BIO-024

MODULE 20
DIGESTION
ABSORPTION
METABOLISM
BIOCHEMISTRY LECTURE

Presented by Katrina Coleen Cruz,

RPh
 DIGESTION
• A process which is hydrolytic in nature and catalyzed by enzymes in which
complex food material is changed into simple molecules which can be
absorbed by the blood from the small intestines and eventually carried to
various tissues where they are needed.
• Not all foods require digestion (e.g., Monosaccharides, vitamins, inorganic
salts)
• Accompanied by specific enzyme which hydrolyze:
• CHO – monosaccharides
• FATS – glycerol + fatty acids
• CHON – amino acids
MAJOR ANATOMIC LOCATIONS IN THE OVERALL DIGESTIVE
PROCESS

ORGAN FUNCTION

SALIVARY GLAND FLUID AND DIGESTIVE ENZYMES

STOMACH FLUID AND PROTEASES

PANCREAS NAHCO3 AND ENZYMES FOR INTRALUMINAL DIGESTION

LIVER BILE ACIDS

GALLBLADDER STORAGE AND CONCENTRATION

TERMINAL DIGESTION OF FOOD, ABSORPTION OF

SMALL INTESTINE
NUTRIENTS AND ELECTROLYTES

ABSORPTION OF WATER AND ELECTROLYTES, STORAGE

LARGE INTESTINE
 3 PHASES OF DIGESTION
1. SALIVARY DIGESTION
• Also known as Cephalic phase or Reflex phase
• It is relatively brief
• Takes place before food enters the stomach, especially while it is eaten.
• It results from the sight, smell, thought, or taste of food;
• The greater the appetite, the more intense is the stimulation.
• Depression and loss of appetite can suppress the cephalic reflex
 3 PHASES OF DIGESTION
SALIVA
• secreted by 3 pairs of glands: the parotid; submaxillary and
sublingual
• daily output: 1500ml
• composed of 99.5% H2O and 0.5% solids e.g. Inorganic salts,
NH3, urea, uric acid, mucin (a glycoprotein which makes the
saliva slippery) and the enzyme ptyalin (salivary amylase)
• specific gravity: 1.007
• pH: optimum pH – 6.8 to 7.2 resting saliva – 6.4 to 6.9
 3 PHASES OF DIGESTION
SALIVA
COMPONENTS OF SALIVA VARIES DUE TO
• MECHANICAL - MASTICATION OR CHEWING OF THE FOOD
• CHEMICAL - TASTE (ESP. OF ACIDS)
• PSYCHIC - REFLEX STIMULATION DUE TO SIGHT, SMELL OF THOUGHT OF
FOOD
• LOSS OF CO2
• ACTIVE STIMULATION: 7.0-7.3
• SECRETION OF THE GLANDS
• MORE WATERY, RICH IN PTYALIN - PAROTID GLAND
• MORE VISCOUS, LESS IN PTYALIN - SUBMAXILLARY AND SUBLINGUAL
GLANDS
COMPONENT
FUNCTION
S
WATER Major component comprising almost 99% of the volume

ELECTROLYTES Sodium, potassium, phosphate, chloride, bicarbonate, calcium, magnesium

mixture of mucopolysaccharides and glycoproteins high in sialic acid and sulfated sugars, mixes with water to
MUCUS
form a lubricant for ease of swallowing

α-AMYLASE Secreted by acinar cells of the parotid and submandibular glands, digests starch into glucose

LINGUAL LIPASE Initiates hydrolysis of dietary fat in stomach and facilitates the duodenal-jejunal hydrolysis of triglycerides.

antibacterial enzyme that hydrolyzes β-1,4-glycosidic linkages between N-acetylmuramic acid and N?acetyl-D-
LYSOZYME
glucosamine in bacterial cell wall peptidoglycans

Secreted by acinar cells of all three major salivary glands, cleaves high molecular weight kininogen (HMWK)
KALLIKREIN
releasing the vasodilator, bradykinin

