Wireless communication and Mobile

Computing

Chapter-
Two
Unguided Transmission
Media
Instructor:Agmas G.
  Unguided
Transmission Media
 Radio Waves
 Terrestrial
(Microwave)
 Satellite
Communication
 Cellular

2
Communication
 Data
Transmission
Data transmission occurs between transmitter
and receiver over some transmission medium.
 Transmission media may be classified as
 Guided or unguided.
 In both cases, communication is in the form of
electromagnetic waves.
 Guided media
 The waves are guided along a physical path;
 Examples of guided media are twisted pair,
coaxial cable, and optical fiber.
 Unguided media
 Also called wireless,
 propagation throughprovide
air, a means for 3
transmitting
vacuum, andelectromagnetic
seawater. waves
 Cont
’d
direct link refer to the transmission path
between two devices in which signals
propagate directly from transmitter to
receiver with no intermediate devices,
other than amplifiers or repeaters used to
increase signal strength.
 Note that this term can apply to both guided
and unguided media.

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 Transmission
 Modes
A transmission may be simplex, half duplex,
or full duplex.
 In simplex transmission, signals are
transmitted in only one direction; one station
is transmitter and the other is receiver.
 In half-duplex operation, both stations may
transmit, but only one at a time.
 In full-duplex operation, both stations may
transmit simultaneously.
 The medium is carrying signals in both directions
at the same time.

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Sig
nal
Signals
 Are electric or electromagnetic representations
of data.
 The terms analog and digital
correspond to continuous and
discrete signal, respectively.
Signaling
 Is the physical propagation of signal along a
suitable medium.
 A signal is generated by the transmitter and
transmitted over a medium.
 The signal is a function of time, but it can
also be expressed as a 6
Cont
’d


The continuous signal
represents speech
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 Cont
’d
A digital signal is one in which the signal
intensity maintains a constant level for
some period of time and then abruptly
changes to another constant level

 The discrete signal might represent

binary 1s and 0s.

8
 Cont
’d
 A general sine wave can be represented by
three parameters:
 peak amplitude (A),
 frequency ( f ), and
 phase
 Peak amplitude is the maximum value or
strength of the signal over time; typically, this
value is measured in volts.
 Frequency is the rate [in cycles per second,
or Hertz (Hz)] at which the signal repeats.
 An equivalent parameter is the period (T) of
a signal, which is the amount of time it takes for
one repetition; therefore,T=1/F 9
Freque
ncy
Analog
signal

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0
Cont
’d
 wavelength of a signal is the distance
occupied by a single cycle or the distance
between two points of corresponding phase of
two consecutive cycles. Assume that the
signal is traveling with a velocity v.

1
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 Transmission
Impairments
There are two fundamental aspects of wireless
communication that make the problem
challenging.
 Fading: The first and second problems are dealt
with by attenuation to signal strength and the
use of amplifiers or repeaters.
 Fading is the time-variation of the channel
strengths due to the small-scale effect of multipath
fading, as well as larger scale effects such as path
loss via distance attenuation and shadowing by
obstacle objects such as buildings and hills that
absorb power.
 Interference:The interference can be between
 Transmitters communicating with a common receiver
(e.g. uplink of a cellular system),
 Unguided
Transmission Media
Unguided or wireless media sends the data
through air (or water), which is available to
anyone who has a device capable of receiving
them.
 We can divide wireless transmission into three
broad groups:
 Radio waves
 Microwaves and
 Infrared waves.
 For unguided media, transmission and
reception are achieved by means of an
antenna.
 Before looking at specific categories of 1
3
Anten
 An antenna is an electrical conductor or
nasystem of conductors used either for
radiating or collection electromagnetic
energy.
 In two-way communication, the same
antenna can be used for transmission and
 reception.
At receiving device, antennas
 The
can purpose
also of an antennathe
converting is to convert
radio-frequency
electromagnetic electric current
wave back to anto
electric
electromagnetic
current. waves, which are then
 radiated into space.”
There arefactors to consider when
dealing with radio frequencies, such as
 Antenna size, orientation, and proper 1

cable selection.
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 Antenna
 Types
The most common types used in wireless audio
systems are
 1/4-wave antenna
 1/2-wave omni-directional antennas, and
 unidirectional antennas.

