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ELECTROMAGNETIC DISTANCE MEASUREMENT

1.Definition:
Electromagnetic distance measurement is the general term embracing the measurement of
distance using electronic methods. In electro-magnetic method distance are measured with
instrument that rely on propagation, reflection and subsequent reception of either radio,
visible light or infrared waves.
Meaning of the following basic terminologies used in EDM
i. Modulation
 Is the a process where a certain characteristics of the carrier waves are
varied or selected in accordance with another signal by changing the
carrier’s amplitude or frequency.

ii. Modulated waves

 Are the wave carrier frequencies allowed to pass in the modulator and
mixed with signal so as to improve its propagating characteristics.

iii. Carrier wave

 Carrier waves are waveforms that have been modified to transmit
information, though an unmodified wave, the most common type of carrier
wave is a simple sine wave, which has a frequency that can be described in
hertz (Hz), or oscillation per second. If it is not modified, this sine wave
will simply repeat itself and never change.

iv. Amplitude
 Is the maximum displacement reached by a wave from its rest position, this
comprising of Anodes and Anti-nodes.

v. Amplitude modulation
 (AM) is a modulation technique used in electronic communication, most
commonly for transmitting information via a radio carrier wave. AM works
by varying the strength (amplitude) of the carrier in proportion to the
waveform being sent.
vi. Modulated signals
 These are the process where by a certain characteristics of the wave lines
are valid or selected in accordance with another
vii. Phase difference
 Is the difference between the actual lengths traversed by the two waves in
space.
Suppose you send two light waves or any other waves from two different
points.
Suppose you send wave A horizontally on the x-axis. And suppose you
send wave B not perfectly horizontally but with some angle from some
point on the Y-axis.
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viii. Modulated frequency (MF)

 Is the encoding of information in a carrier wave by varying the
instantaneous frequency of the wave. (Compare with amplitude
modulation, in which the amplitude of the carrier wave varies, while the
frequency remains constant.)
Then these two waves will meet at some point on the X-axis.
But the distance travelled by the wave A will be less than that by Wave B.
this difference in the actual path they took is path difference.
ix. Relativity
 This is the maximum speed at which all energy and matter with time of
flight measures large distance to high precision.

x. Refractive index
 Is the ratio between the free space (in vacuum) velocity and the actual
velocity in the atmosphere.

xi. Refractive number

 This is the one used for correction in parts per million (ppm).
Mathematically
N= (n-1) ×106
Where;
N=refractive number
n=refractive index

xii. Group refractive index

This is the one which is used to calculate time delays for ultra-short pulses propagating in a
medium or the free spectral range of a resonator contains a dispersive medium.

2. Basic concept of EDM measurement

An EDM instrument is capable of transmitting an electromagnetic signal set up over a
survey station at one end of survey line. The signal is directed to a reflector or second
transmitter at the other end of the line where it is reflected back to the transmitter. The transit
time of the double journey is measured by the transmitter and since the speed of light is
accurately known the distance is calculated from the formula.
Distance between stations(m)=velocity of signal(m/s) × transit time(t)
Ie 2D=v×t
3.Methods of distance measurement in EDM
I. Pulse method
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In this method a short pulse of radiation is transmitted to a reflector target which

sends it back along a parallel path to the receiver. Distance measured is computed
from the velocity of signal and the time taken to complete the journey. Hence the
covered distance can be computed as.
2D = nt
D = nt/2
Where n is the velocity of light in the atmosphere

II. Phase difference method

In this method the distance is determined by measuring the phase difference between
the transmitted and reflected signa. The phase angle must be measured at the two end
points. The distance is linked with the phase difference in the signals usually the
phase difference of less than a full circle can be measured
Hence the speed carier must also be known

Considering a survey line AB, the length D of which is measured using EDM
equipment placed at ends A and B.
Diagram.