OPIORPHIN Pain killing member of the endogenous opioid family

 3 PHASES OF DIGESTION
FUNCTIONS OF SALIVARY DIGESTION
• To begin the digestion of starch
• To moisten or lubricate the food for easier swallowing
(mucin – glycoprotein)
• To provide correct pH for salivary digestion (mucin –
one of the chief buffers of saliva)
• For protection of the inner linings of the buccal cavity
and other internal body cavities
• For cleansing teeth and gums
• Saliva carries the intrinsic anemia factor
 3 PHASES OF DIGESTION
2. GASTRIC DIGESTION
• Also known as Gastric phase
• Chief purpose: breakdown of proteins with the combined action of HCL
and enzymes
• Last for 3 to 4 hours.
• Begins once the food arrives in the stomach.
• It builds on the stimulation provided during the cephalic phase.
• Gastric acids and enzymes process the ingested materials.
• The gastric phase is stimulated by
(1) distension of the stomach
(2) a decrease in the pH of the gastric contents, and
(3) the presence of undigested material.
 3 PHASES OF DIGESTION
2. GASTRIC DIGESTION
• This phase consists of local, hormonal, and neural responses
• These responses stimulate secretions and powerful contractions.
• Gastric secretion is stimulated chiefly by three chemicals: acetylcholine
(ACh), histamine, and gastrin.
▪ Acetylcholine (ACh). This is secreted by the parasympathetic nerve
fibers
of both the short and long reflex pathways.
▪ Histamine. This is a paracrine secretion from the enteroendocrine cells
in
the gastric glands.
▪ Gastrin. This is a hormone produced by enteroendocrine G cells in the
pyloric glands.
 3 PHASES OF DIGESTION
GASTRIC JUICE
• Digestive fluid of the stomach
• A clear pale yellow liquids; pH = 1.6 - 1.8
• Specific gravity = 1.003
• Daily output = 2000 - 3000 mL
 3 PHASES OF DIGESTION
GASTRIC JUICE
COMPOSITION OF GASTRIC JUICE
• HCl - secreted by the parietal cells of the stomach
▪Provides correct pH for gastric digestion
▪Germicidal action against pathogenic bacteria swallowed
with
food
▪Activates the enzyme pepsinogen
▪Has some swallowing action in proteins
• PEPSIN - secreted by the chief cells of the stomach
• RENNIN - a protease
• LIPASE - fat-splitting enzyme
 3 PHASES OF DIGESTION
GASTRIC JUICE
PATHOLOGY
• ACHLORHYDRIA - absence of free HLC
• HYPOCHLORHYDRIA (Hypoacidity) - may lead to stomach cancer,
chronic constipation or inflammation of the stomach
• HYPERCHLORHYDRIA (Hyperacidity) - associated with peptic ulcer,
inflammation of the gall bladder (chloecystitis)
 3 PHASES OF DIGESTION
3. INTESTINAL DIGESTION
• Also known as Intestinal phase.
• Begins when chyme enters the small intestine triggering digestive
secretions.
• CHYME: The thick, semifluid mass of partly digested food that is passed
from the stomach to the duodenum.
• This phase controls the rate of gastric emptying.
• In addition to gastric emptying, when chyme enters the small intestine, it
triggers other hormonal and neural events that coordinate the activities of
the intestinal tract, pancreas, liver, and gallbladder.
 3 DIGESTIVE FLUIDS
1. PANCREATIC JUICE
• Secreted by the pancreas
• Daily output: 650ml
• Stimulated by the hormone secretin, liberated from intestinal mucosa by
acid present in the chyme
• Slightly alkaline: pH = 8
• Composition: 98.7% H2O, 1.3% solids (digestive enzymes, albumin,
globulin, proteoses, peptones, NaCl and NaHCO3)
 3 DIGESTIVE FLUIDS
1. PANCREATIC JUICE
ENZYMES IN THE PANCREATIC JUICE
• Trypsin – hydrolyzes proteins, proteose and peptones to polypeptides and
amino acids
• Chymotrypsin – hydrolyzes proteins, proteoses and peptones to
polypeptides and amino acids
• Carboxypolypeptidase – hydrolyzes polypeptides to simpler peptides and
amino acids. Starts at the end of chain where there is a free – COOH
group. it splits off the amino acid
• Pancreatic amylase (amylopsin) – hydrolyzes starch to maltose. Same
manner as ptyalin but with greater digestive power
• Pancreatic lipase (steapsin) – hydrolyzes fat into glycerol and fatty acids.
Responsible for most of the fat digestion in the body
 3 DIGESTIVE FLUIDS
2. INTESTINAL JUICE (SUCCUS ENTERICUS)
• secreted by the intestinal mucosa
• completes digestion of dipeptides and disaccharides
o dipeptides ---------- amino acids
o sucrose ---------- glu + fru
o lactose ---------- glu + gal
o maltose ---------- glu + glu
• also contains lecithinase (digestion of lecithin) and nucleases (digestion of
nucleic acids)
 3 DIGESTIVE FLUIDS
3. BILE
• brownish yellow or greenish yellow
• alkaline fluid
• has a bitter taste
• continuously formed in the liver and concentrated in the
gallbladder
• normal person produces 500 to 800 ml/day
• not a digestive juice because it contains no enzymes
• cholecystokinin –hormone which causes the gallbladder to
contract and empty the bile into the small intestine
 3 DIGESTIVE FLUIDS
3. BILE
FUNCTIONS
• as emulsifying agents
• for transport and absorption of fatty acids
• excretion of certain waste products
COMPOSITION
1. Bile salts
• sodium glycocholate: Na + glycine + cholic acid
• sodium taurocholate: Na + taurine + cholic acid
Functions:
• as emulsifying agent
• for transport and absorption of fatty acids
 3 DIGESTIVE FLUIDS
3. BILE
COMPOSITION
2. Bile pigments
• principal bile pigment: bilirubin (red pigment), biliverdin (green)
– oxidized form
• both are formed in the liver from disintegrated Hb of RBC
• HEMOGLOBIN (Hb) – main body pigment
• Average life: RBC – 4 months
 3 DIGESTIVE FLUIDS
3. BILE
COMPOSITION
3. Cholesterol - excreted from body thru the bile
• precipitates in the form of gallstones (biliary calculi) due to
foreign substance (injured cells, bacteria, pigments)
4. Salts – NaHCO3
5. H2O
Pathology:
• Jaundice – yellowing of skin and sclera (white portion of the
eye)
Due to:
• Impaired liver function
 HORMONES OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSYTEM

• Gastrin is in the stomach and stimulates the gastric glands to secrete pepsinogen (an inactive form of the enzyme pepsin)
and hydrochloric acid.
GASTRIN • The secretion of gastrin is stimulated by food arriving in the stomach.
• The secretion is inhibited by low pH.

• Secretin is in the duodenum and signals the secretion of sodium bicarbonate in the pancreas and it stimulates the secretion
of bile in the liver.
SECRETIN • This hormone responds to the acidity of the chyme.

• Cholecystokinin (CCK) is in the duodenum and stimulates the release of digestive enzymes in the pancreas and stimulates
the emptying of bile in the gallbladder.
CHOLECYSTOKININ • This hormone is secreted in response to the fat in chyme.

• Gastric inhibitory peptide (GIP) is in the duodenum and decreases stomach churning in order to slow the emptying of the
GASTRIC INHIBITORY
stomach.
PEPTIDE • Another function is to induce insulin secretion.

• Motilin is in the duodenum and increases the migrating myoelectric complex component of gastrointestinal motility and
MOTILIN stimulates the production of pepsin.

SOMATOSTATIN • Stops the release of hydrochloric acid.

 APPETITE-REGULATING HORMONES

GHRELIN • A hormone that is released by the stomach and targets the pituitary gland, signaling to the body that it needs to eat.

PYY • It is released by the hypothalamus and signals that you have just eaten and helps to suppress our appetite.

INSULIN • Aids in suppressing the appetite after we have just eaten and there is a rise in blood glucose levels.