Omnidirectional Antennas
 Signal propagates in all direction from the
antenna.
 The size of a 1/4-wave antenna is
approximately one-quarter of the wavelength
of the desired frequency, and
 The 1/2-wave is one-half the wavelength.
 Wavelength for radio signals can
 Cont
’d
For example, a 200 MHz wave has a
wavelength of approximately 6 feet (2 m).
Therefore, a 1/2-wave receiver antenna
would be about 3 feet (1 m) long, and a 1/4-
wave antenna would be about 18 inches
(45 cm). Note that antenna length typically
needs to only be approximate, not exact.

1
6
Cont
’d

Unidirectional Antennas

A second type of antenna suitable for
remote mounting is a
unidirectional.

Some unidirectional antennas have
built-in amplifiers to
Classification of
Unguided
Radio Media
Transmission
 Its frequency is between 10 kHz to 1GHz.
 It is simple to install and has high attenuation.
 Although there is no clear-cut demarcation
between radio waves and microwaves,
electromagnetic waves ranging in frequencies
between 10 kHz and 1 GHz are normally called
radio waves; waves ranging in frequencies
between 1GHz and 300 GHz are called
microwaves.
 The behavior of the waves, rather than the
frequencies, is a better criterion for
1
classification. 8
Radio
Transmission
Radio Waves
 are used for multicast communication, Such as
radio and television, AM, FM, Cellular phones,
paging system and WLAN.
 can penetrate walls particularly those of low and
medium frequencies,
 are omnidirectional.
 When an antenna transmits radio waves, they are
propagated in all directions. This means that the
sending and receiving antennas do not have to
be aligned.
 Radio waves, particularly those waves that
propagate in the sky mode, can travel long
distances. 1
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 This makes radio waves a good candidate for long-
 Cont
 ’d
The radio wave band is relatively narrow ( under
1 GHz) compared to the microwave band.
 When this band is divided into sub bands, the
sub bands are also narrow, leading to a low data
rate for digital communications.
 Almost the entire band is regulated by
authorities (e.g., the FCC in the United States).
Using any part of the band requires permission
from the authorities.
 Penetrate buildings, pass through obstacles
objects

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 Microwave
 Transmission
It travels at high frequency than the radio
waves. It is mostly used for
unicast communication/unidirecttional/line of
sight .
 Microwaves Electromagnetic waves having
frequencies between 1GHZ and 300 GHz are
called microwaves.
 Microwaves are unidirectional. When an antenna
transmits microwave waves, they can be
narrowly focused. This means that the sending
and receiving antennas need to be aligned. The
unidirectional property has an obvious
advantage. A pair of antennas can be aligned
2
1
Cont
’d
 The curvature of the earth as well as other
blocking obstacles do not allow two short
towers to communicate by using microwaves.
 Repeaters are often needed for long distance
communication can be assigned, and a high
data rate is possible. Use of certain portions of
the band requires permission from authorities.
 There are 2 types of Microwave Transmissio :
 Terrestrial Microwave
 Satellite Microwave

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 Terrestrial
Microwave
For increasing the distance served by terrestrial
microwave, repeaters can be installed with
each antenna.
 The signal received by an
antenna can be converted into
transmittable form and relayed to next
antenna.
 More distance , taller towers
 It require government permission
 It is an example of telephone systems all
over the world

