Open-circuit voltage is independent of cell area and increases with
decreasing cell temperature, and is used to determine maximum circuit
voltages for PV modules and arrays.
 For crystalline silicon solar cells, the open-circuit voltage is typically on
the order of 0.5 V to 0.6 V at 25°C.
 Typical PV modules have between 60 and 72 series connected cells with
Voc ranging from about 34 V to 44 V.
 Short-circuit current (Isc) is the maximum current on an I-V curve. 124
 Isc corresponds to a zero resistance and short-circuit condition, at zero
voltage and zero power output.
 Short circuit current is directly proportional to solar irradiance, and
rated values are used to size PV circuit conductors and overcurrent
devices.
 Because PV modules are inherently current-limited, PV modules can be
short circuited for testing using an appropriately rated shorting device.
 Individual solar cells may produce Isc be up to and over in area, with Isc
ratings 8 A and higher.
 The maximum power point (Pmp) of a PV device is the operating 125
point where the product of current and voltage is at its maximum.
 The maximum power point is located on the “knee” of the I-V curve,
and represents the highest efficiency operating point for a PV device
under the given conditions of solar irradiance and cell temperature.
 Typical PV modules have rated maximum power of 200 W to 300 W.
 The maximum power voltage (Vmp) is the corresponding operating
voltage at Pmp, and is typically about 70% to 80% of the open-circuit
voltage.
 The maximum power current (Imp) is the operating current at Pmp,
and typically about 90% of the short-circuit current.
 The specific operating point on an I-V curve is determined by the 126
electrical load according to Ohm’s Law.
 Consequently, the load resistance to operate a PV module or array at
its maximum power point is equal to the maximum power voltage
divided by the maximum power current (Vmp/Imp).
 For example, consider a PV module with maximum power voltage
(Vmp) = 35.8 V, and maximum power current (Imp) = 4.89 A.
 The load resistance required to operate this module at maximum
power is equal to Vmp ÷ Imp = 35.8 V ÷ 4.89 A = 7.32 Ω.
 The maximum rated dc power is simply the product of the maximum
power current and voltage.
 The following table shows typical user’s specifications of different modules: 127
 The above values are at standard testing conditions such as 25 °C cell 128
temperature and 1000W/m2 solar radiation.
 The output will be reduced as temperature rises and intensity of
sunlight reduces.
 Although accurate power is measured with the help of module tester at
supplier’s end, however to check working of module Voc and Isc can be
measured at site as shown in Fig by simple multimeter in two different
modes i.e. current mode and voltage mode when module is placed in
sunlight.
SYSTEM TESTING AND 129
MEASUREMENTS
 The following summarizes common types of testing conducted on PV
systems what information it provides:
 Continuity and resistance testing verifies the integrity of grounding and
bonding systems, conductors, connections and other terminations.
 Polarity testing verifies the correct polarity for PV dc circuits, and
proper terminations for dc utilization equipment.
 Voltage and current testing verifies that PV array and system operating
parameters are within specifications.
 130
 Insulation resistance testing verifies the integrity of wiring and
equipment, and used to detect degradation and faults to wiring
insulation.
 Performance testing verifies the system power and energy output are
consistent with expectations. These tests also require measurements of
array temperature and solar irradiance.
Multi-function PV system testers 131

 Seaward PV150
 HT Instruments PV-ISOTEST Multifunction Tester for Photovoltaic
Systems Up to 1,500V DC

 SMFT-1000 Solar Tools Kit: Fluke Multifunction PV Tester and

Performance Analyzer, I-V Curve Tracer