Chapter 2:

Elements and the periodic table

 VCAA Key Knowledge and Skills

• the definitions of elements, isotopes and ions, including appropriate notation: atomic
number; mass number; and number of protons, neutrons and electrons (2.1)

• the periodic table as an organisational tool to identify patterns and trends in, and
relationships between, the structures (including shell and subshell electronic configurations
and atomic radii) and properties (including electronegativity, first ionisation energy, metallic
and non-metallic character and reactivity) of elements (2.2, 2.3, 2.4, 2.5)

• critical elements (for example, helium, phosphorus, rare-earth elements and post-transition
metals and metalloids) and the importance of recycling processes for element recovery. (2.4)
 2.1:
The atomic world
 Atomic Theory

• 1802 – John Dalton developed the first atomic theory

of matter.
• Proposed that: all matter is made up of tiny spherical
particles that are indivisible and indestructible.
• Described elements as materials containing one type
of atom
• Described compounds as containing different types of
atoms in fixed ratios.
• We now know that atoms are not indivisible or
indestructible – they are made of subatomic particles.
 The structure of atoms

Atoms are made up of the following subatomic particles:

• protons, which are positively charged particles found in
the nucleus
• neutrons, which are neutrally charged particles found in
the nucleus
• electrons, which are negatively charged particles found
in energy levels orbiting around the nucleus.
 The structure of atoms

• Protons and neutrons are similar in size and mass.

• Electrons are approx. 1800 times smaller than protons

• The charges on protons and electrons are equal but

opposite.

• The electrons are bound to the nucleus by electrostatic

attraction (negative particles attract positive particles)
 Element symbols
• Atoms can be identified by how many protons they have.

• An element is made up of atoms that all contain the same number of protons in their nucleus.

• Each element has a name and a unique chemical symbol.

• The chemical symbol is made up of one or two letters.

• The first letter is always capitalised and subsequent letters are always lower case.

• In many cases, the chemical symbol corresponds to the name of the element.
• For example, nitrogen has the chemical symbol N, chlorine has the chemical symbol Cl and uranium has the
chemical symbol U.

• You may notice the symbol of an element on the periodic table doesn’t always match the first letters of their
name – this is because the symbols are derived from the Latin/Greek name of the element
• Examples: Fe – Iron, K – Potassium, Na – Sodium, Ag – Silver

• 118 elements have been discovered – 98 occur in nature, the rest have been observed in the lab.
Representing atoms
Example 1: Representing atoms

Represent a calcium atom using the correct notation.

Remember to include the atomic number and atomic mass
Example 1: Representing atoms

Represent a calcium atom using the correct notation.

Remember to include the atomic number and atomic mass
 Calculating the number of subatomic
particles

Protons = atomic number

Neutrons = atomic mass/mass number – atomic number

For an atom with a neutral/no charge, electrons = protons.

For a charged atom (ion), electrons = protons +/- charge

Example 2: Calculating subatomic particles

Calculate the number of each subatomic particle for a Ca atom.

Remember to show your working out.
Example 2: Calculating subatomic particles

Calculate the number of each subatomic particle for a Ca atom.

Remember to show your working out.

Protons = atomic number

= 20 protons
The atom has no overall charge, therefore, electrons = protons.

Electrons = atomic number

= 20 electrons

Neutrons = atomic mass – atomic number

= 40.08 – 20
= 20.08
= 20 neutrons
Example 3: Calculating subatomic particles

Calculate the number of each subatomic particle for a Ca2+ ion.

Remember to show your working out.
Example 3: Calculating subatomic particles

Calculate the number of each subatomic particle for a Ca2+ ion.

Remember to show your working out.

Protons = atomic number

= 20 protons

The atom has an overall charge of 2+ , therefore, 2 electrons have been lost.

