MEMORY

a) What Is Memory 6.1-6.2

b) The Information-
Processing Model 6.3-6.5
c) Retrieval Of Long Term
Memories 6.6-6.9
d) Forgetting 6.10-6.11
e) Neuroscience Of Memory
6.12-6.13
f) Applying Psychology To
Everyday Life 6.14
a) WHAT IS MEMORY?
Memory is an active system that
• receives information from the senses,

• puts that information into a usable

form,

• organises it as it stores it away and

• then retrieves the information from

6.1) THREE PROCESSES OF
MEMORY
Encoding
Set of mental operations that people perform on sensory
information to convert that information into a form that is
usable in the brain’s storage system.

One type of encoding is Transduction- when- Ears turn

sound vibrations into neural messages from the
auditory nerve which make it possible for the brain to
interpret the sound.

Encoding can also involve rehearsing information over and

over or elaborating on the meaning of the information.
6.1) THREE PROCESSES OF
MEMORY
Storage
Holding onto information for some period of
time. This period of time differs depending on
the system of memory being used.

Retrieval
Bringing back (recovering) information that
is in storage into a form that can be used.
6.2) MODELS OF MEMORY
1. Information Processing Model- IPM
Focuses on the way information is handled or processed
through three different systems of memory.
Encoding, storage and retrieval are processes that are part of
this model.
The three systems of this model are often referred to as the
stages of memory- which implies a sequence of events.
Assumes that the processing of information for memory
storage is similar to the way a computer processes
information.
6.2) MODELS OF MEMORY
2. Parallel Distributed Processing Model
(PDP) also called connectionism
Memory processes take place at the same time over a large
network of neural connections.

Creation and storage of memories takes place across a series

of mental networks.

Simultaneous processing allows people to retrieve many

different aspects of memory at one time, facilitating
faster decisions.
6.2) MODELS OF MEMORY
3. Levels-of-Processing Model - LOP
The more deeply information is processed the more
efficiently it will be remembered- for a longer period
of time. (longer retention)
According to its meaning rather than just the sound or
the physical characteristics of the words.
• Appearance- Is the word in Capital Letters? BALL
• Sound- Does the word rhyme with doll?
• Meaning- does it fit into this sentence? The _ is in the
box.
6.2) MODELS OF MEMORY
Each of the views of memory describes different
aspects of memory.
IPM- provides the big picture- how various systems
relate to each other.
PDP- focuses on the neural connections of memory
processes.
The Depth (LOP) to which information is processed
addresses the strength of those connections (PDP)within
each of the three memory systems. (IPM)
Duration of memory increases as the level of processing
deepens. (LOP)
b) The Information Processing
Model

Three Memory Systems

6.3) SENSORY MEMORY
The first system in the process of memory

Information enters the nervous system through the

senses

Information is encoded into sensory memory as

neural messages

Door that is open for a brief period of time- kind

of door into the world

A memory system that momentarily preserves

accurate images or sounds of sensory information.
6.3) SENSORY MEMORY
There are 2 kinds of sensory memory- iconic and echoic
Iconic Sensory Memory- Icon- Greek- image
visual sensory memory lasting only for a fraction of a
second.
Studied by George Sperling
Information that has just entered the iconic sensory memory will
be pushed out very quickly by new information- MASKING
Eidetic Imagery- Rare ability to access a visual sensory
memory over a long period of time.
Photographic- look quickly at a page in a book and then by
focusing on a blank wall or paper- READ the words from the
Iconic Sensory memory helps the visual system view
surroundings as continuous and stable.
It allows enough time for the brain stem to decide if the
information is important enough to be brought into conscious
awareness.

Echoic Sensory Memory- auditory

Brief memory of something heard
Lasts about 2-4 seconds
Useful when a person wants to have meaningful
conversation
Allows the person to remember what someone said
just long enough to recognize the meaning of the
6.4) SHORT-TERM MEMORY
Sensory messages important enough will move to the next
stage of memory

Information may be held up to 30 seconds and can be

longer if maintenance rehearsal is used

How does information enter the STM? SELECTIVE

ATTENTION

The ability to focus on only one stimulus from among

all the sensory input.