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 Cont
’d
Antennas used for terrestrial microwave
communication are:
 Parabolic Dish Antenna
 In this every line parallel to the line of symmetry
reflects off the curve at angles in a way that they
intersect at a common point called focus.
 Horn Antenna
 It is a like gigantic scoop.
 The outgoing transmissions are
broadcast up a stem and deflected
outward in a series of narrow parallel beams by
curved head.
Advantages of Microwave Transmission
 Used for long distance telephone communication24
 Satellite
 It is used to link two or more ground-based
Microwave
microwave transmitter/receivers, known as
earth stations, or ground stations.
 The satellite receives transmissions on one
frequency band (uplink), amplifies or repeats
the signal, and transmits it on another frequency
(downlink).
 A single orbiting satellite will operate on a
number of frequency bands, called
transponder channels, or simply
transponders.
 This is a microwave relay station which is placed
in outer space. The satellites are launched
2
either by rockets or space shuttles carry them.5
 Cont
’d
In the first, the satellite is being used to
provide a point-to-point link between two
distant ground-based antennas.

2
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 Cont
’d
These are positioned 3600KM above the
equator with an orbit speed that exactly
matches the rotation speed of the earth. As
the satellite is positioned in a geo-
synchronous orbit, it is stationery relative
to earth and always stays over the same
point on the ground. This is usually done to
allow ground stations to aim antenna at a
fixed point in the sky.
 For a communication satellite to function
effectively, it is generally required that it
remain stationary with respect to its
position over the earth. Otherwise, it would 2
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not be within the line of sight of its earth
 Cont
’d
 The satellite provides communications
between one ground-based transmitter
and a number of ground-based receivers.

 A single microwave relay station which is

visible from any point
 Cover maximum area on the earth
 Path of revolution is orbit
 Polar circular orbit
geostationary
2
8  Inclined highly
 Cont
’d
Geostationary satellites
 Commonly 3 satellites with angular
triangle coverage
 -36000km with in 24hrs period for
one revolution
 -35,900km height from the earth.
 -1945, known as arthur C.Clarke`s
Orbit
 Polar circular orbit
 1000km height from the earth.
 One revolution takes 12hrs period
 Applied for Weather monitoring
purpose
2
 90 degree inclination 9
 Cont
’dInclined highly elliptical orbit

 63 degree inclination from the earth

 Uplink-transmission system from earth
station to satellite
 Down link-transmission system from satellite
to earth station.
Satellite footprint-coverage of a
satellite on earth Advantage
 Television distribution, Long-distance
telephone transmission, Private business
networks, Global positioning System,
weather forecasting
 Infrared
Transmission
Infrared waves
 with frequencies from 300 GHz to 400 THz
(wavelengths from 1 mm to 770 nm), can be used
for short-range communication in a closed area
using line-of-sight propagation
 having high frequencies, cannot penetrate walls.
 This advantageous characteristic prevents
interference between one system and another;
 a short-range communication system in one room
cannot be affected by another system in the next
room.
 When we use our infrared remote control, we do
not interfere with the use of the remote by our
neighbors. 3
1
 Cont
 ’d
we cannot use infrared waves outside a building
because the sun's rays contain infrared waves
that can interfere with the communication.
 Much reduced interference
 Cheap, easy to build and no licensing
 For remote control, PAN
 Infrared signals can be used for short-range
communication in a closed area using line-of-
sight propagation.

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 Propagation
Modes
A signal radiated from an antenna travels
along one of three routes:
 ground wave, sky wave, or line of sight (LOS).

