Foundations of Human

Computer Interaction
What is Human-Computer Interaction
(HCI) ?
Daniela Rus, Professor and Director of the MIT Computer
Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory (CSAIL), not
only is a promoter of HCI, but believes wholeheartedly in
its pivotal role in shaping our future. As she says; “Future
human-computer interactions will make it much easier for
people and machines to work together. It will make it
possible for machines to support people in cognitive tasks
as well as physical tasks. The future holds a lot of
possibilities for people and machines working together.”
What is Human-Computer Interaction
(HCI) ?

From automatically dishing out soap in the restroom to

controlling the air-fuel ratio in your car’s
engine, computers are everywhere. We interact with
them constantly—some more than others—and the
interaction is, unfortunately, not always as easy as we
hope for.
 What is Human-Computer Interaction
(HCI) ?
HCI is focused mainly on developing empirical
understandings of users…
The definition of Human-Computer Interaction (HCI)
needs to remain quite broad, as it now covers almost all
forms of information technology (IT).1 HCI is the study of
designing computers and machines so that they best
serve their users (i.e. humans). HCI is closely related to the
field of User Experience (UX) design and is considered by
many to be the forefather of this more modern approach.2
Why does HCI matter?

HCI is the study of how computers and machines can

serve us better. It might sound simple, but this field is so
fast-moving and exciting in the 21st century that it’s
helped to bring around some of our proudest inventions,
like virtual reality, self-driving cars, and all of your beloved
touch screen technology.
Why does HCI matter?

“I think it’s a strange thing that in software, perhaps we’ve

been so insensitive to our users that we’ve had to invent
this term. But the truth is that user interaction design is
the very essence of design.” — Daniel Jackson, Professor
of Computer Science, MIT CSAIL
What is the future of Human-
Computer Interaction?

Looking into the potential of where HCI might lead us can

feel as if you’re diving into a sci-fi novel. That’s because,
naturally, HCI wants technology to be as normal and easily
accessible in our day-to-day life as possible, which creates
a window into a seemingly futuristic world.
 1. Dexta haptic gloves were invented to
mimic touch sensations of hardness,
softness, springiness, and more, when
using virtual reality. The gloves simulate
these sensations by locking and unlocking
the user’s fingers’ joints to different
degrees as they interact with objects with
their VR experience.
…watch video clip
2. Pre-touch sensing helps your smartphone
read your mind (almost). When launched, pre-
touch phones should be able to understand
how the user is holding it or what fingers are
approaching the screen to predict what the
user wants to do. This would give the sense
that your phone can read your mind as it
performs actions before you even give your
phone a clear command..
…watch video clip
 3. PaperID is the next attempt at digitizing
paper, by making it into a touchscreen. This
new technology supposedly will give paper
“the ability to sense its surroundings and
respond to gesture commands, as well as
connect to the Internet of Things”. The idea is
to link the physical and the digital world
together—imagine “a page of sheet music that
can detect the motion of a conductor’s wand
being waved over it”.…watch video clip
 “THE HUMAN”
Information input/output: visual, auditory,
haptic, movement.

Information stored in memory: sensory,

short-term, long-term.
Information processed and applied:
reasoning, problem-solving, skill, error.

Emotion influences human capabilities.

(ability, competency)

Each person is different.

 VISION
TWO (2) STAGES:

1. Physical reception/function of
stimulus. (causes an action or response)
2. Processing and interpretation of
stimulus.
 THE EYE – Physical reception
Mechanism for receiving light and
transforming it into electrical energy.

LIGHT reflects from objects.

Retina contains rods for low light vision and
cones for color vision.

Ganglion cells (collect visual information)

detect pattern and movement.
 INTERPRETING THE
SIGNAL
1. Size and Depth
2. Brightness
3. Color
 SIZE AND DEPTH

Visual angle: indicates how much of view an object

occupies.
(relates to size and distance from eye)
 SIZE AND DEPTH
Visual acuity(sharpness): is the ability to perceive
detail. (limited)
- Familiar objects perceived as constant size (in
spite of changes in visual angle when far away)

size constancy
 SIZE AND DEPTH

Cues like overlapping help perception of size an

depth.
 BRIGHTNESS

Subjective reaction to levels of light (sensitivity to

light)

Affected by luminance (intensity of light) of an

object.

Visual acuity increases with luminance as does flicker

 COLOR

Made up of hue, intensity, and saturation.

Hue: a color and a shade of a color.
Intensity: refers to the purity of a hue.
Saturation: refers to the dominance of hue in
the color.