Dr. Donald Broadbent- Filter Theory

6.4) SHORT-TERM MEMORY
A kind of bottleneck occurs between the processes of
sensory memory and STM
Only a stimulus that is important enough will make it past
the bottleneck to be consciously analysed for meaning in
STM.
When a person is thinking actively about information- that
info is said to be conscious and is also in STM.

‘cocktail party effect’

areas of the brain that are involved in selective
attention were working such that when you heard your
 6.4) SHORT-TERM MEMORY
Dr. Anne Treisman- Selective attention operates in a two- stage
filtering process.
In the first stage- incoming stimuli in sensory memory are
filtered on the basis of simple physical characteristics
There is only a lessening of the signal strength (attenuation)
of unselected sensory stimuli in comparison to the selected
stimuli.
In the second stage only the stimuli that meet a certain
threshold of importance are processed.
Since the attenuated stimuli are still present, something
subjectively important as ones own name is plucked out of the
attenuated incoming stimuli
6.4) SHORT-TERM MEMORY
CODING IN STM
When info enters into STM- these memories tend to be encoded
primarily in auditory form.
Some images are stored in STM in a kind of visual
‘sketchpad’ Auditory storage accounts for much of
short-term encoding.
Participants were asked to recall numbers & letters.
What kind of errors were made?
Errors were nearly always made with numbers or letters
that sounded like the target word or number but NOT
with those that looked like the target word or number.
6.4) SHORT-TERM MEMORY
Working Memory
STM- simple storage
WM- storage and manipulation of information
Working Memory - interrelated active systems that process
info in STM
Central executive- controls and coordinates the other two
systems
Visuospatial sketchpad- information is stored in visual form
Phonological loop- a kind of an auditory action recorder.
The central executive acts as an interpreter for both the visual
6.4) SHORT-TERM MEMORY
Capacity: The Magical Number 7
(5-9)
George Miller- how much information
humans can hold in STM at any given time
Used a memory test called the digit span
test – series of numbers are read to
participants who are asked to recall the
numbers in order.
Miller concluded that the capacity of STM is
about 7 items or pieces of information
plus or minus two items (5-9)
If bits of information
are combined into
meaningful units or
chunks, more
information can be
held in STM
Peas
The process or
recoding or
reorganising
information into
smaller meaningful
units is called
CHUNKING
6.4) SHORT-TERM MEMORY
Duration
Short term memory lasts from about 12-30 seconds without
rehearsal
After that memory appears to decay or disappear.
Old memories must be erased by the formation of new- the
hippocampus only has a limited storage.
Many of the memories formed will be transferred to more
permanent storage,
Some memories without rehearsal will decay as new
memories are added to existing neural circuits
6.4) SHORT-TERM MEMORY
Maintenance Rehearsal
Practice of saying some information to be remembered
over and over in one’s head in order to maintain it in STM