LEPTIN • Produced by adipose fat tissue and targets the hypothalamus which also helps to suppress appetite.
 BIO-024

MODULE 21

VITAMIN
S
BIOCHEMISTRY LECTURE

Presented by Katrina Coleen Cruz,

RPh
 VITAMINS
• The term vitamin is derived from the words VITAL and AMINES
• Because vitamins are required for life and were originally thought to be
amines.
• Vitamins may be defined as organic compounds occurring in small
quantities in different natural foods and necessary for growth and
maintenance of good health in human beings and in experimental
animals.
• A group of organic nutrients, required in small quantities for a variety of
biochemical functions that, generally, cannot be synthesized by the body
and must therefore be supplied in the diet.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF VITAMINS
• Vitamins are required in small quantities in the diet.
• Water soluble vitamins cannot be stored in human tissues.
• Significant amounts of fats soluble vitamins can be stored in adipose
tissue and liver.
• Synthetic vitamins are identical to natural vitamins.
• Once growth and development are completed, vitamins remain essential
nutrients for the healthy maintenance of the cells, tissues and organs.
 FUNCTIONS OF VITAMINS
• They build up the resistance of the body against diseases.
• Prevent and cure various diseases caused by deficiency.
• Help the digestion and utilization of mineral salts and carbohydrates in
the body.
• Stimulate and give strength to digestive and nervous system.
 FAT SOLUBLE WATER SOLUBLE

SOLUBILITY IN FAT SOLUBLE NOT SOLUBLE

WATER SOLUBILITY NOT SOLUBLE SOLUBLE

ABSORPTION ALONG WITH LIPIDS REQUIRES BILE SALTS ABSORPTION SIMPLE

STORAGE STORED IN LIVER NO STORAGE

EXCRETION NOT EXCRETED EXCRETED

MANIFESTS ONLY WHEN STORES ARE MANIFEST RAPIDLY AS THERE IS NO

DEFICIENCY DEPLETED STORAGE

TOXICITY HYPERVITAMINOSIS MAY RESULT UNLIKELY, SINCE EXCESS IS EXCRETED

SINGLE LARGE DOSES MAY PREVENT

TREATMENT OF DEFICIENCY DEFICIENCY
REGULAR DIETARY SUPPLY IS REQUIRED

MAJOR VITAMINS A, D, E, K B, C
*Vitamin B12 is an exception

*In general, deficiency of vitamins may occur due to:

• Reduced intake
• Impaired absorption
• Impaired metabolism
• Additional requirements
• Increased loses.
 VITAMIN A
• Different compounds with vitamin A activity : Retinoic acid (vitamin A
acid) / Retinol(Vitamin A Alcohol) /Retinal (vitamin A aldehyde)
• Active form is present only in animal tissues.
• The pro-vitamin, BETA-CAROTENE, is present in plant tissues.

BODY FUNCTION: Synthesis of epithelial tissue, important for growth and

reproduction, vision in dim light(retinoic acid is involved in regeneration of
rhodopsin or visual purple)
 VITAMIN A
Deficiency:
1. Nyctalopia or night blindness 5. Keratomalacia
2. Xerophthalmia 6. Keratinization of tissues
3. Bitot’s spots 7. Sterility
4. Alopecia
Special Notes
• 1st vitamin discovered. Most toxic vitamin (fetal defects)
• Stored in liver
• New uses: Anti – oxidant for acne and wrinkles.
• Isotretinoin, a form of retinoic acid, is used in the treatment of acne. It is
teratogenic (malformations of the craniofacial, cardiac, thymic, and CNS
structures) and is therefore absolutely contraindicated in pregnant
women. Use with caution in women of childbearing age.
 VITAMIN A
Sources
• Milk, Egg, Butter, Cream, Fish liver oils, Carrot, Pumpkins, green leafy
vegetables
• During cooking the activity is not destroyed.