8% males and 1% females are color blind.

 INTERPRETING THE SIGNAL

• The visual system compensates for:

- movement
- changes in luminance.
• Context is used to resolve ambiguity
• Optical illusions sometimes occur due to
over-compression
 the Muller Lyer illusion

the Ponzo illusion

 INFORMATION INPUT/OUTPUT

1) Visual
2) Auditory
3) Haptic
4) Movement
 VISUAL: Reading
• Visual patterns are perceived.
• Decoded using internal representation of
language.
• Interpreted using knowledge of syntax,
semantics, and pragmatics.
• Involves saccades and fixations.
• Syntax: the arrangement of words and phrases
to create well-formed sentences in a language.
• Semantics: concerned with meaning, such as
sense and implication.
• Pragmatics: focuses on conversational
implicature, which is a process in which the
speaker implies and a listener infers.
• Saccades: a rapid movement of the eye
between fixation points.
• Fixations: an unnaturally strong interest in
something or someone.
 AUDITORY: Hearing
• Provides information about environment.
• Physical apparatus:
1.) Outer ear: protects inner and amplifies
or increases sound.
2.) Middle ear: transmits sound waves as
vibrations to inner ear.
3.) Inner ear: chemical transmitters are
released and cause impulses in auditory
nerve.
 AUDITORY: Hearing
• Sound
Pitch: sound frequency.
Loudness: amplitude.
Timbre: type or quality.
• Humans can hear frequencies from 20Hz
up to 15KHz.
• Auditory system filters sounds and can
attend to sounds over background noise.
 HAPTIC: Touch
• Provides important feedback about
environment.
• May be the key sense for someone who is
visually impaired.
• Stimulus perceived via receptors in the skin:
Thermoreceptors: heat and cold.
Nociceptors: pain.
Mechanoreceptors: pressure or tension.
 MOVEMENT
• Time taken to respond to stimulus: reaction
time + movement time.
• Movement time is dependent on age,
fitness, etc.
• Reaction time is dependent on stimulus
type:
Visual: 200ms.
Auditory: 150ms.
Pain: 700ms.
 INFORMATION STORED IN
MEMORY
1) Sensory
2) Short-term
3) Long-term
 SENSORY MEMORY
• Also known as working memory.
• Buffers for stimuli received through
senses.
Iconic memory: visual stimuli.
Echoic memory: aural stimuli.
Haptic memory: tactile memory.
 SHORT-TERM MEMORY

• Scratch pad for temporary recall.

Rapid access: 70ms.
Rapid decay: 200ms.
 LONG-TERM MEMORY

• Repository for all our knowledge.

- Slow access.
- Slow decay.
- Huge/unlimited capacity.
 LONG-TERM MEMORY
TWO (2) TYPES:

1. Episodic – serial memory of events.

2. Semantic – structured memory of facts,
concepts, and skills.

Semantic LTM is derived from

Episodic LTM.
 SEMANTIC MEMORY
STRUCTURE
• It provides access to information.
• It represents relationships between
bits of information.
• It supports inference -- a conclusion
reached on the basis of evidence and
reasoning.
 MODEL: SEMANTIC
NETWORK
• Inheritance – child nodes inherit
properties of parent nodes.
• Relationships between bits of
information explicit and precise.
• It supports inference through
inheritance.
 MODELS OF LONG-TERM
MEMORY
1. Frames – information organized in data
structures. Slots in data structures
instantiated with values for instance of data.
2. Scripts – models of stereotypical
information required to interpret situation.
It has elements that can be instantiated with
values of context.
 MODELS OF LONG-TERM
MEMORY
3. Production rules – representation of
procedural knowledge. Condition/Action
rules:

“If condition is matched, then use rule

to determine action.”
 LTM – Storage of Information
• Rehearsal – information moves from STM to
LTM.
• Total time hypothesis – amount retained
proportional to rehearsal time, amount of
time is equal to amount of learning.
• Distribution of practice effect optimized by
spreading learning over time.
 LTM – Forgetting
• Decay – information is lost gradually but
very slowly.
• Interference
Retroactive interference: new
information replaces old.
Proactive inhibition: old may interfere
with new.
 LTM – Retrieval
• Recall – information reproduced from
memory can be assisted by cue like
categories or imagery.
• Recognition – information gives knowledge
that it has been seen before. It is less
complex.
 INFORMATION PROCESSED
AND APPLIED
1) Reasoning
2) Problem-solving
3) Skill
4) Error
 REASONING
• Deductive reasoning
- derive logically necessary conclusion
from given premises; logical / reasonable
thinking.
- when truth and logical validity clash.
 REASONING
• Inductive reasoning
- generalizes from cases seen to cases
unseen.
- assuming; can or cannot be true.
 REASONING
• Abductive reasoning
- reasoning from event to cause.
- can lead to false explanations.
 PROBLEM-SOLVING
• Process of finding solution to unfamiliar
tasks using knowledge.
• Several theories:
1. Gestalt theory
- problem solving form both
productive and reproductive.
- attractive but not enough evidence
to explain insight.
 PROBLEM-SOLVING
2. Problem space theory
- problem solving involves generating
states using legal operators.
- operates within human information
processing system.
 SKILL ACQUISITION
• Skilled activity characterized by
chunking.
• Conceptual rather than superficial
grouping of problems.
• Information is structured more
effectively.
 ERRORS
TWO (2) TYPES:
1. Slips
- right intention, but failed to do it
right.
- causes poor physical skill.
2. Mistakes
- wrong intention, misinterpreted.
- causes incorrect understanding.
 EMOTION
• Emotion clearly involves both the cognitive
and physical response to stimuli.
• It is the biological response to physical stimuli
called affect – influences how we respond to
situations.
Positive affect: creative problem-solving.
Negative affect: narrow thinking.
“Negative affect can make it harder to do even easy tasks;
Positive affect can make it easier to do difficult tasks.”
-Donald Norman
 EMOTION
Various theories of how emotion works:
1. James-Lange: Emotion is our interpretation
of a physiological response to stimuli.
2. Cannon: Emotion is a physiological
response to a stimuli.
3. Schacter-Singer: Emotion is the result of
our evaluation of our physiological
response, in the light of the whole
situation we are in.
 SKILL ACQUISITION
• Skilled activity characterized by
chunking.
• Conceptual rather than superficial
grouping of problems.
• Information is structured more
effectively.
 chapter 2

the computer
 The Computer
a computer system is made up of various elements

each of these elements affects the interaction

– input devices – text entry and pointing
– output devices – screen (small&large), digital paper
– virtual reality – special interaction and display devices
– physical interaction – e.g. sound, haptic, bio-sensing
– paper – as output (print) and input (scan)
– memory – RAM & permanent media, capacity & access
– processing – speed of processing, networks
 Interacting with computers

to understand human–computer interaction

… need to understand computers!

what goes in and out

devices, paper,
sensors, etc.

what can it do?

memory, processing,
networks
 A ‘typical’ computer system
?
• screen, or monitor, on which there are windows
• keyboard
• mouse/trackpad
window 1

• variations
– desktop window 2

– laptop
– PDA

12-37pm
the devices dictate the styles of interaction that the system supports
If we use different devices, then the interface will support a different style of interaction
 How many …
• computers in your house?
– hands up, …
… none, 1, 2 , 3, more!!

• computers in your pockets?

are you thinking …

… PC, laptop, PDA ??
 How many computers …
ininyour
yourhouse?
pockets?
– –PCPDA
– –TV,phone,
VCR, DVD,
camera
HiFi, cable/satellite TV
– –microwave,
smart card,
cooker,
card with
washing
magnetic
machinestrip?
– –central
electronic
heating
car key
– –security
USB memory
system

cantry
you
your
think
pockets
of more?
and bags
 Interactivity?
Long ago in a galaxy far away … batch processing
– punched card stacks or large data files prepared
– long wait ….
– line printer output
… and if it is not right …

Now most computing is interactive

– rapid feedback
– the user in control (most of the time)
– doing rather than thinking …

Is faster always better?

Richer interaction

sensors
and devices
everywhere
 text entry devices

keyboards (QWERTY et al.)

chord keyboards, phone pads
handwriting, speech
 Keyboards
• Most common text input device
• Allows rapid entry of text by experienced users

• Keypress closes connection, causing a character code to be sent

• Usually connected by cable, but can be wireless
 layout – QWERTY
• Standardised layout
but …
– non-alphanumeric keys are placed differently
– accented symbols needed for different scripts
– minor differences between UK and USA keyboards

• QWERTY arrangement not optimal for typing

– layout to prevent typewriters jamming!
• Alternative designs allow faster typing but large social base of QWERTY typists produces reluctance
to change.
 QWERTY (ctd)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0
Q W E R T Y U I O P
A S D F G H J K L
Z X C V B N M , .
SPACE
 alternative keyboard layouts
Alphabetic
– keys arranged in alphabetic order
– not faster for trained typists
– not faster for beginners either!

