Chapter Four

Memory and Forgetting

 CHAPTER FOUR: MEMORY AND FORGETTING

5.1.1 Meaning and Processes of Memory

Memory is:
 the retention of information/what is learned earlier over
time.
 the way in which we record the past for later use in the
present.
 a blanket label for a large number of processes that form
the bridges between our past and our present.
 Memory….
 To learn about the nature of memory, it is useful to separate the
process from the structure. Retrieval
Attention Encoding
Stimulus Sensory Short Term Long Term
Memory Memory Memory

Forgetting Forgetting Forgetting

 Failure to remember can result from problems during any of the
three phases of the memory process mentioned above.
 Memory…..
Memory processes are the mental activities we perform to put
information into memory, to keep it there, and to make use of it later.
This involves three basic steps:
a. Encoding:
 the form (i.e. the code) in which an item of information is to be
placed in memory.
 It is the process by which information is initially recorded in a form
usable to memory.
 In encoding we transform a sensory input into a form or a memory
code that can be further processed.
 memory...

b. Storage:
• It is the location in memory system in which material is

saved.
• It is the persistence of information in memory.
 To be remembered the encoded experience must leave
some record in the nervous system (the memory trace); it
must be squirreled away and held in some more or less
enduring form for later use.
 Memory….

C. Retrieval:
 is the point at which one tries to remember to
dredge(search) up a particular memory trace from among
all the others we have stored.
• In retrieval, material in memory storage is located,
brought into awareness and used.
 In general, memory is the process by which information is
encoded, stored and later retrieved.
 Memory…
5.1.2 Stages/Structure of Memory
• Memory structure is the nature of memory storage itself- how
information is represented in memory and how long it lasts and
how it is organized.
• The cognitive perspective has dominated psychology‘s view of
memory for the past years although, in recent years, it has become
integrated with understanding of the neuro-psychology of memory.
• Many cognitive psychologists relate the mind to an information
processor, along the lines of a digital computer that takes items of
information in; processes them in steps or stages, and then produces
an output. Ex: Computer
 Memory….

Models of memory based on this idea are Information processing

theories.
According to Atkinson and Shiffrin, memory has three
structures:
1) Sensory Memory/Sensory Register:
 It is the entry way to memory. It is the first information
storage area.
 Sensory memory acts as a holding bin, retaining information
until we can select items for attention from the stream of
stimuli bombarding our senses.
 Memory…

• Sensory memory includes a number of separate

subsystems, as many as there are senses.
For instance:
 visual images (Iconic memory) remain in the visual
system for a maximum of one second.
 auditory images (Echoic memory) remain in the auditory
system for a slightly longer time, by most estimates up to
two second or so.
2) Short-term Memory: is part of our memory that holds the contents
of our attention.
Unlike sensory memories, short-term memories are not brief replicas of
the environmental message. Instead, they consist of the by-products or
end results of perceptual analysis.
STM is important in a variety of tasks such as thinking, reading,
speaking, and problem solving.
Terms used to refer to this stage of memory are:
 Working memory

• Immediate memory
• Active memory; and
• Primary memory.
 Memory….

• Short term memory is distinguished by four characteristics:

It is active- information remains in STM only so long as the person is

consciously processing, examining, or manipulating it.
People use STM as a ―workspace‖ to process new information and to
call up relevant information from LTM.
Rapid accessibility - Information in STM is readily available for use.
In this respect, the difference between STM and LTM is the difference
between pulling a file from the top of a desk versus searching for it in a
file drawer, or between searching for information in an open computer
file versus file stored on the hard drive.
 Memory….

Preserves the temporal sequence of information-

STM usually helps us to maintain the information in
sequential manner for a temporary period of time.
It keeps the information fresh until it goes to further
analysis and stored in LTM in meaningful way.
 Memory…

Limited capacity- Years ago, George Miller (1956) estimated the

capacity of STM to be ―the magic number seven plus or minus
two(7+2)That is, on the average, people can hold about seven
pieces of information in STM at a time; with a normal range from
five to nine items.
According to most models of memory, we overcome this
problem, by grouping small groups of information into larger
units or chunks.
Chunking is the grouping or ―packing‖ of information into
higher order units that can be remembered as single units.
• Chunking expands working memory by making large amounts of
information more manageable.
• The real capacity of short-term memory, therefore, is not a few bits
of information but a few chunks.
• A chunk may be a word, a phrase, a sentence, or even a visual
image, and it depends on previous experience.
• STM memory holds information (sounds, visual images, words, and
sentences and so on) received from SM for up to about 30 seconds
by most estimates. It is possible to prolong
• STM indefinitely by rehearsal- the conscious repetition of
information. Material in STM is easily displaced unless we do
something to keep it there.
 Memory….