Take note!
• Vitamin A deficiency is a major public health problem worldwide.
⚬ Vitamin A deficiency is the most important preventable cause of
blindness.
• Vitamin A is toxic in excess
⚬ There is only a limited capacity to metabolize vitamin A, and excessive
intakes lead to accumulation beyond the capacity of intracellular
binding proteins; unbound vitamin A causes membrane lysis and
tissue damage.
 VITAMIN D
D2 = Ergocalciferol
D3 = Cholecalciferol
Best Source:
⚬ Fish liver oil
⚬ Gadusmorrhua
Body Function:
⚬ Ca homeostasis, Blood pressure regulation and development of bones
and teeth
Deficiency:
⚬ Rickets (children)
￭ There is insufficient mineralization of bone. Bones become soft and
pliable . The bone growth is markedly affected.
⚬ Osteomalacia (adults)
￭ The bones are softened due to insufficient mineralization and
increased osteoporosis. Patients are more prone to get fractures.
 VITAMIN D
Special Notes:
• Sunshine vit. (the body makes vitamin D when it is exposed to UV rays
from the sun.)
• Precursors: Ergosterol and Cholesterol needs to be irradiated for its
conversion to the active vitamin.
• Cholecalciferol: is made from 7-dehydrocholesterol in the skin of animals
and humans.
• Ergocalciferol or calciferol: is obtained artificially by irradiation of
ergosterol and is called ergocalciferol.
• Vitamin D is also known as antirachitic vitamin.
 VITAMIN D
Vitamin D is derived either from 7-dehydrocholesterol or ergosterol by the
action of ultraviolet radiations. 7-dehydrocholesterol, an intermediate of a
minor pathway of cholesterol synthesis, is available in the Malpighian layer of
epidermis. In the skin, ultraviolet light (290–315 nm) breaks the bond
between position 9 and 10 of the steroid ring. So, the ring B is opened, to
form the provitamin, secosterol. The cis double bond between 5th and 6th
carbon atoms, is then isomerized to a trans double bond (rotation on the 6th
carbon atom) to give rise to vitamin D3 or cholecalciferol. So, vitamin D is
called the “sun-shine vitamin”.

Take note!
• Calcitriol is the physiological active form of vitamin D. It increases the
blood calcium level.
• Calcitonin is the peptide hormone released from thyroid gland. It
decreases the blood calcium.
 VITAMIN E
Alpha- tocopherol
- Comes from the words, tokos= child birth; phero= to bear; ol= alcohol
Best Source:
1. Plant oils 3. Triticum aestivum
2. Wheat germ
Body Function:
1. Most powerful natural anti – oxidant 3. Increased sexual vitality and vigor
2. Increases skin elasticity 4. Reduces the risk of atherosclerosis by
reducing
oxidation of LDL.
Deficiency:
1. Sterility 5. Retinitis pigmentosa
2. Hemolytic anemia 6. Acanthocytosis
3. Ataxia 7. Peripheral neuropathy
4. Patients with severe fat malabsorption, cystic fibrosis, and some forms of chronic liver
disease suffer deficiency because they are unable to absorb or transport the vitamin,
leading to nerve and muscle membrane damage.
 VITAMIN E
Special Notes:
• Anti – sterility vitamin
• Known as the most potent biological antioxidant
• Selenium is present in glutathione peroxidase; an important enzyme that oxidizes and
destroys the free radicals. Selenium has been found to decrease the requirement of
vitamin E and vice versa. They act synergistically to minimize lipid peroxidation.

Sources
• Vegetable oils such as wheat germ oil, sunflower oil, safflower oil, cottonseed oil.
• High blood levels of vitamin E can cause hemorrhage in patients given warfarin.
 VITAMIN K
Phytonadione, Phylloquinone, Phytomenadione
• The letter “K” is the abbreviation of the German word “koagulation vitamin”.
Best Source:
• Green leafy vegetables
Body Function:
• Promote synthesis of clotting factors II (Prothrombin), VII (SPCA), IX (Christmas Factor),
and X (Stuart Power Factor)
Deficiency:
• Hemorrhage
• Hemorrhagic disease of the newborn is attributed to vitamin K deficiency. This is due to
lack of hepatic stores, limited oral intake (breast milk has very low levels, 15 mg/liter)
and absence of intestinal bacterial flora. It is often advised that preterm infants be
given prophylactic doses of vitamin K (1 mg Menadione).
• In children and adults, Vitamin K deficiency may be manifested as bruising tendency,
echymotic patches, mucous membrane hemorrhage, post-traumatic bleeding and
internal bleeding.
 VITAMIN K
Special Notes:
⚬ Antidote for warfarin poisoning