Dvorak
– common letters under dominant fingers
– biased towards right hand
– common combinations of letters alternate between hands
– 10-15% improvement in speed and reduction in fatigue
– But - large social base of QWERTY typists produce market pressures not to change
 special keyboards
• designs to reduce fatigue for RSI
• for one handed use
e.g. the Maltron left-handed keyboard
 Chord keyboards
only a few keys - four or 5
letters typed as combination of keypresses
compact size
– ideal for portable applications
short learning time
– keypresses reflect letter shape
fast
– once you have trained

BUT - social resistance, plus fatigue after extended use

NEW – niche market for some wearables
 phone pad and T9 entry
• use numeric keys with
multiple presses
2–abc 6-mno
3-def 7-pqrs
4-ghi 8-tuv
5-jkl 9-wxyz
hello = 4433555[pause]555666
surprisingly fast!
• T9 predictive entry
– type as if single key for each letter
– use dictionary to ‘guess’ the right word
– hello = 43556 …
– but 26 -> menu ‘am’ or ‘an’
 Handwriting recognition
• Text can be input into the computer, using a pen and a digesting tablet
– natural interaction

• Technical problems:
– capturing all useful information - stroke path, pressure, etc. in a natural manner
– segmenting joined up writing into individual letters
– interpreting individual letters
– coping with different styles of handwriting

• Used in PDAs, and tablet computers …

… leave the keyboard on the desk!
 Speech recognition
• Improving rapidly
• Most successful when:
– single user – initial training and learns peculiarities
– limited vocabulary systems

• Problems with
– external noise interfering
– imprecision of pronunciation
– large vocabularies
– different speakers
 Numeric keypads

• for entering numbers quickly:

– calculator, PC keyboard
• for telephones
1 2 3 7 8 9

4 5 6 4 5 6
not the same!!
7 8 9 1 2 3

.
ATM like phone *
0 # 0 =

telephone calculator
positioning, pointing and drawing

mouse, touchpad
trackballs, joysticks etc.
touch screens, tablets
eyegaze, cursors
 the Mouse
• Handheld pointing device
– very common
– easy to use

• Two characteristics
– planar movement
– buttons
(usually from 1 to 3 buttons on top, used for making a selection, indicating an
option, or to initiate drawing etc.)
 the mouse (ctd)
Mouse located on desktop
– requires physical space
– no arm fatigue

Relative movement only is detectable.

Movement of mouse moves screen cursor
Screen cursor oriented in (x, y) plane,
mouse movement in (x, z) plane …
… an indirect manipulation device.
– device itself doesn’t obscure screen, is accurate and fast.
– hand-eye coordination problems for novice users
 How does it work?
Two methods for detecting motion

• Mechanical
– Ball on underside of mouse turns as mouse is moved
– Rotates orthogonal potentiometers
– Can be used on almost any flat surface

• Optical
– light emitting diode on underside of mouse
– may use special grid-like pad or just on desk
– less susceptible to dust and dirt
– detects fluctuating alterations in reflected light intensity to calculate relative motion in (x, z) plane
 Even by foot …
• some experiments with the footmouse
– controlling mouse movement with feet …
– not very common :-)

• but foot controls are common elsewhere:

– car pedals
– sewing machine speed control
– organ and piano pedals
 Touchpad
• small touch sensitive tablets
• ‘stroke’ to move mouse pointer
• used mainly in laptop computers

• good ‘acceleration’ settings important

– fast stroke
• lots of pixels per inch moved
• initial movement to the target
– slow stroke
• less pixels per inch
• for accurate positioning
 Trackball and thumbwheels
Trackball
– ball is rotated inside static housing
• like an upsdie down mouse!
– relative motion moves cursor
– indirect device, fairly accurate
– separate buttons for picking
– very fast for gaming
– used in some portable and notebook computers.

Thumbwheels …
– for accurate CAD – two dials for X-Y cursor position
– for fast scrolling – single dial on mouse
 Joystick and keyboard nipple
Joystick
– indirect
pressure of stick = velocity of movement
– buttons for selection
on top or on front like a trigger
– often used for computer games
aircraft controls and 3D navigation

Keyboard nipple
– for laptop computers
– miniature joystick in the middle of the keyboard
 Touch-sensitive screen
• Detect the presence of finger or stylus on the screen.
– works by interrupting matrix of light beams, capacitance changes or ultrasonic reflections
– direct pointing device

• Advantages:
– fast, and requires no specialised pointer
– good for menu selection
– suitable for use in hostile environment: clean and safe from damage.