Electrons = protons - 2
= 20 – 2
= 18 electrons

Neutrons = atomic mass – atomic number

= 40.08 – 20
= 20.08
= 20 neutrons
 Isotopes

• All atoms of an element have the same number of protons, therefore, the same atomic number (Z).

• Not all atoms of the same element have the same atomic mass (A)  meaning they have different numbers of

neutrons.

• Atoms of the same element that have different atomic masses/different numbers of neutrons are called

isotopes.
 Isotopes

• Isotopes are named based on their atomic mass

– Carbon-12 has an atomic mass of 12, Carbon-13 has an atomic mass of 13, Carbon-14 has an atomic mass of 14).

• Isotopes have the same chemical properties, but different physical properties.

• Some isotopes are radioactive.

Example 4: Isotopes of hydrogen

The pictures below show 3 isotopes of hydrogen.

Using the information provided, calculate the number of each subatomic
particle for each isotope.
Example 4: Isotopes of hydrogen
The pictures below show 3 isotopes of hydrogen.
Using the information provided, calculate the number of each subatomic
particle for each isotope.

Atomic number = 1 Atomic number = 1 Atomic number = 1

Atomic mass = 1 Atomic mass = 3
Atomic mass = 2
Neutrons = atomic mass – atomic number

Neutrons = 1 – 1 Neutrons = 2 – 1 Neutrons = 3 – 1

= 0 neutrons
= 1 neutron = 2 neutrons
1 proton
1 electron 1 proton 1 proton

1 electron 1 electron
Example 5: Naming isotopes
The pictures below show 3 isotopes of hydrogen.
Using the information provided, calculate the number of each subatomic
particle for each isotope.

The picture to the right shows 2 isotopes.

Using the information provided, determine:

a) The atomic number of each isotope

b) The atomic mass of each isotope

c) The name of each isotope

Example 5: Naming isotopes
The pictures below show 3 isotopes of hydrogen.
Using the information provided, calculate the number of each subatomic
particle for each isotope.

Atomic number = protons

=8

Atomic mass = protons + neutrons

=8+8

= 16

Name – determine using atomic number and finding

element on the periodic table (as the number of
protons doesn’t change).

Because the atom is oxygen and it has an atomic mass

of 16, it is called Oxygen-16.
Example 5: Naming isotopes
The pictures below show 3 isotopes of hydrogen.
Using the information provided, calculate the number of each subatomic
particle for each isotope.

Atomic number = protons

=8

Atomic mass = protons + neutrons

= 8 + 10

= 18

Name – determine using atomic number and finding

element on the periodic table (as the number of
protons doesn’t change).

Because the atom is oxygen and it has an atomic

mass of 18, it is called Oxygen-18.
 2.2:
Emission spectra and the Bohr
model
 Emission Spectra

• When atoms are heated, they give of

electromagnetic radiation or light.
• If the light passes through a prism, it produces as
spectrum with a black background and a number of
coloured lines – called a line spectra or emission
spectra.
• Each line on the spectrum corresponds to light of a
different energy.
• Violet (highest energy)  Blue  Green  Yellow 
Orange  Red (lowest energy)
 Information provided by emission
spectra
• The emission spectra produced is related to the

electronic structure within the atom.

• Atoms of the same element produced identical line

spectra.

• Each element has a unique line spectrum, and

therefore, a unique electronic structure.

 The Bohr Model

• In 1913, Niels Bohr developed a new model of the

hydrogen atom that explained emission spectra.

• Bohr’s model proposed the following:

1) Electrons revolve around the nucleus in fixed, circular orbits.

2) The electrons’ orbits correspond to specific energy levels in

the atom.
3) Electrons can only occupy fixed energy levels and cannot exist
between two energy levels.
4) Orbits of larger radii correspond to higher energy levels.
 The Bohr Model
Electron shells

• The electron shells of an atom (n) are labelled

using integers.
• The first shell is the shell closest to the nucleus and
the radius of each shell increases as the shell
number increases.
• Each shell corresponds to an energy level that
electrons can occupy.
• The first shell has the lowest energy and the
energy increases as the shell number increases
 The Bohr Model
Moving between energy levels

• Bohr’s model proposed that electrons were grouped in different

energy levels, called electron shells.