Attention is given to the information – information will stay in

STM until rehearsal stops

When it stops, the memory rapidly decays and is forgotten

If anything interferes with rehearsal memories are likely

to be lost as well.
Eg: counting money, remembering names of people
 Short Term Memory
Selective Attention
• Broadbent- Filter Theory- bottleneck
• Cocktail Party Effect
• Anne Treisman- 2 stage Filtering Process – Attenuation
Coding in STM - auditory
Working Memory- 3 systems
Analogy of a desk
Capacity- magical number 7
• Chunking
Duration- 12-30 seconds
Maintenance Rehearsal
6.5) LONG-TERM MEMORY
Third stage of memory, Capacity- unlimited
Duration- relatively permanent physical change in the
brain when a memory is formed
Many memories stored in childhood may be there- however,
the memories may be available- but not accessible
(retrievable)
ALL our memories are not stored forever, personal
memories are too numerous to be retained.
We only store long-lasting memories of events and
concepts that are meaningful and important to us.
6.5) LONG-TERM MEMORY
Information that is rehearsed long enough may move into
LTM
Rote learning (maintenance rehearsal)- poems and
multiplication tables
Rotating information in ones head – not the most efficient way
to move information into LTM
One has to remember it almost exactly as it went in. eg-
CODING- Many long term memories are encoded as images,
sounds, smells or tastes- but in general, the LTM is encoded
in meaningful form.
Mental storehouse of the meaning of words, concepts
6.5) LONG-TERM MEMORY
Elaborative Rehearsal
A method of transferring information from STM to LTM by
making the information more meaningful.
Increasing the number of retrieval cues (Stimuli that aid
in retrieval) by connecting new information with
something that is already well known.
Craik & Lockhart theorized that deep processing
according to meaning rather than sound or physical
characteristics of words will be retained longer. (LOP
Model)
Therefore, Elaborative rehearsal leads to better long
6.5) LONG-TERM MEMORY
Types of Long-Term
Information
Non-declarative (implicit)
memory
Memories for performance of
actions or skills. (demonstrated
and not reported)
“Knowing how.”

Declarative (explicit) memory

Memories of facts, rules,
concepts, and events in ones
6.5) LONG-TERM MEMORY
NON-DECLARATIVE IMPLICIT LTM
The fact that people have the knowledge to tie their shoe
laces is implied by the fact that they can actually tie them.
These memories also include emotional associations, habits,
simple conditioned reflexes- strong memories.
Amygdala- emotional associations
Cerebellum- memories of conditioned responses, skills and
habits
Evidence – separate brain areas control nondeclarative
memories
People with damage to the hippocampus- anterograde
6.5) LONG-TERM MEMORY
NON-DECLARATIVE IMPLICIT LTM
Patients with anterograde amnesia were taught how to solve
the Tower of Hanoi.
Patients learned the necessary moves
However, when brought into the same room later, they
couldn’t remember having seen the puzzle before
Yet they were able to solve the puzzle
Non-declarative memory of the procedure was formed
and stored in a part of the brain separate from the
hippocampus.
Walk, talk, button shirt, tie laces.
6.5) LONG-TERM
MEMORY EXPLICIT LTM
DECLARATIVE
Contains information that is
conscious and is known
Two types
Semantic- general knowledge,
such as knowledge of language and
information learned in formal
education.
Episodic- personal information
not readily available to others, such
as daily activities and important
events.
6.5) LONG-TERM
MEMORY
DECLARATIVE EXPLICIT LTM
Unlike nondeclarative & semantic memories,
Episodic memories tend to be revised and
updated more or less constantly. (survival)

Only especially meaningful episodic

memories, first day of college, 10th std results,
are more likely to be in kept in LTM.

Episodic & semantic memories are explicit

because they are easily made conscious and
brought from long term storage into STM.
6.5) LONG-TERM MEMORY
LTM ORGANISATION
Fairly well organised for quick retrieval
LTM is organised in terms of related meaning and concepts.
Researchers Allan Collins & M. Ross Quillan asked
participants to respond true or false as quickly as possible
to statements like:
• A canary is a bird
• A canary is an animal
Information exists in a kind of network with nodes of
related information linked to each other in a kind of a
hierarchy
SEMANTIC NETWORK
MODEL
Model of memory
organisation – assumes
that information is stored in
the brain in a connected
fashion.
Concepts that are related
are stored physically
closer to each other than
concepts that are not
highly related.
a) What Is Memory 6.1-6.2
b) The Information-
Processing Model 6.3-6.5
c) Retrieval Of Long Term
Memories 6.6-6.9
d) Forgetting 6.10-6.11
e) Neuroscience Of Memory
6.12-6.13
f) Applying Psychology To
Everyday Life 6.14
c) Retrieval of Long-Term
Memories
6.6) Retrieval Cues
6.7) Recall & Recognition
6.8) Automatic Encoding
6.9) Reconstructive Nature of LTM
Retrieval
6.6) RETRIEVAL CUES
Maintenance Rehearsal- one kind of retrieval cue-
the sound of the word or phrase.
Elaborative rehearsal- more retrieval cues form in
addition to sound

The more retrieval cues stored with a piece of

information the easier the retrieval of that information.
Cues directly related to the concept being studied are
not necessary.