• Disadvantages:
– finger can mark screen
– imprecise (finger is a fairly blunt instrument!)
• difficult to select small regions or perform accurate drawing
– lifting arm can be tiring
 Stylus and light pen
Stylus
– small pen-like pointer to draw directly on screen
– may use touch sensitive surface or magnetic detection
– used in PDA, tablets PCs and drawing tables

Light Pen
– now rarely used
– uses light from screen to detect location

BOTH …
– very direct and obvious to use
– but can obscure screen
 Digitizing tablet
• Mouse like-device with cross hairs

• used on special surface

- rather like stylus

• very accurate
- used for digitizing maps
 Eyegaze
• control interface by eye gaze direction
– e.g. look at a menu item to select it
• uses laser beam reflected off retina
– … a very low power laser!
• mainly used for evaluation (ch x)
• potential for hands-free control
• high accuracy requires headset
• cheaper and lower accuracy devices available
sit under the screen like a small webcam
 Cursor keys
• Four keys (up, down, left, right) on keyboard.
• Very, very cheap, but slow.
• Useful for not much more than basic motion for text-editing tasks.
• No standardised layout, but inverted “T”, most common
 Discrete positioning controls
• in phones, TV controls etc.
– cursor pads or mini-joysticks
– discrete left-right, up-down
– mainly for menu selection
 display devices

bitmap screens (CRT & LCD)

large & situated displays
digital paper
 bitmap displays
• screen is vast number of coloured dots
 resolution and colour depth
• Resolution … used (inconsistently) for
– number of pixels on screen (width x height)
• e.g. SVGA 1024 x 768, PDA perhaps 240x400
– density of pixels (in pixels or dots per inch - dpi)
• typically between 72 and 96 dpi
• Aspect ratio
– ration between width and height
– 4:3 for most screens, 16:9 for wide-screen TV
• Colour depth:
– how many different colours for each pixel?
– black/white or greys only
– 256 from a pallete
– 8 bits each for red/green/blue = millions of colours
 anti-aliasing

Jaggies
– diagonal lines that have discontinuities in due to horizontal raster scan
process.

Anti-aliasing
– softens edges by using shades of line colour
– also used for text
 Cathode ray tube
• Stream of electrons emitted from electron gun, focused and directed by magnetic fields, hit
phosphor-coated screen which glows
• used in TVs and computer monitors

electron beam

electron gun

focussing and
deflection

phosphor-
coated screen
 Health hazards of CRT !
• X-rays: largely absorbed by screen (but not at rear!)
• UV- and IR-radiation from phosphors: insignificant levels
• Radio frequency emissions, plus ultrasound (~16kHz)
• Electrostatic field - leaks out through tube to user. Intensity dependant on distance and humidity.
Can cause rashes.
• Electromagnetic fields (50Hz-0.5MHz). Create induction currents in conductive materials, including
the human body. Two types of effects attributed to this: visual system - high incidence of cataracts in
VDU operators, and concern over reproductive disorders (miscarriages and birth defects).
 Health hints …
• do not sit too close to the screen
• do not use very small fonts
• do not look at the screen for long periods without a break
• do not place the screen directly in front of a bright window
• work in well-lit surroundings

 Take extra care if pregnant.

but also posture, ergonomics, stress
 Liquid crystal displays
• Smaller, lighter, and … no radiation problems.

• Found on PDAs, portables and notebooks,

… and increasingly on desktop and even for home TV

• also used in dedicted displays:

digital watches, mobile phones, HiFi controls

• How it works …
– Top plate transparent and polarised, bottom plate reflecting.
– Light passes through top plate and crystal, and reflects back to eye.
– Voltage applied to crystal changes polarisation and hence colour
– N.B. light reflected not emitted => less eye strain
 special displays
Random Scan (Directed-beam refresh, vector display)
– draw the lines to be displayed directly
– no jaggies
– lines need to be constantly redrawn
– rarely used except in special instruments

Direct view storage tube (DVST)