Fig 01
Generally commercial EDM systems available do not measure the transit time directly
instead the distance is determined by measuring the phase difference between time
transmitted and reflected signals. The phase difference can be expressed as fraction of a circle
which can be converted into units of time on when the frequency of wave is known.
In figure b the transmitted from A towards B instantly reflected from B towards A and
is then received at A as shown by dotted line. The same sequence shown in figure c
by opening out the waves where in A and A’ are the same distance covered by the
waves is
2D = nɻ + Δɻ
Where D = distance between A and B
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ɻ = wavelength
n = whole number of wave length traveled by wave
Δɻ = fraction of wavelength traveled by the wave.
The measurement of component Δɻ is known as phase comparison which can be
determined by electrical phase detector
Let Φ1 = phase of the wave as it transmitted at A
Φ2 = phase of the wave as it received at A’
Δɻ =( phase difference in degrees × ɻ ) / 360
Or
Δɻ = [ ( Φ2 - Φ1 ) × ɻ ] / 360
4. Properties of signal
Signal is the electromagnetic waves which comes and transmits an information from sender
to the receiver. Electromagnetic waves through extremely complex in native can be represe
nted in the form of periodic sinusoidal waves.
Refer to:- fig 01
Properties.
I. The wave of a signal completes a cycle.
II. Frequency of the waves is the number of the waves completes a cycle in one second.
The frequency is represented by symbol f and its unit is Hertz, where one hertz is one
cycle per second.
III. Wavelength of a wave: is the length traveled in one cycle by a wave and is denoted by
ɻ (meter). Thus wavelength is the distance between two identical points.
IV. Period is the time taken by the wave to travel through one cycle or one wavelength, it
is represented by symbol T second.
V. The velocity of the wave (v): Is the distance traveled by wave in one second.

Generally: Above properties of signals can be represented by relation

F=c/ɻ =1/T
Where f is the frequency of wave
C is the velocity of wave
T is the period
ɻ is the wavelength
5. Electromagnetic spectrum
Is the distribution of electromagnetic radiation according to energy (or according to
frequency or wavelength) In other words we can say that is the range of possible frequency of
electromagnetic radiation,

Regions of the spectrum

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The types of electromagnetic radiation are broadly classified into the following classes, this
classification goes in the increasing order of wavelength, which is characteristic of the type of
radiation

1. Gamma radiation
2. X-ray radiation
3. Ultraviolet radiation
4. Visible radiation
5. Infrared radiation
6. Microwave radiation
7. Radio waves

A diagram of the electromagnetic spectrum, showing various properties across

the range of frequencies and wavelengths

Radio waves

Radiowaves generally are utilized by antennas of appropriate size with wavelengths ranging
from hundreds of meters to about one millimeter. They are used for transmission of data, via
modulation. Television, mobile phones, wireless networking, and amateur radioall use radio
waves.
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Microwave

Microwaves are waves that are typically short enough (measured in millimeters) to employ
tubular metal waveguides of reasonable diameter. Microwave energy is produced with
klystron and magnetron tubes, and with solid state diodes such as Gunn and impattdevices.
Microwaves are absorbed by molecules that have a dipole moment in liquids. In a microwave
oven, this effect is used to heat food. Low-intensity microwave radiation is used in WI-FI,
although this is at intensity levels unable to cause thermal heating.

Volumetric heating, as used by microwave ovens, transfers energy through the material
electromagnetically, not as a thermal heat flux. The benefit of this is a more uniform heating
and reduced heating time; microwaves can heat material in less than 1% of the time of
conventional heating methods.