• The electron shell depends on the energy of the electron (closer

to nucleus = lower energy, further from nucleus = higher energy).

• Electrons can move between energy levels by absorbing or

emitting energy in the form of light.

• Even though Bohr’s model was based on hydrogen, it was
extended to other atoms.
 The Bohr Model
Moving between energy levels

How do electrons move to a higher energy state?

• Electrons start in their normal energy state – called the ground state  Element is heated  electrons absorb energy  electrons
jump to higher energy state (electron shell further from nucleus) – this is called an excited state.
 The Bohr Model
Moving between energy levels

What happens when electrons return to their lower energy state?

• Electrons return to the lower energy state – called the ground state  releases a fixed amount of energy (light energy).

• The electron can return to its ground state in a number of different ways - each pathway produces light of a particular colour within the emission

spectrum.

• Particular energies are emitted depending on how the electron returns to the lowest energy level – this determines the colours of light emitted.
 The Bohr Model
Moving between energy levels
 Electronic configuration in shells
• Bohr’s diagram – only the shells that are occupied are drawn

• 2n2 is used to determine the number of electrons each shell can hold (n = shell number)

• Examples:

Shell 1, n = 1.
• Max number of electrons = 2n2 = 2 x (1)2 = 2 x 1 = 2 electrons

Shell 2, n = 2.
• Max number of electrons = 2n2 = 2 x (2)2 = 2 x 4 = 8 electrons

Shell 3, n = 3.
• Max number of electrons = 2n2 = 2 x (3)2 = 2 x 9 = 18 electrons
Example 6: Calculating maximum number of
electrons
How many electrons can the 7th electron shell hold?
Example 6: Calculating maximum number of
electrons
How many electrons can the 7th electron shell hold?

Use formula: 2n2

n=7
Maximum electrons = 2 x 72

= 2 x 49

= 98 electrons
 Electronic configuration in shells

3 rules:

1) Each shell can only contain up to a maximum number of electrons.

2) Lower energy shells are filled before higher energy shells (closer to nucleus  further from nucleus)

3) Electron shells fill in a particular order.

• The first two electrons go into the first shell, next 8 electrons go into the 2nd shell.

• The third shell can hold 18 electrons, but once it contains 8 electrons, the next 2 electrons go into the fourth shell, and then
the rest of the 3rd shell is filled (10 electrons)
 Electronic configuration in shells
Valence electrons

• Valence shell – the outermost shell of an atom

• Valence electrons – electrons in the outermost shell of an atom.

• Valence electrons:
• Require the least amount of energy to remove

• Are involved in chemical reactions

• If known, can be used to predict the chemical properties of the element.

Example 7:
Bohr diagrams & electron configurations in shells

a) Draw a Bohr diagram for sodium.

b)Write the electron configuration for sodium
c) How many valence electrons does sodium have?
Example 7:
Bohr diagrams & electron configurations in shells
a) Draw a Bohr diagram for sodium.
b) Write the electron configuration for sodium
c) How many valence electrons does sodium have?

a) Sodium has an atomic number of 11, therefore, has a total of 11 electrons.

The 1st shell holds 2 electrons (9 electrons remaining)

The 2nd shell holds 8 electrons (1 electron remaining)

The 3rd shell holds a maximum of 18 electrons, but sodium only has 1 electron remaining, therefore,
it will hold 1 electron.

b) Configuration = 2, 8, 1

c) 1 valence electron
 2.3:
The Schrödinger Model Of The
Atom
(also known as The Quantum Mechanical Model)
 Bohr’s vs Schrödinger’s Model

In Bohr’s model: In Schrödinger’s quantum mechanical approach:

• Electrons are particles that travel along • Electrons behave as waves
a defined path in circular orbits. • Electrons occupy a 3D space around the nucleus.
• The region occupied by the electrons is known as an orbital.
 Schrödinger’s Model –
A Quantum Mechanical View of Atoms

• “Quantum” means specific amount (think of the word “quantity”)

• In 1926, Erwin Schrodinger proposed that electrons behave as waves around the nucleus.