3. Long Term Memory

• It is a memory system used for the relatively permanent
storage of meaningful information.
• The capacity of LTM seems to have no practical limits.
• The vast amount of information stored in LTM enables us
to learn, get around in the environment, and build a sense
of identity and personal history.
• LTM stores information for indefinite periods. It may
last for days, months, years, or even a lifetime.
 Memory…
The LTM is assumed to be composed of different sub systems mentioned
bellow:
1. Declarative/ explicit memory- the conscious recollection of information
such as specific facts or events that can be verbally communicated. It is
further subdivided into semantic and episodic memories.
a) Semantic memory- factual knowledge like the meaning of words,
concepts and our ability to do math.
They are internal representations of the world, independent of any
particular context.
b)Episodic memory- memories for events and situations from personal
experience.
They are internal representations of personally experienced events.
 Memory…

2. Non-declarative/ implicit memory- refers to a

variety of phenomena of memory in which behavior is
affected by prior experience without that experience
being consciously recollected.
• One of the most important kinds of implicit memory
is procedural memory.
• It is the ―how to apply knowledge of procedures or
skills: Knowing how to comb your hair, use a pencil,
or swim.
 Memory…

Serial Position Effect

• The three-box model of memory is often invoked to explain
interesting phenomenon called the serial position effect.
• If you are shown a list of items and are then asked
immediately to recall them, your retention of any particular
item will depend on its position in the list.
• That is, recall will be best for items at the beginning of the list
(the primacy effect) and at the end of the list (the recency
effect).
• When retention of all the items is plotted, the result will be a
U-shaped curve.
A serial position effect occurs when you are introduced to a lot of people at
a party and find you can recall the names of the first few people you met
and the last, but almost no one in between.
5.1.3 Factors Affecting Memory
Memory as stated already, is a process which includes learning, retention
and remembering. As such all the three processes are important for good
memory.
Eleven Factors that Influence Memory Process in Humans are as follows:
a. Ability to retain: This depends upon good memory traces left in the
brain by past experiences.
b. Good health: A person with good health can retain the learnt material
better than a person with poor health.
c. Age of the learner: Youngsters can remember better than the aged.
d. Maturity: Very young children cannot retain and remember complex
material.
e. Will to remember: Willingness to remember helps for better
retention.
f. Intelligence: More intelligent person will have better memory than a
dull person,
g. Interest: If a person has more interest, he will learn and retain better.
h. Over learning: Experiments have proved that over learning will
lead to better memory.
i. Speed of learning: Quicker learning leads to better retention,
j. Meaningfulness of the material: Meaningful materials remain in
our memory for longer period than for nonsense material,
 Forgetting…

k. Sleep or rest: Sleep or rest immediately after learning

strengthens connections in the brain and helps for clear memory.
4.2. Forgetting
 is the apparent loss of information already encoded and stored
in the long-term memory.
 From the store house of information, most of us forget the
names of individuals, names of places and other information‘s.
 In our daily living, we encounter so much information and if
we attempt to encode, store and recall all the information we
face daily, we are in trouble. Hence, we are selective in storing
and forgetting information.
 Sometimes we are motivated to forgot something and recall
what we want to remember. Psychologists call this
phenomenon as motivated forgetting.
• 5.2.2. Theories of Forgetting
• Psychologists have proposed five mechanisms to account for
forgetting: decay, replacement of old memories by new ones,
interference, motivated forgetting, and cue dependent
forgetting.
5.2.2.1.The Decay Theory
• The decay theory holds that memory traces or engram fade
with time if they are not ―accessed‖ now and then.
• This explanation assumes that when new material is learned a

memory trace or engram- an actual physical change in the

brain- occurs.
5.2.2.2. Interference
• Interference theory holds that forgetting occurs because similar items
of information interfere with one another in either storage or retrieval.
• The information may get into memory, but it becomes confused with
other information.
• There are two kinds of interference that influence forgetting:
proactive and retroactive.
• In Proactive Interference, information learned earlier interferes with
recall of newer material. If new information interferes with the ability
to remember old information the interference is called Retroactive
Interference.
5.2.2.3. New Memory for Old/ Displacement Theory
This theory holds that new information entering memory
can wipe out old information, just as recording on an audio
or videotape will obliterate/wipe out the original material.
This theory is mostly associated with the STM, where the
capacity for information is limited to seven plus or minus
chunks.
It cannot be associated with the LTM because of its
virtually unlimited capacity.
5.2.2.4. Motivated Forgetting
Sigmund Freud maintained that people forget because they block from
consciousness those memories that are two threatening or painful to
live with, and he called this self-protective process Repression. Today
many psychologists prefer to use a more general term, motivated
forgetting.
5.2.2.5. Cue Dependent Forgetting
Often when we need to remember, we rely on retrieval cues, items of
information that can help us find the specific information we‘re
looking for. When we lack retrieval cues, we may feel as if we have
lost the call number for an entry in the mind‘s library. In long-term
memory, this type of memory failure may be the most common type of
all. Cues that were present when you learned a new fact or had an
experience are apt to be especially useful later as retrieval aids.
 Improving Memory

5.3. Improving Memory

A better approach is to follow some general guidelines.
Pay Attention: It seems obvious, but often we fail to remember
because we never encoded the information in the first place.
When you do have something to remember, you will do
better if you encode it.
Encode information in more than one way: The more elaborate the
encoding of information, the more memorable it will be
 Improving Memory
Add meaning: The more meaningful the material, the more likely it is
to link up with information already in long-term memory.
Take your time: If possible, minimize interference by using study
breaks for rest or recreation. Sleep is the ultimate way to reduce
interference.
Over learn: Studying information even after you think you already
know it- is one of the best ways to ensure that you‘ll remember it.
Monitor your learning: By testing yourself frequently, rehearsing
thoroughly, and reviewing periodically, you will have a better idea of
how you are doing