– Similar to random scan but persistent => no flicker
– Can be incrementally updated but not selectively erased
– Used in analogue storage oscilloscopes
 large displays
• used for meetings, lectures, etc.
• technology
plasma – usually wide screen
video walls – lots of small screens together
projected – RGB lights or LCD projector
– hand/body obscures screen
– may be solved by 2 projectors + clever software
back-projected
– frosted glass + projector behind
 situated displays
• displays in ‘public’ places
– large or small
– very public or for small group
• display only
– for information relevant to location
• or interactive
– use stylus, touch sensitive screem
• in all cases … the location matters
– meaning of information or interaction is related to the location
 Hermes a situated display
• small displays beside office doors
• handwritten notes left using stylus
• office owner
smallreads notes using web interface
displays
beside
office doors

handwritten
office owner
notes left
reads notes
using stylus
using web interface
 Digital paper
• what? appearance

– thin flexible sheets

– updated electronically
– but retain display cross
section
• how?
– small spheres turned
– or channels with coloured liquid
and contrasting spheres
– rapidly developing area
virtual reality and 3D interaction

positioning in 3D space
moving and grasping
seeing 3D (helmets and caves)
 positioning in 3D space
• cockpit and virtual controls
– steering wheels, knobs and dials … just like real!
• the 3D mouse
– six-degrees of movement: x, y, z + roll, pitch, yaw
• data glove
– fibre optics used to detect finger position
• VR helmets
– detect head motion and possibly eye gaze
• whole body tracking
– accelerometers strapped to limbs or reflective dots and video processing
 pitch, yaw and roll

yaw

roll
pitch
 3D displays
• desktop VR
– ordinary screen, mouse or keyboard control
– perspective and motion give 3D effect
• seeing in 3D
– use stereoscopic vision
– VR helmets
– screen plus shuttered specs, etc.

also see extra slides on 3D vision

 VR headsets
• small TV screen for each eye
• slightly different angles
• 3D effect
 VR motion sickness
• time delay
– move head … lag … display moves
– conflict: head movement vs. eyes
• depth perception
– headset gives different stereo distance
– but all focused in same plane
– conflict: eye angle vs. focus
• conflicting cues => sickness
– helps motivate improvements in technology
 simulators and VR caves

• scenes projected on walls

• realistic environment
• hydraulic rams!
• real controls
• other people
physical controls, sensors etc.

special displays and gauges

sound, touch, feel, smell
physical controls
environmental and bio-sensing
 dedicated displays
• analogue representations:
– dials, gauges, lights, etc.

• digital displays:
– small LCD screens, LED lights, etc.

• head-up displays
– found in aircraft cockpits
– show most important controls
… depending on context
 Sounds
• beeps, bongs, clonks, whistles and whirrs

• used for error indications

• confirmation of actions e.g. keyclick

also see chapter 10

 Touch, feel, smell
• touch and feeling important
– in games … vibration, force feedback
– in simulation … feel of surgical instruments
– called haptic devices

• texture, smell, taste

– current technology very limited
 BMW iDrive
• for controlling menus
• feel small ‘bumps’ for each item
• makes it easier to select options by feel
• uses haptic technology from Immersion Corp.
 physical controls

• specialist controls needed …

– industrial controls, consumer products, etc.
easy-clean
smooth buttons

multi-function
control
large buttons
clear dials

tiny buttons
 Environment and bio-sensing
• sensors all around us
– car courtesy light – small switch on door
– ultrasound detectors – security, washbasins
– RFID security tags in shops
– temperature, weight, location

• … and even our own bodies …

– iris scanners, body temperature, heart rate, galvanic skin response,
blink rate
paper: printing and scanning

print technology
fonts, page description, WYSIWYG
scanning, OCR
 Printing
• image made from small dots
– allows any character set or graphic to be printed,
• critical features:
– resolution
• size and spacing of the dots
• measured in dots per inch (dpi)
– speed
• usually measured in pages per minute
– cost!!
 Types of dot-based printers
• dot-matrix printers
– use inked ribbon (like a typewriter
– line of pins that can strike the ribbon, dotting the paper.
– typical resolution 80-120 dpi
• ink-jet and bubble-jet printers
– tiny blobs of ink sent from print head to paper
– typically 300 dpi or better .
• laser printer
– like photocopier: dots of electrostatic charge deposited on drum, which picks up toner (black powder form
of ink) rolled onto paper which is then fixed with heat
– typically 600 dpi or better.
 Printing in the workplace
• shop tills
– dot matrix
– same print head used for several paper rolls
– may also print cheques

• thermal printers
– special heat-sensitive paper
– paper heated by pins makes a dot
– poor quality, but simple & low maintenance
– used in some fax machines
 Fonts
• Font – the particular style of text
Courier font
Helvetica font
Palatino font
Times Roman font
• §´µº¿Â Ä¿~ (special symbol)