• This was used to develop the model of the atom called quantum mechanics.

• Quantum mechanics describes the behaviour of extremely small particles like electrons 

accurately predicts the behaviour of electrons in an atom.

 The Schrödinger’s Model

By assuming that electrons have wave-like properties, Schrodinger found the following:

• There are major energy levels in an atom – called shells

• Shells contain separate energy levels of similar energy – called subshells

• Subshells are labelled: s, p, d and f

• Each subshell can only hold a certain number of electrons

• Each subshell is made up of smaller regions called orbitals

• Orbitals = defined as regions of space surrounding the nucleus of an atom in which electrons can be found

• The total number of orbitals in a shell is given by n2.

• Each orbital can contain 2 electrons – the number of electrons per shell is determined using 2n2
The Schrödinger’s Model
Shells, Subshells, and Orbitals
Electronic Configurations and The Schrödinger
Model
Electronic Configurations and The Schrödinger
Model
The rules for writing configurations using subshell notation are:
– The lowest energy orbitals are always filled first.
– Each orbital contains a maximum of 2 electrons.

– The order of energy levels of the subshells are shown by the diagram to the right
(start at the top – 1s – and follow the arrows)

– Note: subshell 4s is filled before 3d – do you notice any other subshells (in the
diagram) that follow a similar pattern? – Even though we fill the shells in this order,
we still group the subshells by their shell when writing configurations (so you
would write all the subshells for shell 3 together even though 4s fills before 3d)
Electronic Configurations and The Schrödinger
Model
You can use either of these diagrams

(they mean the same thing, but the one on the left just has the
maximum number of electrons written next to each subshell)
Electronic Configurations and The Schrödinger
Model
Example 8:
Schrödinger’s model & electron configurations in
subshells
Write the electron configuration for Aluminium
Example 8:
Schrödinger’s model & electron configurations in
subshells
Write the electron configuration for Aluminium

Aluminium has an atomic number of 13, meaning it has 13 electrons.

Using the diagram to the right:

This is the order the subshells will fill in: 1s22s22p63s23p1

Subshells of the same shell are already grouped together, so this is the final configuration – if
they weren’t, you would need to rearrange the configuration to ensure they are grouped
together.
Example 9:
Schrödinger’s model & electron configurations in
subshells
Write the electron configuration for Krypton
Example 9:
Schrödinger’s model & electron configurations in
subshells
Write the electron configuration for Krypton

Krypton has an atomic number of 36, meaning it has 36 electrons.

Using the diagram to the right:

This is the order the subshells will fill in: 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p6

However, we group subshells of the same shell together, so we write the final configuration as:

1s22s22p63s23p63d104s24p6
 Exceptions to the rule:
Copper and Chromium

• One electron is placed in each orbital first (rather than filling one completely before filling the next).

• The second electron is then placed into the shells until all electrons have been accounted for.

• The configuration that results from this is slightly more stable than the configuration according to
the rules/diagram.
 2.4:
The Periodic Table
 The Periodic Table

• A table that organises the elements by grouping

them according to their electronic configurations.

• Elements are arranged in order of increasing
atomic number.
• Horizontal rows are known as periods and are
labelled 1-7.
• Vertical columns are known as groups and are
labelled 1-18.
• Main group elements are in groups 1, 2 and 13-
18.
 The Periodic Table
Groups
Group 1
All elements in this group have 1 valence electron

• Vertical columns are known as groups and

are labelled 1-18.

• For group 1 and 2, the valence electrons are

equal to the group number.

