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    UNIT II - Guided and Unguided Media

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    UNIT II - Guided and Unguided Media

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    akifabegum921
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    UNIT II_Guided and Unguided Media

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    2 views29 pages

    UNIT II - Guided and Unguided Media

    Uploaded by

    akifabegum921

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    © All Rights Reserved
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    UNIT II

    Transmission Media
    Transmission Media

    All computer communication involves encoding data in a form of energy, and sending
    the energy across a transmission medium (i.e., the network links).

    Guided and Unguided Media

    Links can be categorized by the type of path used:


    • Guided Media: communication follows an exact path (such as a wire)
    • Unguided Media: communication follows no specific path (such as a radio
    transmission)

    Forms of Energy

    Links can be categorized by the type of energy used for transmission:


    • Electrical Energy is used on wires
    • Radio Frequency Transmission is used for wireless
    • Light is used for optical fibers and Lazers
    Taxonomy by Forms of Energy
    Characteristics of links
    • Links can be implemented on a variety of different physical media.
    • Links propagate signals.
    • When transmitting electrical signals over a transmission line, attenuation
    (the signals get smaller) and distortion (the signals get misshapen) occur.
    • The extent of attenuation and distortion is based on:
    • the type of transmission medium
    • the bit rate of the data being transmitted
    • the distance between the two transmitting devices
    • Electrical energy always flows along a complete circuit so two wires are
    needed.
    Background Radiation and Electrical Noise
    Three important facts about wiring:

    1. Noise (also called random electromagnetic radiation) permeates the


    environment.
    • Even communication systems generate minor amounts of electrical
    noise as a side-effect of normal operation.
    2. Noise can interfere with signals used for communication
    • When it hits metal, electromagnetic radiation produces a small signal
    3. Because it absorbs radiation, metal acts as a shield preventing noise from
    reaching the wiring
    • Thus, placing enough metal between a source of noise and a
    communication medium can prevent noise from interfering
    Guided Media
    Copper Wire
    Example 1: Twisted pair lines

    • A pair of wires are twisted together (signal wire and ground reference wire).
    Multiple twisted pairs can be enclosed within the same cable.

    Shielded Twisted Pairs (STP) are also used to reduce the effects of
    interference.
    • Cat-5 is suitable for 10 - 100 Mbps for short distances (< 100m)
    • In telephone networks, Unshielded Twisted Pairs (UTP) are extensively used
    with sophisticated driver and receiver circuits yielding higher bps over longer
    distances
    • Suffer from "skin effect" (i.e., the current of the wires flows only on the outer
    surface of the wire). Result: Increases electrical resistance at higher frequencies
    Why is Twisted Pair “twisted”?
    When two wires run in parallel:
    • there is a high probability that
    one of them is closer to the
    source of electromagnetic
    radiation than the other
    • one wire tends to act as a shield
    that absorbs some of the
    electromagnetic radiation
    • thus, the second wire receives
    less energy.

    Example: In the figure, a total of 32 units of radiation strikes in each case.


    In (a): the top wire absorbs 20 units, and the bottom wire absorbs 12, producing a
    difference of 8
    In (b): each of the two wires is on top one-half of the time, which means that each
    wire absorbs the same amount of radiation
    Types of Twisted Pair
    One variation is known as shielded twisted pair (STP)
    • The cable has a thinner, more flexible metal shield surrounding one or
    more twisted pairs of wires.
    • In most versions of STP cable, the shield consists of metal foil, similar
    to the aluminum foil used in a kitchen.
    Example 2: Coaxial cable

    Coaxial cable reduces "skin effect”

    The shield in a coaxial cable forms a flexible cylinder around the inner wire
    that provides a barrier to electromagnetic radiation from any direction
    The barrier also prevents signals on the inner wire from radiating
    electromagnetic energy

    ThinNet: Supports 10-100 Mbps over ~200 meters


    ThickNet: Supports 10-100 Mbps over ~500 meters
    Glass Fibers (or Optical Fibers)

    Optical fiber:
    • carries the transmitted information as a fluctuating beam of light
    • is immune to electromagnetic interference and crosstalk
    • is good for security, because it is difficult to tap an optical fiber cable
    • supports transmission rates of hundreds of megabits per second over
    several kilometers.

    Components:
    • Single glass fiber for each signal
    • Optical transmitter (light-emitting diode (LED) or injection diode (ILD))
    converts from electrical signals to a light signal
    • Optical Receiver (photodiode or photo transistor) converts from light
    signals to electrical
    Comparing Copper Wiring and Fiber
    Unguided Media
    Radio

    A network that uses electromagnetic radio waves is said to operate at radio


    frequency. The transmissions are referred to as RF transmissions.
    The lower frequency radio transmission can be used to replace fixed wire
    links.
    Data rates are typically in the tens of kbps to hundreds of Mbps.

