Unit 6 I

Unit 4 (Part I)
Sampling
A Photographic Example of how Sampling Works
Sampling
´ A sample is “a smaller but representative collection of units from a
population used to determine truths about that population”
´ Why sample?
• Resources (time, money) and workload
• Gives results with known accuracy that can be calculated
mathematically
´ The sampling frame is the list from which the potential respondents
are drawn
• Registrar’s office
• Class register
Sampling
´ What is your population of interest?
´To whom do you want to generalize your

results?
• All doctors
• School children
• Indians
• Women aged 15-45 years
• Other
´ Can you sample the entire population?

Sampling
´ 3 factors that influence sample representative-ness

´Sampling procedure
´Sample size
´Participation (response)
´ When might you sample the entire population?

´When your population is very small
´When you have extensive resources
´When you don’t expect a very high response
Technical Terminology
´ An element is an object on which a measurement is

taken.
´ A population is a collection of elements about which

we wish to make an inference.
´ Sampling units are non-overlapping collection of

elements from the population that cover the entire
sample.
Technical Terms
´ A sampling frame is the list from which the potential

respondents are drawn
´ A sample is a collection of sampling units drawn from

a sampling frame.
´ Parameter: numerical characteristic of a population
´ Statistic: numerical characteristic of a sample

Stages in the Selection
of a Sample
Random Sampling and Non-sampling Errors
´ Random Sampling Error

´ A statistical fluctuation that occurs because of chance
variations in the elements selected for a sample.
´ Systematic Sampling Error

´ Systematic (non-sampling) error results from non-sampling
factors, primarily the nature of a study’s design and the
correctness of execution.
´ It is not due to chance fluctuation.
Errors Associated with Sampling
Types of Samples
´ Probability (Random) Samples: each member of the

population has a known non-zero probability of being
selected
´ Methods include simple random sampling, systematic sampling
and stratified sampling.
´ Nonprobability Samples: members are selected from

the population in some nonrandom manner
´ Methods include convenience sampling, judgment sampling,
quota sampling and snowball sampling
Simple Random Sampling
• Applicable when population is small, homogeneous & readily
available
• All subsets of the frame are given an equal probability. Each
element of the frame thus has an equal probability of selection
• It provides for greatest number of possible samples. This is done
by assigning a number to each unit in the sampling frame.
• A table of random number or lottery system is used to determine
which units are to be selected.
Disadvantages
• If sampling frame large, this method impracticable.

• Minority subgroups of interest in population may not be present
in sample in sufficient numbers for study.
Simple Random Sampling
Systematic Sampling
• Systematic sampling is often used instead of random sampling. It is
also called an Nth name selection technique.
• After the required sample size has been calculated, every Nth
record is selected from a list of population members.
• As long as the list does not contain any hidden order, this sampling
method is as good as the random sampling method.
• Its only advantage over the random sampling technique is

simplicity (and possibly cost effectiveness).
• A simple example would be to select every 10th name from the

telephone directory.
Systematic sampling
Systematic Sampling
• ADVANTAGES:
• Sample easy to select
• Suitable sampling frame can be identified easily
• Sample evenly spread over entire reference population
• DISADVANTAGES:
• Sample may be biased if hidden periodicity in population
coincides with that of selection.
• Difficult to assess precision of estimate from one survey.
Stratified Sampling
• Stratified sampling is commonly used probability method that is
superior to random sampling because it reduces sampling error.
• A stratum is a subset of the population that share at least one

common characteristic; such as males and females.
• Identify relevant stratums and their actual representation in the

population.
• Random sampling is then used to select a sufficient number of

subjects from each stratum.
• Stratified sampling is often used when one or more of the stratums in

the population have a low incidence relative to the other stratums.
Stratified Sampling
Draw a sample from each stratum

Proportional versus Disproportional Stratified
Sampling
´ Proportional Stratified Sample
´ The number of sampling units drawn from each stratum is in
proportion to the population size of that stratum.
´ Disproportional Stratified Sample

´ The sample size for each stratum is allocated according to
analytical considerations.
´ For example, a stratum could be large supermarkets, which may only
account for 20% of all grocery stores – although they account for 60% of
grocery sales. In this case, a disproportionate sample would be used to
represent the large supermarkets to reflect their sales (i.e. 60%) rather than
the number of stores.
Disproportional Sampling: Hypothetical Example
Cluster Sampling
´ A probability sample in which each sampling unit is a collection of
elements
´ Used when mutually homogeneous yet internally heterogeneous

groupings are evident in a statistical population
´ often used in marketing research
´ Effective under the following conditions:

• A good sampling frame is not available or costly, while a frame listing clusters is
easily obtained
• The cost of obtaining observations increases as the distance separating the

elements increases
´ Examples of clusters:
´ area sampling or geographical cluster sampling
Cluster Sampling
Section 1 Section 2
Section 3
Section 5
Section 4
Examples of Clusters
Difference Between Strata and Clusters
´ Although strata and clusters are both non-overlapping subsets

of the population, they differ in several ways.
´ All strata are represented in the sample; but only a subset of

clusters are in the sample.
´ With stratified sampling, the best survey results occur when

elements within strata are internally homogeneous. However,
with cluster sampling, the best results occur when elements
within clusters are internally heterogeneous
Convenience Sampling
´ Convenience sampling is used in exploratory research

where the researcher is interested in getting an
inexpensive approximation.
´ The sample is selected because they are convenient.
´ It is a nonprobability method.
´ Often used during preliminary research efforts to get an

estimate without incurring the cost or time required to
select a random sample
Judgment Sampling
´ Judgment sampling is a common nonprobability method
´ The sample is selected based upon judgment
´ An extension of convenience sampling
´ While using this method, the researcher must be

confident that the chosen sample is truly representative
of the entire population
Quota Sampling
´ Quota sampling is the nonprobability equivalent of stratified sampling
´ The researcher ensures that certain characteristics of a population

are represented in the sample to an extent which is he or she desires
´ First identify the stratums and their proportions as they are

represented in the population
´ Then convenience or judgment sampling is used to select the

required number of subjects from each stratum.
Snowball Sampling
´ Snowball sampling is a special nonprobability method used
when the desired sample characteristic is rare.
´ It may be extremely difficult or cost prohibitive to locate

respondents in these situations.
´ This technique relies on referrals from initial subjects to

generate additional subjects.
´ It lowers search costs; however, it introduces bias because

the technique itself reduces the likelihood that the sample
will represent a good cross section from the population.
For e.g. Market research for mahogany croquet set

Snowball Sampling
What is the Appropriate Sample Design?
Degree of
Accuracy
National vs.
Resources
Local Appropriate
Sample
Design
Knowledge of
Time
Population
Comparison of Sampling Techniques:
Nonprobability Samples
Comparison of Sampling Techniques:
Probability Samples
Choice points in a Sample Design

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Unit 4 (Part I)

´ What is your population of interest?

´To whom do you want to generalize your

´ Can you sample the entire population?

´ 3 factors that influence sample representative-ness

´ When might you sample the entire population?

´ An element is an object on which a measurement is

´ A population is a collection of elements about which

´ Sampling units are non-overlapping collection of

´ A sampling frame is the list from which the potential

´ A sample is a collection of sampling units drawn from

´ Parameter: numerical characteristic of a population

´ Statistic: numerical characteristic of a sample

´ Random Sampling Error

´ Systematic Sampling Error

´ Probability (Random) Samples: each member of the

´ Nonprobability Samples: members are selected from

• If sampling frame large, this method impracticable.

• Its only advantage over the random sampling technique is

• A simple example would be to select every 10th name from the

• A stratum is a subset of the population that share at least one

• Identify relevant stratums and their actual representation in the

• Random sampling is then used to select a sufficient number of

• Stratified sampling is often used when one or more of the stratums in

Draw a sample from each stratum

´ Disproportional Stratified Sample

´ Used when mutually homogeneous yet internally heterogeneous

´ often used in marketing research

´ Effective under the following conditions:

• The cost of obtaining observations increases as the distance separating the

´ Although strata and clusters are both non-overlapping subsets

´ All strata are represented in the sample; but only a subset of

´ With stratified sampling, the best survey results occur when

´ Convenience sampling is used in exploratory research

´ The sample is selected because they are convenient.

´ Often used during preliminary research efforts to get an

´ Judgment sampling is a common nonprobability method

´ The sample is selected based upon judgment

´ An extension of convenience sampling

´ While using this method, the researcher must be

´ Quota sampling is the nonprobability equivalent of stratified sampling

´ The researcher ensures that certain characteristics of a population

´ First identify the stratums and their proportions as they are

´ Then convenience or judgment sampling is used to select the

´ It may be extremely difficult or cost prohibitive to locate

´ This technique relies on referrals from initial subjects to

´ It lowers search costs; however, it introduces bias because

For e.g. Market research for mahogany croquet set

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