Anything in ones surrounding can become a cue.

6.6) RETRIEVAL CUES
ENCODING SPECIFICITY- encoding
conditions = retrieval conditions
The tendency for memory of information to be
improved,
if surroundings or physiological state that is
available when the memory is first formed,
is also available when the memory is being
retrieved.
a) Context Dependent Learning
The physical surroundings the person is in when
they are learning information should match the context
6.6) RETRIEVAL CUES
b) State-Dependent Learning-internal cues
Memories formed during a particular physiological or
psychological state will be easier to remember while in a
similar state.
Eg- when fighting with a friend

Participants read words while listening to either happy or

sad music.
Researchers then manipulated mood at the time of recall.
Words that were read while in a happy mood were
remembered better if the manipulated mood was also
6.7) RECALL & RECOGNITION
Two kinds of retrieval of memories
Recall- information to be retrieved must be pulled from
memory with very few external cues
Eg- Fill in the blanks, essay, short answer

Recognition- the ability to match a piece of

information or a stimulus to a stored image or fact.
Eg- Looking at information and matching it to stored
memories- match the columns.
6.7) RECALL & RECOGNITION
Recall- Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon- TOT
•Inability to recall information that one realizes one knows.
• Failure to retrieve a word from memory, combined with partial
recall and a feeling that retrieval is about to happen.
•The search for the target word includes:
words that sound similar,
start with the same letter,
contain the same number of syllables,
have a similar meaning.
•Not enough retrieval cues or it is blocked by interference
from similar sounding material.
6.7) RECALL & RECOGNITION
Recall- Serial Position Effect
Information at the beginning or the end of a list tends to
be remembered more easily and accurately, than
information in the middle
Primacy Effect- Words at the beginning of the list are
remembered better than words in the middle
First few words receive more rehearsal time than words in
the middle- more rehearsal= storage
Middle words- constantly being replaced by the next word on the
list.
First few words tend to move from STM to LTM
6.7) RECALL & RECOGNITION
Recency Effect- Words at the end of the list are remembered
better than words in the middle
Last few words have just been listened to- still active in
working memory.
No new words to push out these recent words
• Interview Process, Presentation order
• Revise notes just before entering the exam
• Students need to pay more attention to the middle- study
breaks
Testing Effect- Long Term Memory increases when one
6.7) RECALL & RECOGNITION
Recognition- True-false, multiple choice
Usually easier than recall - the cue- sound, word, object,
image is present, one has to only detect it as familiar or
known
Tends to be accurate for images (faces)- more than 2500
photographs were shown to participants at the rate of one
every 10 seconds.
Accuracy for identifying the previous photos when pairs of
photographs were shown was between 85% & 95%
False Positives can occur when there is just enough
similarity between the stimulus that is NOT in memory
and the stimulus that IS in memory.
6.8) AUTOMATIC ENCODING
Tendency of certain kinds of information to enter long-
term memory with little or no effortful
processing/encoding
People unconsciously notice and seem to remember – the
passage of time, knowledge of physical space, frequency of
events

Flashbulb Memories- Type of automatic encoding

An unexpected event or episode in a person’s life has

strong emotional associations such as fear, horror or joy
associated with it- automatic encoding takes place.
6.8) AUTOMATIC ENCODING
Flashbulb Memories
Place, ongoing activity, informant, own affect,
others affect, aftermath
Historical events and personal events
Emotional reactions stimulate the
release of hormones, shown to enhance
formation of long-term memories.
Shared with others a lot
High degree of accuracy for major
events
6.9) RECONSTRUCTIVE NATURE
OF LTM RETRIEVAL – RELIABLE?
A) Constructive Processing of Memories- instant
replay?
Memory Theorist- Sir Frederic Bartlett saw the process of
memory as similar to creating a story rather than reading one
that is already written.
Retrieve info about past event by using current knowledge
Memories are built or reconstructed from the information
stored away during encoding.
Each time a memory is retrieved it maybe altered or revised,
to include new information or to exclude details that may be
6.9) RECONSTRUCTIVE NATURE
OF LTM RETRIEVAL – RELIABLE?
A) Constructive Processing of Memories
Hindsight Bias-
When people hear the outcome of an event, they revise their
memories to reflect- I knew it all along!

