Chapter 2

Computer memory and storage devices

1. **Access Mode**:
 - **Definition**: Access mode refers to how data is read
from or written to a memory location. There are two
common access modes: random access and sequential
access.
 - **Real-Life Example**:
 - **Random Access**: RAM (Random Access Memory)
in your computer is an example of random access
memory. You can read or write data to any location in RAM
without having to access data in any particular order.
 - **Sequential Access**: A magnetic tape drive is an
example of a storage device with sequential access. Data
is read or written sequentially from the beginning of the
tape to the end.
2.1.1 describe important
characteristics of memory devices;
 2. **Access Time**:
 - **Definition**: Access time is the time it takes
for the memory system to respond to a read or
write request after it's initiated. Lower access
time is desirable as it indicates quicker data
retrieval.
 - **Real-Life Example**:
 - In a hard drive, access time consists of seek
time (time to position the read/write head) and
rotational latency (time to wait for the desired
sector to rotate under the head). Faster hard
drives have lower access times.
 3. **Data Transfer Rate**:
 - **Definition**: Data transfer rate, often
measured in bits per second (bps) or bytes
per second (Bps), is the speed at which data
can be read from or written to memory.
 - **Real-Life Example**:
 - An example is the read/write speed of a
solid-state drive (SSD). A high-quality SSD
may have a data transfer rate of several
gigabytes per second (GBps), allowing for
faster data access and file transfer.
 4. **Capacity**:
 - **Definition**: Capacity is the amount of
data that a memory system can store. It's
typically measured in bytes, such as
kilobytes (KB), megabytes (MB), gigabytes
(GB), or terabytes (TB).
 - **Real-Life Example**:
 - An 8GB USB flash drive can store up to 8
gigabytes of data. A hard drive with a
capacity of 2TB can store up to 2 terabytes of
data.
 5. **Cost**:
 - **Definition**: Cost refers to the financial expense
associated with acquiring or using a specific memory
technology. Different memory types come with varying
costs, and cost can be a critical factor in choosing
memory for a particular application.
 - **Real-Life Example**:
 - For example, dynamic random-access memory
(DRAM) used as system memory in computers tends to
be more expensive than a standard hard disk drive
(HDD) of the same capacity. Solid-state drives (SSDs)
often have a higher cost per gigabyte compared to
HDDs but provide faster performance.
SLO 2.1.2
 convert digital storage units from one to
another, i.e. bit, nibble, byte, kilobyte (KB),
kibibyte (KiB), Megabyte (MB), Mebibyte
(MiB), Gigabyte (GB), Gibibyte (GiB),
Terabyte (TB), Tebibyte (TiB), Petabyte (PB)
and Pebibyte (PiB);
Basic units
 1 bit (0,1)
 Nibble (4 bits)
 Byte (8 bits)
2.2.1 differentiate between primary
(main) memory and secondary memory;
 Primary (Main) Memory vs. Secondary Memory:

 1. **Primary (Main) Memory**:

 - Also known as RAM (Random Access Memory).
 - It's fast, but volatile (loses data when the power
is off).
 - Used for storing data and programs that the CPU
is currently working on.
 - Real-Life Example: Your computer's RAM is like a
desk where you keep your current work materials.
It's fast but doesn't store data when you turn off the
computer.
 2. **Secondary Memory**:
 - Examples include hard drives (HDD) and solid-
state drives (SSD).
 - Slower but non-volatile (retains data when the
power is off).
 - Used for long-term data storage, like files and
software.
 - Real-Life Example: Your computer's hard drive or
SSD is like a filing cabinet or a bookshelf. It's slower
but keeps data even when the computer is turned off.

 .
 In simple terms, primary memory (RAM) is
like your workspace for current tasks, while
secondary memory (HDD/SSD) is like your
long-term storage for files and programs
2.2.2 differentiate among Random Access
Memory (RAM), ReadOnly Memory (ROM) and
internal processor memory;

 1. **RAM (Random Access Memory)**:

 - RAM is the primary memory of a
computer.
 - It's volatile memory, meaning it loses its
data when the power is turned off.
 - RAM is used for temporarily storing data
that the CPU (Central Processing Unit) is
actively working on. It allows fast access to
data, which is crucial for running applications.
 2. **ROM (Read-Only Memory)**:
 - ROM is non-volatile memory that retains
data even when the power is off.
 - It contains firmware and instructions that
are permanently written and cannot be
easily modified.
 - ROM is used to store essential software
instructions, such as the computer's BIOS
(Basic Input/Output System).
 3. **Internal Processing Memory
 - Internal processing memory typically
refers to various types of memory used
within the computer's CPU and chipset for
processing data.
 - This can include cache memory (e.g., L1,
L2, L3 caches) and other high-speed, small-
capacity memory units such as Registers
that aid in processing and accelerating data
retrieval.
Main memory types
2.2.3 compare the two types of RAM, i.e.
Static RAM (SRAM) and Dynamic RAM (DRAM);
2.2.4 compare three types of ROM, i.e.
Programmable ROM (PROM), Erasable
Programmable ROM (EPROM) and Electrically
Erasable Programmable ROM (EEPROM);
2.2.5 describe the role of Basic Input/
Output System (BIOS) in boot-up process;
 The Basic Input/Output System (BIOS) plays
a crucial role in the computer's boot-up
process:

 1. **Power-On Self-Test (POST)**: The BIOS

performs a quick self-check to ensure all
essential hardware components are
working. It's like a car engine diagnostic test
before you start your car.
 2. **Booting the Operating System**: The BIOS
locates and starts the operating system (like
Windows or macOS) from the computer's storage.
This is similar to turning the car's ignition key to
start the engine.