Infrared radiation

The infrared part of the electromagnetic spectrum covers the range from roughly 300 GHz
(1 mm) to 400 THz (750 nm). It can be divided into three parts
1. Far-infrared, from 300 GHz (1 mm) to 30 THz (10 μm). The lower part of this range
may also be called microwaves. This radiation is typically absorbed by so-called
rotational modes in gas-phase molecules
2. Mid-infrared, from 30 to 120 THz (10 to 2.5 μm). Hot objects (black-body radiators)
can radiate strongly in this range, and human skin at normal body temperature radiates
strongly at the lower end of this region. This radiation is absorbed by molecular
vibrations, where the different atoms in a molecule vibrate around their equilibrium
positions. This range is sometimes called the fingerprint region, since the mid-
infrared absorption spectrum of a compound is very specific for that compound.
3. Near-infrared, from 120 to 400 THz (2,500 to 750 nm). Physical processes that are
relevant for this range are similar to those for visible light. The highest frequencies in
this region can be detected directly by some types of photographic film, and by many
types of solid state image sensors for infrared photography and videography

Visible radiation (light)

Above infrared in frequency comes visible light. The Sun emits its peak power in the visible
region, although integrating the entire emission power spectrum through all wavelengths
shows that the Sun emits slightly more infrared than visible light. visible light is the part of
the EM spectrum to which the human eye is the most sensitive. Visible light (and near-
infrared light) is typically absorbed and emitted by electrons in molecules and atoms that
move from one energy level to another. This action allows the chemical mechanisms that
underly human vision and plant photosynthesis. The light which excites the human visual
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system is a very small portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. A rainbow shows the optical
(visible) part of the electromagnetic spectrum; infrared (if you could see it) would be located
just beyond the red side of the rainbow with ultraviolet appearing just beyond the violet end.

Ultraviolet radiation

The amount of penetration of UV relative to altitude in Earth's ozone.

Next in frequency comes Ultraviolet (UV). The wavelength of UV rays is shorter than the
violet end of the visible spectrum but longer than the X-ray.
UV in the very shortest range (next to X-rays) is capable even of ionizing atoms), greatly
changing their physical behavior.
At the middle range of UV, UV rays cannot ionize but can break chemical bonds, making
molecules to be unusually reactive. Sunburn for example, is caused by the disruptive effects
of middle range UV radiation on skin cells, which is the main cause of skin cancer. UV rays
in the middle range can irreparably damage the complex DNA.
The Sun emits significant UV radiation (about 10% of its total power), including extremely
short wavelength UV that could potentially destroy most life on land (ocean water would
provide some protection for life there).
However, most of the Sun's most-damaging UV wavelengths are absorbed first by the
magnetosphere and then by the atmosphere's oxygen, nitrogen, and ozone layer before they
reach the surface

X-rays

After UV come X-rays which, like the upper ranges of UV are also ionizing. However, due to
their higher energies, X-rays can also interact with matter by means of the component effect.
Hard X-rays have shorter wavelengths than soft X-rays. As they can pass through most
substances with some absorption, X-rays can be used to 'see through' objects with thicknesses
less than equivalent to a few meters of water. X-rays are useful as probes in high-energy
physics. In astronomy, the accretion disks around neutron stars and black holes emit X-rays,
which enable us to study them.

Gamma rays

Hard X-rays, comes Gamma rays. Which these are the most energetic photons, having no
defined lower limit to their wavelength. Gamma rays are useful to physicists thanks to their
penetrative ability and their production from a number of radioisotopes. Gamma rays are also
used for the irradiation of food and seed for sterilization, and in medicine they are
occasionally used in radiation cancer therapy.

6. Classification of electromagnetic distance measurements (EDM)

EDM instrument may be classified according to the type and wavelength of
electromagnetic energy generated or according to their operational range.
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I. Infrared wave instrument

These instruments are most commonly used in engineering works. The Infrared
radiation has wavelength of 0.8mm to 0.9mm transmitted by gallium arsenide (GaAs)
luminescent diodes, at a high constant frequency. The accuracy required in distance
measurement is such that the measuring wave cannot be used directly due to its poor
propagation characteristics.
Many of instruments using visual light wave have a great range and much greater
accuracy that required for more general surveying work. Typical of such instrument
one Kern Mekometer ME 5000, accurate to ±0.2mm ±0.2mm/km with range of 8km
and the com-Rad Geomensor CR 234.