• For groups 13-18, the number of valence

electrons is equal to the group number

minus 10.
 The Periodic Table
Groups
Group 1
• Valence electrons are involved in chemical reactions. All elements in this group have 1 valence electron

• As all elements in the same group have the same number of valence
electrons, they also have similar properties.

• All metals in group 1 (alkali metals) have 1 electron in the s-subshell,

resulting in similar chemical properties (e.g. highly reactive with
water and oxygen).

• All elements in group 17 (halogens) are highly reactive, with the

highest-energy subshell configuration of s2p5

• Elements in group 18 (noble gases) are stable/non-reactive. This is

due to their octet (8 electrons) of valence electrons.
 The Periodic Table
Periods
Period 3
• Horizontal rows are known as periods and All elements in this period have 3 electron shells

are labelled 1-7.

• The period of an element is equal to the

number of electron shells it has in its atom.

The Periodic Table
Blocks
 The Periodic Table
Endangered Elements
• In recent decades, some rare elements have been used in
bulk for the first time to produce new electronics, medicines
and catalysts.

• Unfortunately, our use of these materials is not sustainable,

as there is currently very little recycling or recovery of these
elements.

• As a consequence, over 40 elements have been identified as

being ‘endangered’, with supplies of some elements
predicted to run out in less than 100 years.

• Figure 2.4.7 highlights elements that have been identified as

endangered. (Note this classification is constantly changing
as our demand for elements changes, and new deposits are
 The Periodic Table
Critical Elements

• It is not just the reserves of an element that are

important in ensuring sustainability. In recent years
the concept of a critical element has developed.

• Critical elements are elements that are heavily relied

on for industry and society in areas such as renewable
energy, electronics, food supply and medicine.
• Some scientists and economists believe that
unhindered access to these elements is required for
the essential running of society.
• Critical elements face some form of supply
uncertainty.
 The Periodic Table
Critical Elements
Elements may be considered critical for a number of reasons:

• Only small deposits are available on Earth, and these are fast disappearing (endangered elements). For example, iridium, platinum,
osmium and palladium

• Supply of these elements is centred in places of war and conflict (conflict elements). Conflict elements include tin, gold, tungsten and
tantalum, which are essential in mobile phone production.

• These elements are mined in areas of war and conflict, and routinely use child labour in their mining, which makes their use non-
sustainable.

• There is little to no recycling and recovery of the element, so reserves are being used up. For example, the rare earth elements
(Lanthanides).

• They have significant economic importance, there are no viable substitutes and deposits are concentrated in a small number of
countries and so supply could be at risk (critical raw materials), For example, deposits of tungsten, antimony, molybdenum, germanium,
gallium and indium are concentrated in China. Deposits of platinum, palladium, rhodium, ruthenium and vanadium are concentrated in
South Africa.

• Expansion of new technologies in recent decades has greatly increased our use of these elements. For example, the use of helium in
medical technologies and phosphorus in fertilisers
 2.5:
Trends In The Periodic Table
 Trends in the periodic table

For your notes for this lesson, split your page into 4
1. Electron Configuration
columns and assign a row for each trend as you go (do
not do rows at the start as you don’t know how many
2. Core Charge rows you’ll need per trend)
3. Electronegativity Your columns should be labelled:
• Property of elements
4. Atomic Radius • Definition/Explanation
• Trend down a group
5. First Ionisation Energy • Trend across a period (left to right)

6. Metallic Character
You will also annotate key trends onto your periodic table
7. Reactivity of Metals as we go through the theory today.

8. Reactivity of Non-Metals
 Trends in the periodic table
1. Electron configuration
• All elements in the same group have the same number of valence electrons, resulting in similar properties

(responsible for the periodicity of element properties).

• The number of electron shells increases as you move down a group.

– This means the valence electrons are in higher energy subshells as you move down a group.

– As the valence shells are of higher energy, the valence electrons are further from the nucleus and have a weaker

attraction to the nucleus.