 3. **Loading Device Drivers**: The BIOS loads

device drivers that help the operating system
communicate with hardware components, like the
keyboard and mouse. It's like plugging in a printer,
and the computer automatically installs the
necessary software.
 4. **Configuring System Settings**: BIOS allows
you to configure settings like the system's date
and time, boot order (which storage device to
boot from), and security options. It's similar to
setting the time on your wristwatch or choosing
which music source to play in your car.

 In simple terms, BIOS is like the car's ignition

system, ensuring everything is ready to go and
then starting the engine (the operating system)
to make your computer work.
2.2.6 compare the three types of cache
memory, i.e. Level-1 (L1) cache, Level-2
( L2 ) cache and Level-3 (L3) cache;

 1. **L1 Cache (Level-1 Cache)**:

 - L1 cache is the smallest, fastest, and
closest to the CPU.
 - It stores frequently used data and
instructions for immediate access.
 - It provides the quickest response time to
the CPU.

 .
 2. **L2 Cache (Level-2 Cache)**:
 - L2 cache is larger than L1 and sits
between L1 and main memory (RAM).
 - It stores data and instructions for slightly
longer-term use.
 - It offers a balance between speed and
capacity, helping reduce the time the CPU
spends waiting for data.
 3. **L3 Cache (Level-3 Cache)**:
 - L3 cache is the largest and located
further away from the CPU, often shared by
multiple CPU cores.
 - It serves as a buffer between RAM and
the CPU, storing data that isn't frequently
used.
 - It provides a compromise between
capacity and speed, further reducing
memory access latency for the CPU
compare L1, L2, and L3 cache with simple
real-life examples:

 1. **L1 Cache (Level-1)**:

 - **Example**: L1 cache is like your
pocket. It's tiny but super quick to access.
You keep important stuff, like your keys and
phone, there for immediate use.
 2. **L2 Cache (Level-2)**:
 - **Example**: L2 cache is like a drawer in
your desk. It's larger than your pocket (L1)
and still quite fast. You keep documents
you're actively working on in there for quick
access.
 3. **L3 Cache (Level-3)**:
 - **Example**: L3 cache is like a bookshelf
in your office. It's bigger but slightly slower
to access. You store reference materials and
books there. It helps when you need
something not in your desk (L2) or pocket
(L1).
 In a computer, these caches work together
to provide fast access to data the CPU
needs. L1 is the quickest but smallest, L2 is
larger and slightly slower, and L3 is even
larger and a bit slower but still faster than
accessing data from RAM (main memory).
2.3.1 compare magnetic, optical
and solid state storage devices;
 Let's compare magnetic, optical, and solid-state
storage devices:

 1. **Magnetic Storage** (e.g., Hard Disk Drive -

HDD):
 - Uses magnetic platters to store data.
 - Offers high capacity and relatively lower cost
per gigabyte.
 - Slower data access compared to solid-state.
 - Examples include traditional hard drives you
find in many computers.
 2. **Optical Storage** (e.g., DVD, Blu-ray):
 - Uses laser technology to read and write
data on optical discs.
 - Suitable for archiving data, like movies
and software.
 - Slower data access than solid-state, and
capacities are limited.
 - Examples include DVD and Blu-ray discs
used for movies and software installation.
 3. **Solid-State Storage** (e.g., Solid-State Drive - SSD):
 - Stores data on flash memory chips (no moving parts).
 - Provides fast data access, low power consumption,
and durability.
 - Relatively more expensive per gigabyte compared to
magnetic storage.
 - Examples include modern laptop SSDs, USB flash
drives, and memory cards in cameras.

 In simple terms, magnetic storage (HDD) is like a big,

but slower bookshelf, optical storage is like DVDs for
movies, and solid-state storage (SSD) is like a speedy
USB drive for quick data access.
2.3.2 describe magnetic storage and its
types, i.e. magnetic tapes and disks
2.3.3 describe various types of optical
storage media, i.e. Compact Discs
(CDs), Digital Versatile Discs (DVDs)
and Blu-Ray;
2.3.4 identify CDs and DVDs as CD-ROM, CD-R,
CD-RW, DVDROM, DVD-R, DVD-RW and DVD-
RAM

 **CD Formats:**
 1. **CD-ROM (Compact Disc - Read-Only Memory)**:
 - Read-only, can't be written to.
 - Example: Software installation discs.

 2. **CD-R (Compact Disc - Recordable)**:

 - Write once, read multiple times.
 - Example: Burning a music album you want to
keep.
 3. **CD-RW (Compact Disc - ReWritable)**:
 - Reusable, can be written and erased multiple
times.
 - Example: Temporary data backups or rewriting
files.

 **DVD Formats:**
 4. **DVD-ROM (Digital Versatile Disc - Read-Only
Memory)**:
 - Read-only, used for movies or software.
 - Example: Movie DVDs or software installation
discs.
 5. **DVD-R (Digital Versatile Disc - Recordable)**:
 - Write once, read multiple times.
 - Example: Creating a DVD with your home
videos.

 6. **DVD-RW (Digital Versatile Disc -

ReWritable)**:
 - Reusable, can be written and erased multiple
times.
 - Example: Storing temporary data or making
changes to a DVD.
 7. **DVD-RAM (Digital Versatile Disc -
Random Access Memory)**:
 - Reusable with random access like a hard
drive.
 - Example: Used in some video recorders
and data backup systems.

 Each of these CD and DVD formats serves a

specific purpose, allowing you to read or
write data in different ways.
2.3.5 describe solid state storage devices
(flash memory and Secure Digital (SD) cards);
2.3.6 differentiate between sequential
and direct access storage.