• Size of a font measured in points (1 pt about 1/72”)

(vaguely) related to its height
This is ten point Helvetica
This is twelve point
This is fourteen point
This is eighteen point
and this is twenty-four point
 Fonts (ctd)
Pitch
– fixed-pitch – every character has the same width
e.g. Courier
– variable-pitched – some characters wider
e.g. Times Roman – compare the ‘i’ and the “m”
Serif or Sans-serif
– sans-serif – square-ended strokes
e.g. Helvetica
– serif – with splayed ends (such as)
e.g. Times Roman or Palatino
 Readability of text
• lowercase
– easy to read shape of words
• UPPERCASE
– better for individual letters and non-words
e.g. flight numbers: BA793 vs. ba793

• serif fonts
– helps your eye on long lines of printed text
– but sans serif often better on screen
 Page Description Languages
• Pages very complex
– different fonts, bitmaps, lines, digitised photos, etc.

• Can convert it all into a bitmap and send to the printer

… but often huge !

• Alternatively Use a page description language

– sends a description of the page can be sent,
– instructions for curves, lines, text in different styles, etc.
– like a programming language for printing!

• PostScript is the most common

 Screen and page
• WYSIWYG
– what you see is what you get
– aim of word processing, etc.
• but …
– screen: 72 dpi, landscape image
– print: 600+ dpi, portrait
• can try to make them similar
but never quite the same
• so … need different designs, graphics etc, for screen and print
 Scanners
• Take paper and convert it into a bitmap

• Two sorts of scanner

– flat-bed: paper placed on a glass plate, whole page converted into bitmap
– hand-held: scanner passed over paper, digitising strip typically 3-4” wide

• Shines light at paper and note intensity of reflection

– colour or greyscale

• Typical resolutions from 600–2400 dpi

 Scanners (ctd)
Used in
– desktop publishing for incorporating photographs and other images
– document storage and retrieval systems, doing away with paper
storage
+ special scanners for slides and photographic negatives
 Optical character recognition
• OCR converts bitmap back into text
• different fonts
– create problems for simple “template matching” algorithms
– more complex systems segment text, decompose it into lines and
arcs, and decipher characters that way
• page format
– columns, pictures, headers and footers
 Paper-based interaction
• paper usually regarded as output only
• can be input too – OCR, scanning, etc.
• Xerox PaperWorks
– glyphs – small patterns of /\\//\\\
• used to identify forms etc.
• used with scanner and fax to control applications

• more recently
– papers micro printed - like wattermarks
• identify which sheet and where you are
– special ‘pen’ can read locations
• know where they are writing
 memory

short term and long term

speed, capacity, compression
formats, access
 Short-term Memory - RAM
• Random access memory (RAM)
– on silicon chips
– 100 nano-second access time
– usually volatile (lose information if power turned off)
– data transferred at around 100 Mbytes/sec

• Some non-volatile RAM used to store basic set-up information

• Typical desktop computers:

64 to 256 Mbytes RAM
 Long-term Memory - disks
• magnetic disks
– floppy disks store around 1.4 Mbytes
– hard disks typically 40 Gbytes to 100s of Gbytes
access time ~10ms, transfer rate 100kbytes/s

• optical disks
– use lasers to read and sometimes write
– more robust that magnetic media
– CD-ROM
- same technology as home audio, ~ 600 Gbytes
– DVD - for AV applications, or very large files
 Blurring boundaries
• PDAs
– often use RAM for their main memory

• Flash-Memory
– used in PDAs, cameras etc.
– silicon based but persistent
– plug-in USB devices for data transfer
 speed and capacity
• what do the numbers mean?

• some sizes (all uncompressed) …

– this book, text only ~ 320,000 words, 2Mb
– the Bible ~ 4.5 Mbytes
– scanned page ~ 128 Mbytes
• (11x8 inches, 1200 dpi, 8bit greyscale)
– digital photo ~ 10 Mbytes
• (2–4 mega pixels, 24 bit colour)
– video ~ 10 Mbytes per second
• (512x512, 12 bit colour, 25 frames per sec)
 virtual memory
• Problem:
– running lots of programs + each program large
– not enough RAM

• Solution - Virtual memory :