• The decrease in attraction between the valence electrons and the nucleus as you move down a group
Trends in the periodic table
Example: Electron configuration
 Trends in the periodic table
2. Effective Nuclear Charge/Core Charge

• Core charge = measure of the attractive force felt by the valence shell electrons towards the nucleus.

• Can be used to predict properties of elements and explain trends in the periodic table.

• Core charge = number of protons in the nucleus – number of inner shell electrons (all shells except valence
shell)
 Trends in the periodic table
2. Effective Nuclear Charge/Core Charge
 Trends in the periodic table
2. Effective Nuclear Charge/Core Charge

As you move across a period:

• Core charge increases

• Core charge = the number of valence electrons (determined by the group number for group 1 and 2, and group number

minus 10 for groups 13-18)

• Valence electrons are more attracted to the nucleus as core charge increases.

• Example: Na and Cl are both in period 3 but Cl has a higher core charge.

– This indicates that as group number increases across a period, core charge increases
 Trends in the periodic table
Example: Calculating Core Charge

Chlorine has an atomic number of 17, meaning it has 17 protons in the nucleus.

It has 2 inner shells with a total of 10 electrons (2 in 1st shell, 8 in 2nd)

Core charge = protons – inner shell electrons

= 17 – 10

= +7
 Trends in the periodic table
3. Electronegativity

• Electronegativity = The ability of an atom to attract electrons towards itself.

• If valence electrons are more strongly attracted towards nucleus = higher electronegativity.

• Therefore, higher core charge = higher electronegativity

• Electronegativity decreases down a group.

• Electronegativity increases across a period.

 Thinking questions:
What does this tell us about core charge?

Trends in the periodic table What does this tell us about the attraction of electrons to the
nucleus?
What does this then tell us about reactivity?

3. Electronegativity

F = highest
electronegativity

Fr = lowest
electronegativity
 Trends in the periodic table
4. Atomic Radius

• Atomic radius = the distance from the nucleus to

the valence shell electrons.

• Atomic radius increases down a group.

• Atomic radius decreases across a period.

 Trends in the periodic table
5. First Ionisation Energy

• Ionisation = the process of removing an electron from an atom to form an ion.

• Valence electrons are removed first because they are the furthest from the nucleus and least attracted to the nucleus.

• First ionisation energy = the energy needed to remove one electron from an atom in the gas phase.

• Decreases down a group.

Remember:
• Increase across a period
Ion = atom that has lost or gained electrons
Metals lose electrons to form positively charged cations
Non-metals gain electrons to form negatively charged anions
 Trends in the periodic table
5. First Ionisation Energy

Thinking questions:
What does this tell us about core charge and electronegativity?
What does this tell us about the attraction of electrons to the
nucleus?
What does this then tell us about reactivity?
 Trends in the periodic table
6. Metallic Character

• Metals conduct electricity and are usually solids at room temperature.

• Non-metals usually do not conduct electricity, and many are gases at room temperature.

• The difference in properties is due to the number of valence electrons.

Generally:

– 1, 2 or 3 valence electrons = behave as metals

This indicates that metallic character:
- remains the same down a group
– 4 or more valence electrons = non-metals
- decreases across a period
 Trends in the periodic table
7. Reactivity of Metals

• Increases down a group (as it is easier for a metal with a greater number of shells to lose valence

electrons – less attracted to the nucleus)

• Decreases across a period (as the increased core charge makes it more difficult for a metal to lose

electrons)
Remember:
When metals undergo chemical reactions
they lose electrons and become positively
charged cations
 Trends in the periodic table
8. Reactivity of Non-Metals

• Decreases down a group (as it is harder for a non-metal atom to attract electrons into its

valence shell with a greater number of shells).

• Increases across a period (as the increasing core charge makes it easier for a non-metallic

atom to attract electrons).

Remember:
When non- metals undergo chemical reactions
they gain electrons and become negatively
charged anions