A) Ground Wave Propagation

 Follows contour of the earth and can
propagate considerable distances, well over
the visual horizon.
 This effect is found in frequencies up to about
2 MHz.
 Several factors account for the
tendency of electromagnetic wave in
this frequency band to follow the earth’s 3
3
curvature.
 Cont
’d
 One factor is that the electromagnetic wave
induces a current in the earth’s surface, the
result of which is to slow the wavefront near the
earth, causing the wavefront to tilt downward
and hence follow the earth’s curvature.
 Another factor is diffraction, which is a
phenomenon having to do with the behavior of
electromagnetic waves in the presence of
obstacles.
 Electromagnetic waves in this frequency range
are scattered by the atmosphere in such a way
that they do not penetrate the upper
atmosphere. 3
4
Cont
’d

3
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Cont
’dSky Wave Propagation
B)
 is used for amateur radio, CB radio, and
international broadcasts (BBC and Voice of
America).With sky wave propagation, a
 With this signal from an earth-based antenna is
reflected from the ionized layer of the upper
atmosphere(ionosphere) back down to earth.
Although it appears the wave is reflected from
the ionosphere as if the ionosphere were a hard
reflecting surface, the effect is in fact caused by
refraction.
 A sky wave signal can travel through a number of
hops, bouncing back and forth between the 3
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ionosphere and the earth’s surface.
Cont
’d

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Cont
’d
C) Line-of-Sight Propagation
 Above30 MHz, neither ground wave
nor sky wave propagation
modes operate, and communication must be
by line of sight.
 For satellite communication, a signal above

30 MHz is not reflected by the ionosphere

and therefore a signal can be transmitted
between an earth station and a satellite
3
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 Cont
’d
For ground-based communication, the
transmitting and receiving antennas must
be within an effective line of sight of each
other.
 The term effective is used because
microwaves are bent or refracted by the
atmosphere.
 The amount and even the direction of the
bend depends on conditions, but generally
microwaves are bent with the curvature of
the earth and will therefore propagate
farther than the optical line of sight.
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Cont
’d

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Signal Encoding Techniques
(Modulation)
Digital Data to Analog Signals Modulation
 Modulation involves operation on one or more
of the three characteristics of a carrier signal:
 Amplitude
 Frequency and
 Phase.
 Accordingly, there are three basic encoding or
modulation techniques for
transforming digital data into analog signals.
 Amplitude shift keying(ASK),
 Frequency shift keying (FSK), and
 Phase shift keying (PSK). 4
1
Amplitude Shift Keying
In ASK, the two binary values are represented
by two different amplitudes of the carrier
frequency.
Commonly, one of the amplitudes is zero; that is
one binary digit is represented by the presence,
at constant amplitude, of the carrier, the other
by the absence of the carrier.

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2
Frequency Shift Keying
The most common form of FSK is binary
FSK (BFSK), in which the two binary values
are represented by two different
frequencies near the carrier frequency.

4
3
Phase Shift Keying

In PSK, the phase of the carrier signal is
shifted to represent data.

The simplest scheme uses
two phases to represent the
two binary digits (and is known as binary
phase shift keying.

4
4
 Modulation
Example

General Example: Modulation of Analog 4

5
signal for digital Signal
 Analog Data,
Analog Signals
Modulation
 has been defined as the process of combining an
input signal m(t) and a carrier at frequency to
produce a signal s(t).
 When only analog transmission
facilities are available, modulation
is required to convert the digital data to
analog form.
 After all, voice signals are transmitted
over telephone lines at their original
spectrum (referred to as baseband
transmission).
 There are two principal reasons for analog 4
6
 The principal techniques for modulation
using analog data:
 Amplitude modulation (AM)
 Frequency modulation (FM) and
 Phase modulation (PM).
As before, the three basic characteristics
of a signalare used for
modulation.
We need modulation to
1. To reduce antenna size
2. to reduce interference
3. To allow multiplexing of different signals

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 Spread Spectrum
 Principles
Spread spectrum is a modulation method applied
to digitally modulated signals that increases the
transmit signal bandwidth to a value much larger
than is needed to transmit the underlying
information bits.
 There are many signaling techniques that increase
the transmit bandwidth above the minimum
required for data transmission, for example
coding and frequency modulation.
 However, these techniques do not fall in the
category of spread spectrum.
 Three properties are needed for a signal to be
spread spectrum modulated
48  The signal occupies bandwidth much larger than
 Cont
’d The spread spectrum modulation is done
using a spreading code, which is
independent of the data in the signal.
 Despreading at the receiver is done by
correlating the received signal
with a synchronized copy of the spreading
code.

