History of Air

Transportaion
Airspace
 Airspace refers to the portion of the atmosphere controlled
and regulated by a country or international body, used by
aircraft for navigation. It is divided into various regions, each
with specific rules, classifications, and responsibilities,
ensuring the safe and efficient movement of aircraft.
What is aerodrome
 aerodrome is a broader term that refers to any location
where flight operations can occur, including takeoff, landing,
and the movement of aircraft on the ground. It encompasses
a wide range of facilities, from small airstrips and heliports to
large commercial airports. Essentially, every airport is an
aerodrome,
What is airport?
 An airport is a facility where aircraft, such as airplanes and
helicopters, take off and land. Airports typically include
runways, control towers, terminals for passengers and cargo,
and various services for aircraft maintenance and refueling.
They serve as hubs for air transportation, connecting
different locations around the world.
What is airways?
 "Airways" in aviation refer to the defined routes in the sky
that aircraft follow when flying between destinations. These
routes are similar to highways on the ground but are in the
air and are used to ensure the safe and efficient movement
of air traffic.
Navigation Aids
 Navigation Aids: Airways are often based on radio navigation
aids, such as VOR (VHF Omnidirectional Range) stations,
which help pilots determine their position and direction.
Waypoints
 Waypoints: Airways consist of a series of waypoints, which
are specific geographic locations that aircraft use to navigate
along the route.
Altitude Levels
 Altitude Levels: Aircraft flying on airways are assigned
specific altitude levels to maintain separation from other
aircraft, preventing collisions.
Controlled Airspace
 Controlled Airspace: Airways typically exist within controlled
airspace, where air traffic controllers monitor and manage
the movement of aircraft.
Types of Airports
Controlled Airport
 An airport at which an air traffic control unit is provided.
Cross‐Walk ‐ Any portion of a road, apron area, or any other
area designated by a sign or surface marking as a
pedestrian crossing.

 First, we can tell whether the airport has a control tower or

not, just by looking at the symbol. A blue symbol indicates
that an airport is towered, while a magenta symbol indicates
a non-towered airport.
Uncontrolled Airport
 An uncontrolled airport is one that does not have an air traffic
control tower, and as a result, pilots are responsible. Private
pilot with an instrument rating

 uncontrolled airports are those without an operational

controlled tower. This may be due to the fact that the tower is
closed or it doesn't have a tower at all. Traffic will use the
CTAF (Common Traffic Advisory Frequency) to get in and out
of the airport.
Special Use Airports
 While most special use airports are deemed such because
of mountainous terrain, high elevation, or large obstructions,
other factors can play a role in determining whether an
airport is considered special use.

 Airspace with defined dimensions within the National

Airspace System wherein limitations may be imposed upon
operations for national defense, homeland security, public
interest, or public safety.
Types of Flight Rules
Visual Flight Rules (VFR) Flight
Plans
VFR are simply a set of regulations that an aircraft can
operate in clear visual conditions such as sunny, clear days.
As a pilot, the ability to memorize these protocols and
execute them with grace will be your main objective.

 can occur in conditions that allow the pilot to fly using visual
cues outside of the aircraft. The pilot must be able to
maintain visual reference to the ground and be able to
visually see and avoid obstructions, and other aircraft.
VFR and Limitations
 pilots must maintain a minimum horizontal flight visibility of
three miles during the day and five miles at night. They must
also remain clear of clouds and maintain a minimum of 1,000
feet above ground level (AGL) during the day and 2,000 feet
AGL at night.
VFR Cloud Clearances:
 No person may operate an aircraft under basic VFR when
the flight visibility is less, or at a distance from clouds that is
less, than that prescribed for the corresponding altitude and
class of airspace

 Cloud clearances can be remembered with the memory aid:

"152"
 Cloud clearances can be remembered by the way you read a
book
 You read up and down (1000 ft above, 500 feet below
 And horizontal (2000 ft horizontal
Instrument flight rules
 nstrument flight rules (IFR) is one of two sets of regulations
governing all aspects of civil aviation aircraft operations; the
other is visual flight rules (VFR).
 Instrument flight rules are rules and regulations to govern
flight under conditions in which flight by outside visual
reference is not safe.
 are a set of regulations under which a pilot operates an
aircraft in weather conditions not clear enough to see where
they are going. IFR are used for instrument piloting and non-
visual runways.
IFR – the basics
 IFR approaches let the pilot align a flying aircraft with a
runway. It allows a pilot to safely transition from the IFR
navigation phase to the IFR approach phase when the
weather conditions do not allow the flight crew to have
outside references of the airport environment.
What are the types of IFR
approaches
 Precision IFR approaches – using Decision Altitude/Height
(DA/DH)
 Instrument Landing System (ILS) – CAT I, II, III
 Ground-Based Augmentation System (GBAS) Landing System
(GLS)
 Precision Approach Radar (PAR)
What are the types of IFR
approaches
 Non-precision IFR Approaches– using Minimum Descent
Altitude/Height (MDA/MDH)
 Area Navigation Approach (RNAV)
 Localiser Performance (LP)
 Very-High Frequency Omnidirectional Range (VOR)
 Additional approach types
Prohibited Airspace
 Prohibited areas contain airspace of defined dimensions
identified by an area on the surface of the earth within which
the flight of aircraft is prohibited. Such areas are established
for security or other reasons associated with the national
welfare.
 Violating prohibited airspace established for national security
purposes may result in military interception and/or the
possibility of an attack upon the violating aircraft, or if this is
avoided then large fines and jail time are often incurred.
Restricted Airspace
 No person may operate an aircraft within a restricted area
(designated in part 73) contrary to the restrictions imposed,
or within a prohibited area, unless that person has the
permission of the using or controlling agency, as appropriate.

 is an area of airspace typically used by the military in which

the local controlling authorities have determined that air
traffic must be restricted or prohibited for safety or security
concerns
Alert Area
 Alert areas are established to inform nonparticipating pilots
of areas that contain a high volume of pilot training
operations, or an unusual type of aeronautical activity, that
they might not otherwise expect to encounter. Pilots are
advised to be particularly alert when flying in these areas.
Warning Area
 A warning area is airspace of defined dimensions, extending
from three nautical miles outward from the coast of the U.S.,
that contains activity that may be hazardous to
nonparticipating aircraft. The purpose of such warning areas
is to warn nonparticipating pilots of the potential danger.
Military Area
 An "installation" is defined as "a military base, camp, post,
station, yard, center, homeport facility for any ship, or other
activity under the jurisdiction of the Department of Defense,
including leased space, that is controlled by, or primarily
supports DoD's activities.
Airport Advisory Area
 Inflight Aviation Weather Advisories are forecasts to advise
en route aircraft of development of potentially hazardous
weather. Issued by numerous sources with varying times of
validity, inflight aviation weather advisories guide decisions
during preflight, and inflight planning.
Sources for Airport Data
 When a pilot flies into a different airport, it is important to
review the current data for that airport. This data provides the
pilot with information, such as communication frequencies,
services available, closed runways, or airport construction.
Three common sources of information are:
Aeronautical Charts
 Chart Supplement U.S. (formerly Airport/Facility Directory)
 Notices to Airmen (NOTAMs)
 Automated Terminal Information Service (ATIS)
Aeronautical Charts
 Aeronautical charts provide specific information on airports. “
Aeronautical Charts,” post contains an excerpt from an
aeronautical chart and an aeronautical chart legend, which
provides guidance on interpreting the information on the
chart.
Chart Supplement U.S. (formerly
Airport/Facility Directory)
 he Chart Supplement U.S. (formerly Airport/Facility Directory)
provides the most comprehensive information on a given
airport. It contains information on airports, heliports, and
seaplane bases that are open to the public.

 The Chart Supplement U.S. is published in seven books,

which are organized by regions and are revised every 56
days.
Notices to Airmen (NOTAM)
 Time-critical aeronautical information, which is of a temporary
nature or not sufficiently known in advance to permit publication,
on aeronautical charts or in other operational publications
receives immediate dissemination by the NOTAM system.
 The NOTAM information could affect your decision to make the
flight. It includes such information as taxiway and runway
closures, construction, communications, changes in status of
navigational aids, and other information essential to planned en
route, terminal, or landing operations.
 Exercise good judgment and common sense by carefully
regarding the information readily available in NOTAMs.
Automated Terminal Information
Service (ATIS)
 Automated Terminal Information Service (ATIS) is a
recording of the local weather conditions and other pertinent
non-control information broadcast on a local frequency in a
looped format.