II. Microwave instruments

This use radio wavelength as carriers and therefore requires two instruments; one at
each end transmitting the signals. The microwave carriers is always frequency
modulated for measuring purposes and has wavelength generally in the order of 10cm
and 3cm. These instruments are capable of long ranges up to 25km and beyond with
typical accuracies of ±10mm ±5mm/km.

III. Light wave instruments

Instrument utilizing the velocity of light wave to determine the distance between two
points are electro optical or light wave EDM instrument, Geodimeter was the earlier
form of electromagnetic EDM instrument. The instrument should be fixed at one end
of the line to be measured and at the other end reflector is fixed. Electromagnetic
EDM can give accurate result if the line to be measured is free from any obstacles.
Unlike electromagnetic EDMs, the electro optical EDMs need both ends of the
measuring to be intervisible. EDM sends a beam of light to the reflector which act as
a mirror and it redirect light pulse to the EDM.
As soon as the EDM receives the reflected light flash, the reading registered in are
converted to linear distance between EDM and reflector. Corrections have to be made
based on the atmospheric conditions.

7. Basic structure of EDM instruments

 Oscillator- It is modulation frequency generator which generates modulation
frequencies.
 Carrier wave length generator- This is concerning with the generating of carrier waves
and transmit it to the modulator.
 Modulator- It mixes the signal with the carrier wave frequency to produce a
modulated carrier wave.
 Transmitter- It transmits the signal to the reflector.
 Reflector- It reflects the transmitted signal to the receiver.
 Receiver- It receives modulated signal from the reflector.
 De-modulator- it seperates the incoming signal from the carrier wave.
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 Phase meter- It measures the phase change and comparing the incoming signal with
the original generated signal.
 Microprocessor unit- It is a computer which processes phase angles to obtain distance
and display them.
 Display- It displays the phase comparison from the phase mater

8.ADVANTAGES OF ELECTRO-MAGNETIC DISTANCE MEASUREMENT (EDM)

There are several advantages of EDM such as;
a) It reduces errors compared to measured distance by tapes or chain.
b) It records the readings itself there is no requisite of booker.
c) All measurements can be taken at once i.e. vertical angle and horizontal angle.
d) It covers long distance.
e) It takes short time in recitation(performance)
f) It used in hydrographic surveying (off shore positioning)
g) It eliminates sag error i.e. sag effects
h) Simple to use in a processing data to the computer.
i) High accuracy.
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9.Applications of EDM:
 Electro-optical instrument are used in all surveying field except of that of long range
geodetic surveying. Their versatility, accuracy and saving in time and man power have
made them in valuable for all shore range survey measurements.
 They are used for the purpose of traversing and trigonometric ally levelling in and around
construction sites for base line construction measurement in minor triangulation schemes
depth and tunnels in mining for measuring previous and inaccessible distance across
rivers etc.
 They virtually replaced tachometry as means detail survey
 Most instruments have a tracking device which allows them to be used for setting out all
manner of construction and Engineering works or in shortly EDM used for the purpose of
traversing and trigonometrically levelling in and ground construction of sites.
 For base line measurement in minor triangulation schemes.
 Measuring previous indivisible distance across view.
 Replaced tachometry as the means actual surveying

Setting out all means of construction and Engineering works.

10. Factors affecting electromagnet waves
A gradient (change) of atmospheric pressure, temperature and humidity with altitude can
bend the path of waves.
Temperature
In high temperature, air molecules move faster and bounce further apart, therefore higher
temperature result in lower air density, and by so, the waves travel sat the faster rate in these
medium.
Pressure
Increases or decreases in air pressure can impact the density of air. The two major reasons for
changes in air pressure are altitude and weather systems, For the most part; air becomes
denser as air pressure increases, As the altitude increases, the air pressure decreases,
As the pressure changes, so as the density of the air changes,since electromagnetic waves
travels through the medium, so as velocity of waves expected to change whether by
increasing, or decreasing its velocity.