– store some programs temporarily on disk
– makes RAM appear bigger

• But … swopping
– program on disk needs to run again
– copied from disk to RAM
– slows t h i n g s d o w n
 Compression
• reduce amount of storage required
• lossless
– recover exact text or image – e.g. GIF, ZIP
– look for commonalities:
• text: AAAAAAAAAABBBBBCCCCCCCC 10A5B8C
• video: compare successive frames and store change
• lossy
– recover something like original – e.g. JPEG, MP3
– exploit perception
• JPEG: lose rapid changes and some colour
• MP3: reduce accuracy of drowned out notes
 Storage formats - text
• ASCII - 7-bit binary code for to each letter and character
• UTF-8 - 8-bit encoding of 16 bit character set
• RTF (rich text format)
- text plus formatting and layout information
• SGML (standardized generalised markup language)
- documents regarded as structured objects
• XML (extended markup language)
- simpler version of SGML for web applications
 Storage formats - media
• Images:
– many storage formats :
(PostScript, GIFF, JPEG, TIFF, PICT, etc.)
– plus different compression techniques
(to reduce their storage requirements)

• Audio/Video
– again lots of formats :
(QuickTime, MPEG, WAV, etc.)
– compression even more important
– also ‘streaming’ formats for network delivery
 methods of access
• large information store
– long time to search => use index
– what you index -> what you can access
• simple index needs exact match
• forgiving systems:
– Xerox “do what I mean” (DWIM)
– SOUNDEX – McCloud ~ MacCleod
• access without structure …
– free text indexing (all the words in a document)
– needs lots of space!!
 processing and networks

finite speed (but also Moore’s law)

limits of interaction
networked computing
 Finite processing speed
• Designers tend to assume fast processors, and make interfaces more and more complicated

• But problems occur, because processing cannot keep up with all the tasks it needs to do
– cursor overshooting because system has buffered keypresses
– icon wars - user clicks on icon, nothing happens, clicks on another, then system responds and windows fly
everywhere

• Also problems if system is too fast - e.g. help screens may scroll through text much too rapidly to be
read
 Moore’s law

• computers get faster and faster!

• 1965 …
– Gordon Moore, co-founder of Intel, noticed a pattern
– processor speed doubles every 18 months
– PC … 1987: 1.5 Mhz, 2002: 1.5 GHz
• similar pattern for memory
– but doubles every 12 months!!
– hard disk … 1991: 20Mbyte : 2002: 30 Gbyte
• baby born today
– record all sound and vision
– by 70 all life’s memories stored in a grain of dust!

/e3/online/moores-law/
 the myth of the infinitely
fast machine
• implicit assumption … no delays
an infinitely fast machine
• what is good design for real machines?
• good example … the telephone :
– type keys too fast
– hear tones as numbers sent down the line
– actually an accident of implementation
– emulate in deisgn
 Limitations on interactive performance
Computation bound
– Computation takes ages, causing frustration for the user
Storage channel bound
– Bottleneck in transference of data from disk to memory
Graphics bound
– Common bottleneck: updating displays requires a lot of effort - sometimes helped by adding a graphics co-
processor optimised to take on the burden
Network capacity
– Many computers networked - shared resources and files, access to printers etc. - but interactive
performance can be reduced by slow network speed
 Networked computing
Networks allow access to …
– large memory and processing
– other people (groupware, email)
– shared resources – esp. the web

Issues
– network delays – slow feedback
– conflicts - many people update data
– unpredictability
 The internet
• history …
– 1969: DARPANET US DoD, 4 sites
– 1971: 23; 1984: 1000; 1989: 10000
• common language (protocols):
– TCP – Transmission Control protocol
• lower level, packets (like letters) between machines
– IP – Internet Protocol
• reliable channel (like phone call) between programs on machines
– email, HTTP, all build on top of these
 THE COMPUTER
A computer system is made up of
various elements. Each of these
elements affects the interaction.
 INPUT DEVICES
These are pieces of hardware used to
provide data to a computer used for
interaction and control. It allows entry
of raw data to the computer for
processing.
 OUTPUT DEVICES
Refers to any piece of computer
hardware equipment which converts
information into human-readable form.
It can be in text, graphics, tangible,
audio, or video form.
To understand the human–computer
interaction, one needs to understand
computers.
 TEXT ENTRY DEVICES
• Mouse
• Joystick
• Touchpad
• Stylus Pen
• Keyboard
 DISPLAY DEVICES
• Plasma Display
• Liquid crystal display (LCD)
• Light-emitting diode (LED)
• Electroluminescent (ELD)
 MEMORY DEVICES
• Short-term memory (RAM)
• Long-term memory
• Flash memory
 END OF
DISCUSSION…