Lecture 6

Analog to Digital Converters

(ADC)
 Objectives
• The objectives of this lecture are to understand:
• What is an Analog to Digital Converter (ADC)?

• Why ADC is needed

• Application of ADC

• How does the ADC convert a signal?

• Types of ADC and the operation of each one

 What is an analog-to-digital
converter?
• An Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC) is an electronic
integrated circuit which transforms an electrical signal
from analog (continuous) to digital (discrete) form.

• Analog signals are directly measurable quantities.

• Digital signals only have two states.

• For digital computer, we refer to binary states, 0 and

1.
 Why ADC is needed
• Microprocessors can only process digitized signals.

• ADC Provides a link between the analog world of transducers

and the digital world of signal processing and data handling.

• The ADCs are at the front-end of any digital circuit that

needs to process signals coming from the exterior world.

• The outputs of a microphone, the voltage at a photodiode or

the signal of an accelerometer are examples of analog
values that need to be converted so that a microprocessor
can work with them.
 Application of ADC
• ADC are used virtually everywhere where an analog signal
has to be processed, stored, or transported in digital form.
• Some examples of ADC usage are digital voltmeters, cell
phone, thermocouples, and digital oscilloscope.
• Microcontrollers commonly use 8, 10, 12, or 16 bit ADCs.

• The symbol of an ADC is:

 How does the ADC convert a
signal?
• Many ways have been developed to convert an analog
signal, each with its strengths and weaknesses.

• The choice of the ADC for a given application is usually

defined by the requirements you have:
• if you need speed, use a fast ADC;

• if you need precision, use an accurate ADC;

• if you are constrained in space, use a compact ADC.

ADC process
• 2 steps
• Sampling and Holding (S/H)
• Quantizing and Encoding (Q/E)
Sampling and Holding
• Holding signal benefits
the accuracy of the A/D
conversion

• Minimum sampling rate

should be at least twice
the highest data
frequency of the analog
signal
Quantizing and Encoding
• Quantizing
• Partitioning the reference signal range into a
number of discrete quanta, then matching the
input signal to the correct quantum.

• Encoding:
• Assigning a unique digital code to each
quantum, then allocating the digital code to the
input signal.
 Quantizer Types
• Two types of quantizers:
• unipolar quantizers, and
• bipolar quantizers

• A unipolar quantizer deals with analog signals ranging

from 0 volt to a positive reference voltage.
• A bipolar quantizer has an analog signal range from a
negative reference to a positive reference.
 ADC coding scheme
• Since the ADC converts a continuous signal to a discrete representation (N bits), the ADC
coding scheme can be represented by a staircase, in which a range of values of the input
correspond to the same step.
• The range V (resolution) corresponds to the LSB and is the smallest input value that the ADC
can distinguish. The step size (resolution) is given by:

• Where:
• V is the step size of quantizer or the ADC resolution.
• Vmax and Vmin are the maximum and minimum values, respectively, of the
analog input signal V.
• L = 2N denotes the number of quantization levels
Table 8.1: Quantization Table for a 3-bit unipolar
quantizer
Binary Quantization Input Signal
Code Level Vq Subrange
000 0 0  V < V
001 V V  V < 2 V
010 2V 2 V  V < 3 V
011 3V 3 V  V < 4 V
100 4V 4 V  V < 5 V
101 5V 5 V  V < 6 V
110 6V 6 V  V < 7 V
111 7V 7 V  V < 8 V
 Quantized Output and Quantization
Error
• For any analog input signal V, the quantized output signal V q is given by:

• where i is an index corresponding to the binary code and is given by:

 V Proportionality Line

7V
q Quantization error
6V

5V
Transfer function of a 3- V/2
bit 4V Quantization Level
unipolar quantizer 3V

2V V
Adding 1/2 LSB Offset
V

V
0 V 2V 3V 4V 5V 6V 7V 8V

V/2

-V/2
Quantization error
Table 8.2: Quantization Table for a 3-bit unipolar quantizer with ½
V offset