The tendency to falsely believe that one could have

correctly predicted the outcome of an event.
Through revision (discard) of older memories to include
new information
6.9) RECONSTRUCTIVE
NATURE OF LTM RETRIEVAL
– RELIABLE?
B) Memory Retrieval Problems
1) Misinformation Effect- The tendency of misleading
information presented after an event to alter memories of
the event itself. (police officers keep witnesses separate)
Misleading info becomes part of the actual memory, affecting its
accuracy.
Eyewitness testimony- Elizabeth Loftus- visual slide
presentation of a traffic accident.
Actual presentation contained a STOP sign, misleading
written summary of presentation given to some participants–
Misleading information that comes after the
event in a different format can also cause
incorrect memory reconstruction.
Depiction of actual accident

Leading question:
“About how fast were the cars
going when they smashed into
each other?”

Memory
construction
6.9) RECONSTRUCTIVE NATURE OF LTM
RETRIEVAL – RELIABLE?
B) Memory Retrieval Problems
2) False Memory Syndrome- The creation of
inaccurate or false memories through suggestion of
others and sometimes while the person is under
hypnosis.
Research suggests that Hypnosis can increase the confidence
people have in their memories- whether true or false.

Researchers using fMRI scans examined the brain activity

of individuals who were looking at real visual images and
then were asked to imagine visual images.
B) Memory Retrieval Problems
2) False Memory Syndrome
When asked to remember which images were real or
imagined,
These same individuals were unable to later distinguish
between the images they had really seen and the
imagined images.
Eye witness- crime scene- did you see this person at the crime
scene?
False memories are similar to confabulations (made up stories
not intended to deceive) of people with dementia related
memory problems
B) Memory Retrieval Problems
2) False Memory Syndrome
False Memory syndrome makes it much more difficult for
genuine victims of molestation to be believed when they
recover memories of their painful childhood trauma

False memories are not created for any memory content.

Kathy Pezdek and Hodge found that children were
significantly less likely to form a false memory for an
implausible false event than for a plausible false event.
Children read 5 childhood summaries- 2 were false of
which one was implausible and the other plausible- told
that all were true.
Elizabeth Loftus and colleagues found that implausible events
could be made more plausible by having experimenters
provide false feedback to participants
Participants were provided articles about possession
designed to enhance plausibility- info about frequency,
socioeconomic and cultural populations in which its likely, stories
of people who had witnessed it
Participants took a test to measure their personal fears- false
feedback- personal fear data was interpreted as indicating
that they would have also witnessed possession.
Participants who received the info came to believe that
possession was more plausible and increased their
confidence that they had witnessed possession.
B) Memory Retrieval Problems
2) False Memory Syndrome
Two steps must occur for people to interpret false events as
true memories:
1. The event must be made to seem as plausible as
possible
2. Individuals are given information that helps them
believe that the events could have happened to them
personally.
Other variables that predict a higher false recall and
recognition response were
• Susceptibility to hypnosis
• Symptoms of depression
c) Retrieval of Long-Term Memories
6.6) Retrieval Cues
Encoding Specificity- Context and State dependent Learning
6.7) Recall & Recognition
Recall- TOT phenomenon, Serial Position Effect
Recognition- False Positives