Humidity
The presence of rain, sleet, and fog can attenuate the waves by absorbing some of the energy.

11. Condition to consider during EDM measurement

i. Temperature
 Refraction is affected by temperature.
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 Elevated temperature makes the air expand and become less dense, light
travel through the air after in dense air, which makes or results to the
measured distance being shorter than the actual one.
ii. Pressure at different attitudes
 During measurements, lower pressure makes the distance shorter.
iii. Humidity.
 Since the standard vapour pressure(es) of the atmosphere higher than the
actual vapour pressure(ea) and is of significant effect at higher temperature,
all distances measured during two higher vapour pressure will be liable to
error.
iv. Station selection.
Station selection is important since the last results are obtained in gentle
sunshine with light breeze and low relative humidity.

12.Cauchy’s Equation
is an empirical relationship between refractive index and wavelength of light for particular
transparent material,
the general form of Cauchy’s equation is ;
n=

Where;
A, B and C are constant relative to specific atmospheric condition
n is refractive index
ƛ is a wavelength

To afford a correction in parts per million (ppm) the refractive number or refractivity (N) is
used;
N = (n-1) x 106
Where;
N is refractivity number

However, it is the refractive index of the modulated beam, not the carrier,
that required; hence the use of group refractive index where

Ng =

To accommodate the actual atmospheric conditions under which the distances are measured,
the above equationwas modified by Barrel and Sears and became

Ng` = -

Where
T = absolute temperature in Kelvin (K) = 273.15 + t,
t = dry bulb temperature in °C
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P = atmospheric pressure
e = partial water vapor pressure
With P and e in mbar, Q = 0.2696 and V = 11.27
With P and e in mmHg, Q = 0.3594 and V = 15.02
The value for e can be calculated from
e = es – 0.000 662 × P × (t – tw)
Where;
t = dry bulb temperature
tw = wet bulb temperature
es = saturation water vapour pressure

The value for es can be calculated from

Log es = + 0.7857

Example 01:
An EDM instrument has a carrier wave of 0.91µm and standardized at 20oC and
1013.25mbar.A distance of 1885.864m was measured with a mean value s P=1030mbar,dry
bulb temperature t=30oC,wet bulb temperature tw = 25oc calculate the velocity correction.

Step 1. Compute the value for partial water vapour pressure (e);
Log es = + 0.7857

= (7.5 × 25) / (25 + 237.3) + 0.7857

es= 31.66mbar

from

e = es – 0.000662 × P × (t – tw)

= 31.66 – 0.000662 × 1030 × (30 – 25)

= 28.25mbar

Step 2.compute refractivity (ng) for standard atmosphere

Ng =
= 287.604 +
= 293.604

Step 3. Compute refractivity for the standard condition of the instrument, i.e 200c and
1013.25mbar.
Ng` = -
Where for p and e in mbar becomes.
Ng’= [Ng(0.2696P)-(11.27e)]/(273.15+t)
=[(293.604×0.2696×1013.25)-(11.27×28.25)]/(273.15+20)
=[(79.156×1013.25)-(11.27×28.25)]/(273.15+20)
=272.51
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Step 4. The reference refractivity now becomes the base from which the velocity correction
is obtained. Now compute refractivity(Ng’’) under the prevailing atmospheric condition at
the time of measurement.
Ng’’=[(79.156×1030)-(11.27×28.25)]/(273.15+30)
=267.90

Velocity correction in ppm = Ng’’-Ng’

=267.90-272.51
=4.6 ppm
Vc =4.6 ppm

References:
Engineering Survey, 5th Edition,W.Shofield
Surveying , problem solving with theory and objective type questions. Dr Am Chandra