 It is normally updated once per hour but is updated more

often when changing local conditions warrant. Important
information is broadcast on ATIS including weather, runways
in use, specific ATC procedures, and any airport construction
activity that could affect taxi planning.
Airport Parts
 Parts of an Airport | Runway, Terminal, Parking, Hanger,
Apron
 a. Runway.
 b. Taxiway.
 c. Apron.
 d. Terminal Building.
 e. Control Tower.
 f. Hanger.
 g. Fire Station.
 h. Parking.
Runway
 A rectangular land on which planes do landing and take off is
known as the runway. It is the most important part of the airport
because if the runway isn’t constructed accurately there is a
high chance of an accident. The soil of the runway should
follow standard considerations.
 a. Single runway
 b. Two runways
 c. Hexagonal runway
 d. 45-degree runway
 e. 60-degree runway
 f. 60-degree parallel runway
 Single Runway This is a runway optimally positioned for
prevailing wind, noise, land use and other determining
factors and should accommodate 42 to 53 operations per
hour.
 Open – V Runways
 Two runways that diverge from
different directions but do NOT
intersect form a shape that
looks like an "open-V" are
called open-V runways and are
used when there is little to no
wind as it allows for both
runways to be used at the same
time. When the winds become
strong in one direction, then
only one runway will be used.
 Intersecting Runways
 Two or more runways that cross
each other are classified as
intersecting runways. This type of
configuration is used when there
are relatively strong prevailing
winds from more than one direction
during the year. When the winds
are strong from one direction,
operations will be limited to only
one runway.
Taxiways
 A taxiway is a way that attaches each end of the runway with
a terminal area, apron, hanger, etc. These are placed with
asphalt or concrete-like runways. In modern airports,
taxiways are placed at an angle of 30 degrees to the runway
so that aircraft can utilize them to switch from one runway to
another quickly. The turning radius at the taxiway and runway
encounter should be more than 1.5 times the width of the
taxiway.
Apron
 The apron is an important part of an airport because it is a
place where aircraft are parked. It is also utilized for loading
and unloading aircraft.
 The apron is paved and is located in front of the terminal
building. The area of Apron is designed according to the
expected number of aircraft.
 The characteristics of aircraft were also kept in mind during
the design of Apron.
 The proper drainage should be provided with the best slope
of pavement. Proper cleaning should be done to bypass
each other.
Terminal Buildings
 A terminal building is an area where airport administration
facilities take place. In this building, pre-journey and post-
journey checking of passengers is done. Lounges, cafes, etc.
are given to the passengers.
 The passengers can enter the plane directly from terminal
buildings through sky bridges, walkways, etc. Similarly, the
passengers who came from the journey through the plane
also can directly enter the terminal building.
Control Tower
 A control tower is an area where aircraft under a specific
zone are handled whether they are in the process of landing
or in the air. The close observation is performed by the
controller through radars and all the information is
transmitted through radio.
 The controller from the control tower watches all the aircraft
in that zone and provides information to pilots about airport
traffic, landing routes, visibility, wind speeds, runway details,
etc. which helps the pilot to make a decision and attempt a
safe landing. So, a control tower is like the mandatory
system of an airport.
Hanger
 A hanger is an area where the repairing and servicing of
aircraft are performed. The taxiway is nearby the hanger
connected with the runway so when an emergency repair is
required for an aircraft it can be transported to the hanger
quickly.
 It is built in the form of a huge shed utilizing steel trusses
and frames. A huge place should be given to Hanger for the
comfortable transport of aircraft.
Fire Station
 Advanced technology is provided in this department. In case,
if any plane gets accident or catches fire then the fire can be
stopped quickly.
Parking
 Parking is an area given for parking the vehicles of airport
staff or passengers that are outside the terminal building or
sometimes under the ground of the terminal building.