Geometric

Dimensioning and
Tolerancing
 •Purpose: Communicates design intent
clearly to ensure part functionality despite
manufacturing variations.
Introduction
to GD&T •Importance in High Precision Industries:
Especially critical in industries like
aerospace where precision is paramount.

•Definition: GD&T is a standardized system

for defining tolerances on part dimensions.
•Key Components of GD&T

•Visuals: Diagram of symbols and feature

control frame

• Key Points:
•Symbols: Represent geometric tolerances
like flatness, parallelism, and position.

•Feature Control Frames: Specifies

tolerances, datums, and geometric
relationships.

•Datums: Reference points or planes for

measurement.
Why GD&T is Essential in
the Aircraft Industry

•Precision: Aircraft
components must fit together
with extreme accuracy to
ensure safety and
performance.
•Interchangeability:
Standardized GD&T allows
parts to be manufactured
globally and assembled
reliably.

•Cost-Efficiency: Minimizes
rework and scrap by allowing
flexible tolerances where
possible.

•Regulatory Compliance:
Meets strict aerospace
industry standards like
•Visuals: Diagram of an aircraft
with GD&T applied to components

•Key Points:

•Fuselage and Wing Assembly:

GD&T ensures correct alignment
and fitment of structural
components.

•Engine Mounts: Critical

tolerances in engine attachment
points for stability and balance.

•Landing Gear: Accurate

positioning of critical load-bearing
structures to ensure safety during
landing.
•GD&T in Aircraft Manufacturing

•Visuals: Assembly line of aircraft parts with

GD&T controls

•Jigs and Fixtures: GD&T used to design

accurate tooling for aircraft part manufacturing.

•Quality Control: GD&T allows inspectors to

measure parts precisely using coordinate
measuring machines (CMMs) and gauges.

•Maintenance: Ensures parts are

interchangeable for repairs without affecting the
aircraft's performance.
 STANDARDS OF MEASUREMENT :

Definition of Metrology: Metrology (from Ancient Greek

metron (measure) and logos (study of)) is the science of
measurement.

Metrology includes all theoretical and practical aspects of

measurement. Metrology is concerned with the establishment,
reproduction, conservation and transfer of units of
measurement & their standards. For engineering purposes,
metrology is restricted to measurements of length and angle &
quantities which are expressed in linear or angular terms.
Measurement is a process of comparing quantitatively an
unknown magnitude with a predefined standard.
Objectives of Metrology:
The basic objectives of metrology are.
1. To provide accuracy at minimum cost.
2. Thorough evaluation of newly developed
products, and to ensure that components
are within the specified dimensions.
3. To determine the process capabilities.
4. To assess the measuring instrument
capabilities and ensure that they are
adequate for their specific measurements.
5. To reduce the cost of inspection &
rejections and rework.
6. To standardize measuring methods.
7. To maintain the accuracy of
measurements through periodical
calibration of the instruments. 8. To
prepare designs for gauges and special
inspection fixtures.
Definition of Standards:
•A standard is defined as “something that is set up
and established by an authority as rule of the measure
of quantity, weight, extent, value or quality”.
•For example, a meter is a standard established by an
international organization for measurement of length.
Industry, commerce, international trade in modern
civilization would be impossible without a good
system of standards.
•Role of Standards: The role of standards is to
achieve uniform, consistent and repeatable
measurements throughout the world. Today our
entire industrial economy is based on the
interchangeability of parts the method of
manufacture. To achieve this, a measuring system
adequate to define the features to the accuracy
required & the standards of sufficient accuracy to
support the measuring system are necessary.
 In nature, two extremely similar(identical)
things are difficult to obtain.

No production process is good enough to

Introduct produce all items of products exactly alike.

Every production process involves a
combination of three elements viz. men,

ion machines and material.

Each of these elements has some inherent or
natural variations as well as some unnatural
variations
Natural variations are due to chance cause,
difficult to trace and control.
The unnatural variations are due to assignable cause which can be
easily traced, controlled and reduced to economic minimum.

These variables result in the variation of size of components.

For example, suppose a drilling operation is to be performed on

casting.