Binary Code Quantization Level Vq Input Signal Subrange

000 0 0  V < 0.5 V
001 V 0.5 V  V < 1.5 V
010 2V 1.5 V  V < 2.5 V
011 3V 2.5 V  V < 3.5 V
100 4V 3.5 V  V < 4.5 V
101 5V 4.5 V  V < 5.5 V
110 6V 5.5 V  V < 6.5 V
111 7V 6.5 V  V < 7.5 V
 Accuracy of A/D Conversion
• There are two ways to best improve the
accuracy of A/D conversion:
• increasing the resolution (more bits) which
improves the accuracy in measuring the
amplitude of the analog signal.
• increasing the sampling rate which increases
the maximum frequency that can be
measured.
Accuracy of A/D Conversion
Types of A/D Converters
• Flash A/D Converter

• Successive Approximation A/D

Converter

• Integrating or Dual Slope A/D Converter

• Delta-Sigma A/D Converter

Flash A/D Converter
• Also called the parallel ADC.
• Fundamental Components (For N bit
Flash ADC)
• (2N -1) Comparators
• 2N Resistors
• Control Logic
• Each comparator compares the input
signal to a unique reference voltage.
• The comparator outputs connect to
the inputs of a priority encoder circuit,
which then produces a binary output.
• Figure 7.7 shows a 3-bit flash ADC
circuit.
 How does it work?
• Vref is a stable reference voltage provided by a precision voltage regulator.
• As the analog input voltage exceeds the reference voltage at each comparator, the
comparator outputs will sequentially saturate to a high state.
• The priority encoder generates a binary number based on the highest-order active
input, ignoring all other active inputs.
• When operated, the flash ADC produces an output that looks something like this:
 The Priority Encoder
• For this particular application, a
regular priority encoder with all its
inherent complexity isn’t
necessary.
• Due to the nature of the sequential
comparator output states (each
comparator saturating “high” in
sequence from lowest to highest),
the same “highest-order-input
selection” effect may be realized
through a set of Exclusive-OR
gates, allowing the use of a
simpler, non-priority encoder:
 The Priority Encoder

And, of course, the encoder

circuit itself can be made
from a matrix of diodes,
demonstrating just how
simply this converter design
may be constructed.
 Strengths and Weaknesses
• Strengths
• Very fast, converts instantly
• Very simple operational theory
• Speed is only limited by gate and comparator propagation delay
•
• Weaknesses
• It doubles in size for each bit added to the representation. N bits
require 2N−1 comparators.
• It has a high input capacitance (the input capacitance of a
comparator multiplied by 2N -1)
• It consumes a lot of power
• Expensive
 Successive Approximation ADC
• A Successive Approximation ADC evaluates each bit
at a time, from the most to the least significant bits.

• They successively compare the output of a digital-

analog converter (DAC) in them to bring it closer to
the input analog value.

• The input of the DAC is stored in an N bit register,

which is also the output of the ADC.

• Uses Closed-Loop Feedback Conversion

 Successive Approximation ADC
Key
DAC = digital-to-analog converter
EOC = end of conversion
SAR = successive approximation
register
S/H = sample and hold circuit
Vin = input voltage
Vref = reference voltage
 Successive Approximation ADC
• Process:
1) The analog signal is sampled and kept fixed.
• If the input value is changed during the conversion, the result can be completely wrong.
2) The MSB (bit N−1) of the register is set to 1 and every other bit to 0.
3) Convert the digital value to analog using DAC.
• Since the reference voltage of the DAC is Vref, its output is set to Vref/2.
4) The output of the comparator bk is latched to the MSB bN−1,
5) Compare guess to the analog input:
• if Vin < Vref/2, then bN−1 is reset to 0, otherwise it stays 1.
6) Repeat steps (1) – (5) until the LSB.
• By successively setting the next bit to 1, comparing the output of
the DAC with the input voltage and latching the result in the same
bit, the converter is generating a signal from the register that is
successively approximating the input value (hence its name).
Successive Approximation ADC
 Advantages & Disadvantages
• Advantages
• It uses only one comparator
• Low power consumption
• Good tradeoff between speed and cost

• Disadvantages
• The DAC grows with the number of bits
• They take as many cycles to convert the signal as the number of bits
• The component mismatch in the DAC limits its linearity (and therefore
of the ADC) to around 12bits
• Higher resolution successive approximation ADC’s will be slower
 Successive Approximation
Example
• Find the digital value of Vin = 0.6 volts (from analog
device).