Take note!
• Warfarin and dicoumarol will competitively inhibit the gamma carboxylation system
due to structural similarity with vitamin K. Hence they are widely used as
anticoagulants for therapeutic purposes.
• Treatment of pregnant women with warfarin can lead to fetal bone abnormalities (fetal
warfarin syndrome).
 VITAMIN C
Ascorbic acid
• Man, higher primates, guinea pigs and bats are the only species which cannot
synthesize ascorbic acid (block in gulonolactone oxidase step).
Best Source:
⚬ Citrus fruits (Rutaceae)
Body Function:
• Hydroxylation and amidation reactions
• Collagen synthesis
• Helps in wound healing
• Hemoglobin metabolism
- It is useful for re-conversion of met-hemoglobin to hemoglobin.
• Iron metabolism
- Ascorbic acid enhances the iron absorption from the Intestine. Ascorbic acid
reduces
ferric iron to ferrous state, which is preferentially absorbed.
• Folic Acid metabolism
- Ascorbic acid is helping the enzyme folate reductase to reduce folic acid to
 VITAMIN C
Deficiency:
• Scurvy
• Infantile Scury (Barlow’s Disease)
• Microcytic, hypochromic anemia
• The reasons for anemia may be:
- Loss of blood by hemorrhage
- Decreased iron absorption
- Decreased tetrahydrofolic acid
- Accumulation of met-hemoglobin.