    Electromagnetic (Radio) Spectrum


    As the figure below shows:
    • one part of the spectrum corresponds to infrared light described above
    • the spectrum used for RF communications spans frequencies from
    approximately 3 KHz to 300 GHz
    • it includes frequencies allocated to radio and television broadcast as well as
    satellite and microwave communications
    Communication Satellites

    Satellites transmit data as electromagnetic (radio) waves through free space.

    • A satellite contains a transponder that consists of a radio receiver and


    transmitter.
    • A transponder (covering a
    particular range of frequencies)
    receives the signal and
    retransmits it
    • A single satellite usually
    contains 6-12 transponders
    that operate independently.
    • Each transponder uses a
    different frequency
    (or channel).
    Geosynchronous (or Geostationary) Satellites
    • Geosynchronous (or geostationary) satellites are placed in an orbit that is
    synchronized with the earth’s rotation.

    • From Geostationary Earth Orbit (GEO) a satellite appears to remain in


    exactly the same point in the sky.

    • GEO is approximately
    36,000 kilometers or
    20,000 miles from earth.

    • GEO satellites are


    sometimes called
    “high earth orbit” satellites.

    • A maximum of 45-90
    satellites can be in GEO
    to avoid interference with
    each other.
    Geosynchronous (or Geostationary) Satellites (cont’d)
    How many GEO communication satellites are possible?
    There is a limited amount of “space” available in the geosynchronous orbit
    above the equator…
    • Because communication satellites using a given frequency must be separated
    from one another to avoid interference.
    • The minimum separation depends on the power of the transmitters (but may
    require an angular separation of between 4 and 8 degrees).
    • As technology evolves, it is possible to allocate more satellites in orbit.

    What is the minimum number of satellites


    needed to cover the earth? Three

    Consider the figure, which illustrates three GEO satellites positioned around
    the equator with 120 degree separation.
    In the figure, the size of the earth
    and the distance of the satellites are
    drawn to scale
    Low Earth Orbit Satellites
    Low Earth Orbit (LEO) satellites orbit at 200-400 miles above earth.

    • Their period of rotation is very fast (e.g., an orbit can be completed in ~1.5 hours).
    • A LEO satellite can only be used by ground stations when its orbit passes
    overhead.
    • Ground stations must continually be changed to point at the satellite.
    • These satellites are cheaper but they wear out more quickly (run out of fuel).

    Low Earth Orbit Satellite Arrays

    In this scheme, a set of satellites is arranged so that each point on the ground has at least
    one satellite overhead at all times.

    • This requires sophisticated communication between the satellites.


    • 66 satellites are required to provide service over the entire earth.
    Example: The failed Iridium Project
    Satellite Summary
    Microwave
    • Microwaves travel in straight lines, and so the transmitter and receiver stations
    should be accurately aligned to each other.

    • Microwave propagation is line – of – sight propagation. So, towers hoisting the


    stations should be placed so that the curvature of the earth or any other obstacle does
    not interfere with the communication.

    • Since it is unidirectional, it allows multiple receivers in a row to receive the signals


    without interference.

    • Microwaves do not pass through buildings. So, indoor receivers cannot be used
    effectively.

    • Microwaves are often refracted by the atmospheric layers. The refracted rays take
    longer time to reach the destination than the direct rays. This causes out of phase
    transmission, called multipath fading.
    • Microwaves need unidirectional antennas to send out signals.
    • Two types of antennas are needed −
    • Parabolic Dish Antenna − It is used by the receiving station.
    • Horn Antenna − In the receiving station, the rays are collected by the
    curved head and deflected in the stem.
    • Types of Microwaves:
    • Terrestrial
    • Satellite
    Lightwave: Infrared
     Infrared is electromagnetic radiation (EMR) with
    wavelengths longer than those of visible light
    and shorter than radio waves.
     Infrared is a type of radiant energy that is
    invisible to the eyes; we can only feel it in the
    form of heat.
     Example: Remote controls for TVs, VCRs, etc.
     Infrared communication:
     is good for a single room
     must point at the receiver
     is cheap
     needs no antennae
     can be used to set-up a computer network in a
    single room
    Light from a Laser

    • Light from a laser can be transmitted through the air (not just through fiber optics)
    to send information.

    • The laser beam must be sent in a straight line between the transmitter and the
    receiver (e.g., point-to-point).

    • Laser beams cannot penetrate snow, fog, vegetation, etc.


    The End

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