49
 Spectr
um
The spectrum of a signal is the range of
frequencies that it contains.
 The absolute bandwidth of a signal is the width
of the spectrum.
 Wireless medias have an infinite band width.
However, most of the energy in the signal is
contained in a relatively narrow band of
frequencies. This band is referred to as the
effective bandwidth, or bandwidth.
 Although a given waveform may contain
frequencies over a very broad range, as a
practical matter any transmission system
(transmitter plus medium plus receiver) will50
 The Frequency
Spectrum
The fundamental principle of wireless
communication is electromagnetic wave
transmission between a transmitter and a
receiver. Signals are characterized by their
frequencies in use.
 Multiple signals or noises of the same frequency
will cause interference at the receiver.
 To avoid interference, various wireless
technologies use distinct frequency bands with
well-controlled signal power which are portions
of the so-called frequency spectrum. As a scarce
public resource, the frequency spectrum is
strictly regulated by governments of countries5
1
 Cont
’d frequency spectrum can be divided
The
into the following categories: each of
 whichlow
very represents a frequency band
 infrared,
frequency(VLF)  visible
 low frequency (LF) light,
 medium frequency (MF)  ultraviolet,
 high frequency (HF)  X-ray,
 very high frequency  gamma-
(VHF) ray, and
 ultra-high frequency  cosmic ray,
(UHF)
5
2
 super-high frequency
Cont
’d
 Wireless communication operates at
frequencies in the so-called
radio spectrum, which is further divided into
8:
 VLF, LF, MF, HF,VHF, UHF, SHF, and EHF.
 This Frequency Allocation, Most countries
have government agencies responsible for
allocating and controlling the use of the radio
spectrum.

5
3
Frequency 5
4
 Spread
Spectrum
Spread spectrum is form of encoding for
wireless communications.
 The use of spread spectrum makes jamming
and interception more difficult and provides
improved reception.
 The basic idea of spread spectrum is
 To modulate the signal to increase
bandwidth (spread the spectrum) of the signal
to be transmitted.
 Frequency-hopping spread spectrum is
 form of spread spectrum in which the signal
is broadcast over a seemingly random series of
5
radio frequencies, hopping from frequency to 5
 Cont
 Direct sequence spread spectrum
’d
 is a form of spread spectrum in which each
bit in the original signal is represented by
multiple bits in the transmitted signal, using a
spreading code.
 Code division multiple access exploits
the nature of spread spectrum
transmission
 to enable multiple users to independently use
the same bandwidth with very
little interference
 For transmission, binary data are fed into a

5
modulator using some digital-to-analog
6
encoding scheme, such as FSK or BPSK. The
 Cont
’d
A pseudonoise (PN), or pseudorandom
number, source serves as an index into a
table of frequencies; this is the spreading code
referred to previously. Each k bits of the PN
source specifies one of the K2carrier
frequencies.

5
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 Cont
’d
Directed Sequenced Spread Spectrum
(DSSS)
 With DSSS, each bit in the original signal is
represented by multiple bits in the
transmitted signal, using a spreading code.
 The spreading code spreads the signal across
a wider frequency band in direct proportion
to the number of bits used. Therefore, a 10-
bit spreading code spreads the signal across
a frequency band that is 10 times greater
than a 1-bit spreading code.
 One technique with direct sequence spread
5
8 spectrum is to combine the digital
DSSS Using BPSK
 To see how this technique works out in
practice, assume that a BPSK modulation
scheme is to be used. Rather than
represent binary data with 1 and 0, it is
more convenient for our purposes to +1
and -1 to represent the two binary digits.

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Code Division
Multiple Access

 Examples of
DSSS 6
0