Take note!
• More than 2000 mg of vitamin C daily for a long time can cause iron overload, because
vitamin C helps in absorption of iron.
• Consuming too much vitamin C has the potential to increase the amount of oxalate in
your urine, thus increasing the risk of developing kidney stones.
 VITAMIN P
Hesperidin & Rutin (Citrin)
Best Source:
⚬ Citrus fruits
Body Function:
⚬ Capillary fragility and permeability
Deficiency:
⚬ Decreased capillary resistance
Take note!
• If rutin is taken together with vitamin C, the activity of ascorbic acid will be
intensified.
 VITAMIN B1
Thiamine
• It is also known as anti beri-beri factor, anti-neuritic factor, aneurin
Best Source:
⚬ rice polishing (Oryza sativa)
⚬ Yeast
Body Function:
⚬ Involved in protein synthesis (as thiamine pyrophosphate or cocarboxylase)
Deficiency:
⚬ Beriberi (weakness)
⚬ Wet beriberi (cardiovascular manifestaions are prominent)
⚬ Dry beriberi (CNS manifestations are the major features)
⚬ Infantile beriberi
⚬ Wernicke-korsakoff syndrome (cerebral beriberi)
⚬ Polyneuritis (common in alcoholics)
Active form: Thiamine pyrophosphate
Special Notes:
• The generic name of tiki – tiki is thiamine/ rice polishing extract thermolabile
 VITAMIN B2
Riboflavin/ Lactoflavin
• First B complex component to be isolated in a pure state.
Best Source:
⚬ Yeast
⚬ Saccharomyces
Body Function:
⚬ Redox reactions (as FAD which yields 2 moles of ATP)
Deficiency:
⚬ Cheilosis (denuded lips)
⚬ Stomatitis
⚬ Glossitis
⚬ Magenta colored tongue
Special Notes:
• Stains the urine
• Vit. G
 VITAMIN B3
Niacin/ Niacinamide/ Nicotinic acid/ Nicotinamide
Best Source:
⚬ Meats and organs
Body Function:
⚬ Redox reactions (as NAD which yields 3 moles of ATP)
Deficiency:
⚬ Pellagra(rough skin); cause also by deficiency of amino acid, Tryptophan.
⚬ 3 D’s: dermatitis, diarrhea, dementia
Special Notes:
• Most stable Vitamin
• Skin whitening
• Anti – hyperlipidemic
⚬Nicotinic acid inhibits the flux of free fatty acids from
adipose tissue; so acetyl CoA pool is reduced; and hence
serum cholesterol is lowered
• P-p factor ( pellagra preventive factor)
 VITAMIN B4
Choline
• Choline is synthesized in the body and therefore is not a vitamin. But in view of its
importance in nutrition, conventionally, it is included as a member of vitamin B
complex.
Best Source:
⚬ Egg yolk and Meat organs
Body Function:
⚬ Transport and utilization of fats methylating agent in formation of creatinine.
(choline deficiency in the rat produces fatty liver)
Deficiency:
⚬ None known
Special Notes:
• Nitrogenous base found in lecithin
 VITAMIN B5
Pantothenic acid
Best Source:
⚬ Meats and organs
Body Function:
⚬ Structural component of acetyl – CoA
Deficiency:
⚬ Fatigue
⚬ Gopalan’s Burning foot syndrome (manifested by paresthesia in lower extremities,
staggering gait due to impaired coordination and sleep disturbances)
⚬ Special Notes:
⚬ Ingredient of shampoos
⚬ It is widely distributed in nature
 VITAMIN B6
Pyridoxine(alcohol) / Pyridoxamine/ Pyridoxal PO4 (aldehyde)
Best Source:
⚬ Meats and organs, green leafy vegetables, fish and egg.
Body Function:
⚬ Protein metabolism
Deficiency:
⚬ Convulsions
⚬ Peripheral neuritis
Special Notes:
• Treatment for INH side effect (since INH inhibits pyridoxal phosphate coenzyme
function)
• Cycloserine: It acts as B6 antagonist
• Oral contraceptives: Mild vitamin B6 deficiency may be seen in women taking oral
contraceptive pills.
 VITAMIN B7
Biotin
• It was known as anti-egg white injury factor.
⚬ Avidin, a protein present in egg white has great affinity to biotin. Hence intake of
raw (unboiled) egg may cause biotin deficiency.
Best Source:
⚬ Meat and Organs
⚬ Normal bacterial flora of the gut will provide adequate quantities of biotin.
Body Function:
⚬ Fat and Carbohydrate metabolism (CO2 carrier in carboxylation reactions)
Deficiency:
⚬ Alopecia
⚬ Anorexia
⚬ Memory loss
⚬ Mental depression
Special Notes:
• Vit. H
• Coenzyme R
 VITAMIN B8
Inositol
Best Source:
⚬ Meats and organs
Body Function:
⚬ Synergistic and lipotropic effect of choline
Deficiency:
⚬ None in man
Special Notes:
⚬ Anti – gray hair factor
 VITAMIN B9
Folic acid/ folacin/ pteroyl glutamate (PGA)
• From the latin word, FOLIUM, which means leaf of vegetable.
Best Source:
⚬ Spinach
Body Function:
⚬ purine and pyrimidine synthesis
Deficiency:
⚬ Macrocytic anemia
⚬ Birth defects
⚬ Cancer
⚬ Folic acid is beneficial in prevention of cancer. Folate deficiency contributes to the
etiology of bronchial carcinoma and cervical carcinoma.
Special Notes:
⚬ Leucovorin
⚬ Anti – cancer derivative
Take note!
⚬ Milk is a poor source for folic acid.
 VITAMIN B12
Cyanocobalamin/ Cobalamin/ Extrinsic factor of castle/ Antipernicious anemia factor
Best Source:
⚬ Meat and organs
Body Function:
⚬ Nucleic acid synthesis
⚬ Myelin synthesis
Deficiency:
⚬ Megaloblastic anemia
⚬ Pernicious anemia(not due to inadequate intake of B12 but due to lack of intrinsic
factor, a glycoprotein)
Special Notes:
⚬ Utilized in cancer radiation therapy central metal is cobalt used as growth stimulant
anti – anemic vitamin.