• Use a 10 bit ADC, with Vref = 1 volts

• Solution:
• N = 210 = 1024

• Resolution = Vref/N = 1 Volt/1024 = 0.0009765625 V

 Successive Approximation
Example
• MSB (bit 9)
• Divide Vref by 2
• Compare Vref/2 with Vin
• If Vin is greater than Vref/2 , turn MSB on
(1)
• If Vin is less than Vref/2 , turn MSB off (0)
• Vin = 0.6V and V = 0.5
• Since Vin > V, MSB = 1 (on)
 Successive Approximation
Example
• Next Calculate MSB-1 (bit 8)
• Compare Vin=0.6 V to V=Vref/2 + Vref/4= 0.5+0.25 =0.75V
• Since 0.6<0.75, MSB is turned off
• Calculate MSB-2 (bit 7)
• Go back to the last voltage that caused it to be turned on
(Bit 9) and add it to Vref/8, and compare with Vin
• Compare Vin with (0.5+Vref/8)=0.625
• Since 0.6<0.625, MSB is turned off
Successive Approximation
Example
• Calculate the state of MSB-3 (bit 6)
• Go to the last bit that caused it to be turned on (In this
case MSB-1) and add it to Vref/16, and compare it to Vin
• Compare Vin to V= 0.5 + Vref/16= 0.5625
• Since 0.6>0.5625, MSB-3=1 (turned on)
Successive Approximation
Example
• This process continues for all the remaining bits.
Dual Slope A/D Converter
• Fundamental components
• Integrator
• Electronically Controlled Switches
• Counter
• Clock
• Control Logic
• Comparator
 How Does it Work Cont.
• A dual-slope ADC (DS-ADC) integrates an unknown input voltage (V IN)
for a fixed amount of time (T), then "de-integrates" using a known
reference voltage (VREF) for a variable amount of time (tx).
• At t=0 a conversion begins and the switch is set so that the input to the
integrator is VIN.
• The switch is held for time T, which is a constant predetermined time
interval.
• When the switch is set the counter begins to count clock pulses, the
counter resets to zero after T.
• Vout, of the integrator at time t=T, is equal to VINT/RC.
• At t=T, the switch is set so that -VREF is the input to the integrator which
has the voltage VINT/RC stored in it.
• The integrator voltage then drops linearly with a slope -Vref/RC.
• A comparator is used to determine when the output voltage of the
 Advantages and
Disadvantages
• Advantages
• Conversion result is insensitive to errors in the component
values.
• Fewer adverse affects from “noise”
• High Accuracy

• Disadvantages
• Slow
• Accuracy is dependent on the use of precision external
components
• Cost
 SIGMA-DELTA A/D Converter
• Main Components
• Integrator
• Comparator
• DAC
• Control Logic
SIGMA-DELTA ADC Circuit
+V
+
1-bit DAC
-
C
-V
R Vref
R R
R +V
- +V
Vin +
SET Output
+ D Q
-
Difference -V
-V CLR Q
Clock

Integrator Comparator D-Flip-Flop

 How does it work
• Input is over sampled, and goes to integrator.
• The integration is then compared to ground.
• Iterates and produces a serial bit stream
• Output is a serial bit stream with # of 1’s proportional to Vin

• With this arrangement the sigma-delta modulator automatically

adjusts its output to ensure that the average error at the
quantizer output is zero.
• The integrator value is the sum of all past values of the error, so
whenever there is a non-zero error value the integrator value
just keeps building until the error is once again forced to zero.
Advantages and
Disadvantages
• Advantages
• High Resolution
• No need for precision components

• Disadvantages
• Slow due to over sampling
• Only good for low bandwidth
ADC Types Comparison
Conversion speed
• The conversion speed, defined as samples
per second, measures how fast the ADC can
accurately convert analog values.
Errors Affecting ADCs
• There are several errors that affect an
ADC performance. These are:
• Offset error,
• Gain error,
• Integral and differential nonlinearity