If the process is under control, ie. all the assignable causes of

variation are controlled or eliminated, the variations in sizes of
similar components will be within reasonable limits.
Thus we can conclude that:

• It is not possible to make any part precisely to a given

dimension, due to variability of elements of
production process.
• Secondly, even if by chance the part is made exactly
to a given dimension, it is impossible to measure it
accurately enough to prove it.
• Thirdly, if attempts are made to achieve perfect size
the cost of the production will increase tremendously.
It is therefore, obvious that permissible
variations in dimension has to be allowed
to account for the variability.
Limit In mass production, it is not possible to
make all parts exactly alike and to
s: exact dimensions.

It is, therefore, obvious that some

permissible variation in dimension has
to be allowed to account for variability.
The dimension of the manufactured
part can thus only be made to lie
between two limits, maximum and
minimum.
Therefore, the ranges of permissible
difference in dimension have been
standardized under the name limits.
The limits of size of a dimension of
a part are two extreme permissible
sizes, between which the actual size
of the dimension may lie.

The high limit(upper limit)

for that dimension is the
largest size permitted and
the low limit is the smallest
size permitted for that
dimension.
Tolerance:
• The permissible variation in size or
dimension is called tolerance.
• The word tolerance indicates that a
worker is not expected to produce the
part to the exact size, but a definite small
size error is permitted.
• The difference between the upper limit
and the lower limit of a dimension
represents the margin of variation in
workmanship and is called a “Tolerance
Zone”
 Tolerance can also be defined as the amount by which the
job is allowed to go away from accuracy and perfectness
without causing any functional trouble, when assembled
with its mating part and put in to actual service.
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 Systems
of • There are two systems of writing
tolerances:
writing • 1. Unilateral system
Tolerance • 2. Bilateral system

s:
• In this system, the dimension of a
1. part is allowed to vary
• only on one side of the basic size
Unilatera i.e. tolerance lies wholly on
l System: one side of the basic size either
above or below it.

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 Unilateral system is preferred in interchangeable manufacture, especially
when precision fits are required because:
i. It is easy and simpler to determine deviations.
ii. Go gauge ends can be standardized as the holes of different tolerance
grades have the same lower limit and all the shafts have same upper limit.
iii. It also greatly assists the operator when machining of mating parts. The
operator machines to the upper limit of the shaft (lower limit for hole),
knowing that he still has some margin left for machining before the parts
are rejected.

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2. Bilateral
System:
In this system, the dimension of a part is
allowed to vary both the sides of the basic size
i.e. tolerance lies either side of the basic size,
but may not be necessarily equally disposed
about it.

In this system, it is not possible to retain the

same fit when tolerance is varied and the basic
size of one or both the mating parts is to be
varied.

This system is used in mass production where

machine setting is done for the basic size.
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Specifying
Tolerance
in
Assembly:
Toleranc
e
Accumul
ation or
build up:
Compoun
d
tolerance
 Interchangeability

• The mass production is economical and requires minimum time to produce the
components.
• In mass production system, there is a division of labour.
• In mass production, to assemble the mating components with a desired fit, a strict
control is exercised and the parts are manufactured with specified tolerance limits.

12/29/2024 29
An interchangeable part is one which can be
substituted for similar part manufactured to
the same drawing.

When one component assembles properly(and

which satisfies the functionality aspect of
assembly) with any mating component, both
chosen at random, then it is known as
interchangeability.

Interchangeability ensures increased output

with reduced production cost.
 Interchangeability of parts can be achieved by combining
number of innovations and improvements in machining
operations so that we will able produce components with
accuracy.

Modern Machine tools like Numerical Control(NC) evolved

into CNC. Jigs and Fixtures.

Gauges to check the accuracy of the finished parts. These

helps in manufacturing the components within its specified
limits.

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Examples for
Interchangeabi
lity and
selective
Assembly
Advantages of Interchangeability:

1.Assembly of mating parts is easier. Since any

component picked up from its lot will assemble with any
other mating part from another lot without additional
fitting and machining.
2. It enhances the production rate.
3. It brings down the assembly cost drastically.
4. Repairing of existing machines or products is
simplified because component parts can be easily
replaced.
5. Replacement of worn parts is easy.
6. Without interchangeability, mass production is not
possible.
Selective Assembly:
 It is sometimes found that it is not economical
to manufacture parts to the required high
degree of accuracy so as to make them
interchangeable.
 The consumer not only wants quality and
precision trouble free products but also he
wants at economical prices.
 Often special cases of accuracy and uniformity
arises which might not be satisfied by certainty
at the fits given under fully interchangeable
 Selective Assembly
For, example if a part of its low limit is assembled
with the mating part at high limit, the fit so obtained
may not fully satisfy the functional requirements of
the assembly.
Complete interchangeability in the above cases can
be obtained at some extra cost in inspection and
material handling by using selective assembly
whereby parts are manufactured to rather wider
tolerances.
In selective assembly, the components produced
are classified into groups according to their sizes by
automatic gauging.
Selective Assembly:
This is done for both the mating parts, holes and
shafts and only matched groups of mating parts
are assembled.
It results in complete protection against
defective assemblies and reduces matching costs
since the parts may be produced with wider
tolerances.
Example: The assembly of pistons with
cylinder bores. Let the bore size be 50mm and the
clearance required for the assembly is 0.12 mm on
the diameter. Let the tolerance on bore and the
piston each = 0.04 mm. Then
Cylinder 49.98 50.00 50.02
Bore
Piston 49.86 49.88 49.90
Limits of Size:

• There are three considerations in deciding

limits necessary for a particular
dimensions. They are
• Functional Requirements
• Interchangeability
• Economics

• A limit system consists of a series of

tolerances arranged to suit a specific
range of sizes and functions so that limits
of sizes may be selected and given to
mating components to ensure specific
classes of fit.
Terminology of Limits and Fits

Shaft: The term shaft refers not only to the diameter of a circular
shaft, but also to any external dimension of a component.
Hole: The term hole refers not only to the diameter of a circular
hole, but also to any internal dimension of a component.
Basic or Nominal size: It is the standard size of a part with
reference to which the limits of variation of a size are determined.
The basic size is same for the hole and its shaft.
Actual size: Actual size is the dimension as measured on a manufactured
part.
Zero line: It is the straight line drawn horizontally to represent the basic
size. In the graphical representation of limits and fits, all the deviations are
shown with respect to the zero line.
Deviation: Deviation is the algebraic difference between the actual size
and the corresponding basic size.
Upper Deviation: It is the algebraic difference between the upper limit of the
size and the corresponding basic size. It is a positive quantity when the
maximum limit of size is greater than the basic size and a negative quantity
when the upper limit of the size is less than the basic size as shown in fig. It is
denoted by ‘ES’ for hole and ‘es’ for a shaft.

Lower Deviation: It is the algebraic difference between the lower limit of the
size and the corresponding basic size. It is a positive quantity when the lower
limit of size is greater than the basic size and a negative quantity when the lower
limit of the size is less than the basic size as shown in fig. It is denoted by ‘EI’
for hole and ‘ei’ for a shaft.
Fundamental Deviation: It is that one of the two
deviations(either the upper or lower) which is the nearest to the
zero line for either hole or a shaft. It fixes the “Tolerance zone”
in relation to the zero line as shown in fig.

Lower deviation as fundamental deviation Upper deviation as fundamental deviation

From the above fig. it is clear that when the tolerance zone is above the zero line ,
lower deviation is the fundamental deviation. While when the tolerance zone is below
the zero line upper deviation is the fundamental deviation.
The fundamental deviation for the hole by capital letters A,B,C ,…..2C and the same
for shaft is denoted by small letters a,b,c …….zc etc.
Basic Shaft: Basic shaft is the shaft whose upper deviation is zero.
Thus the upper limit of the basic shaft is same as the basic size. It is
denoted by letter ‘h’.
Basic Hole: Basic is the hole whose lower deviation is zero. i.e its low
limit is the same as basic size. It is denoted by a letter ‘H’.
Tolerance Zone: It is the zone bounded by two limits of size of a part
in graphical representation of tolerance.
 Tolerance grade
The tolerance grade is an indication of
degree of accuracy of manufacture and is
denoted by letter ‘IT’ followed by a
number where IT stands for “ International
Tolerance grade”.

 Tolerance grades are IT0,IT1, upto

IT16, larger the number larger the
tolerance.
Standard
Tolerance Unit
Standard Tolerance Unit: A unit which is
a function of basic size and which is common
to the formula defining the different grades of
tolerances.

It is denoted by a letter ‘i’ and expressed in

terms of microns. It serves as a basis for
determining the standard tolerance of the
system.
Thank You