6.8) Automatic Encoding- Flashbulb Memories

6.9) Reconstructive Nature of LTM Retrieval

Constructive Processing- Hindsight Bias
Memory Retrieval Problems
• Misinformation Effect
• False Memory Syndrome
d)
Forgetting
• Hyperthymesia- Brad Williams- ability to
remember everything, inability to forget
• Adaptive Forgetting- we can suppress information
we no longer need making it easier to remember
what we do need.
• Mnemonist- Mr. S
6.10) Ebbinghaus & the Curve of Forgetting
6.11) Reasons we Forget
6.10) EBBINGHAUS & THE CURVE OF
Hermann Ebbinghaus, one of the first researchers to
FORGETTING
study forgetting
Created several lists of nonsense syllables- pronounceable
but meaningless (CVC syllables) eg- COL, GEX
Memorized a list, waited a specific amount of time, then
tried to retrieve the list, and then plotted a graph of his
results
That graph has become the ‘curve of forgetting’
Forgetting happens quickly within the first hour after
learning and then tapers off gradually
6.10) EBBINGHAUS & THE CURVE
OF FORGETTING
Ebbinghaus, found that it is important not to cram
information that one wants to remember
Research has found that
Distributed Practice- spacing the study of material to
be remembered by including breaks between study
periods
produces far better retrieval of information studied

than when one uses Massed Practice- studying the

material all at once.
6.11) REASONS WE FORGET
1. ENCODING FAILURE
Failure to process information into memory. (lack of
attention paid)
2. MEMORY TRACE DECAY THEORY
Memory Trace- physical change in the brain that occurs when
a memory is formed (activity between neurons)
Over time if traces are not used- they may decay ie fade- loss
of memory due to the passage of time - disuse
Helps to explain forgetting in sensory memory and STM-
no attention or rehearsal
 6.11) REASONS WE FORGET
3. INTERFERENCE THEORY-Explanation of LTM
forgetting
Memories although stored in LTM may not be accessible when
trying to retrieve them because other information interferes
with retrieval
PROACTIVE INTERFERENCE- the tendency for previously
learned material to interfere with the learning and retrieval of
recently learned material
Forward-acting
New phone number
 6.11) REASONS WE
FORGET
RETROACTIVE INTERFERENCE
The tendency for recently learned material to interfere
with the learning and retrieval of previously learned or
older material
Backward-acting
e) Neuroscience of Memory
6.12) The Biological Bases of
Memory
6.13) Organic Amnesia
6.12) THE BIOLOGICAL BASES OF
MEMORY
Research involving PET scans suggests that Short Term
Memories are stored in the prefrontal cortex and
the temporal lobe
Memories related to fear seem to be stored in the
Amygdala
Nondeclarative Long term memories seem to be
stored in the cerebellum
Semantic & Episodic long term memories are also
stored in the frontal and temporal lobes but not in
exactly the same location as short-term memories
6.12) THE BIOLOGICAL BASES OF
MEMORY
Memory is not simply one physical change, but many
Changes in the number of receptor sites, changes in the
sensitivity of the synapse through repeated stimulation,
changes in dendrites, changes in proteins within the
neurons
6 molecular mechanisms are linked to information changing
from STM to LTM for both implicit and explicit memory.
Changes in synapse occur across collections of neurons as
part of a larger network
Synaptic alterations, changes in neuronal structure,
protein synthesis & other changes result in memory
6.12) THE BIOLOGICAL BASES OF
MEMORY
Declarative Long Term Memory Formation -
Hippocampus
Unique case of H.M. – removal of hippocampi & part of
temporal lobe (1960s)
Some evidence suggests that memories of the same event
may involve different areas of the hippocampus,
depending on the memory detail of the event- fine vs broad

Posterior cingulate, located near corpus callosum

involved in consolidation is seen to be damaged in
Alzheimer’s patients.
Activated when engaged in active rehearsal to remember
6.13) BIOLOGICAL CAUSES OF
AMNESIA
Retrograde Amnesia Loss of memory from the point
of injury or trauma, backwards.
The consolidation process gets disrupted- loss of everything
that was not already nearly finished being stored (in the process
of being stored)
ECT Electroconvulsive therapy used to treat severe
depression may result in retrograde amnesia as a side effect
Disrupts the memory consolidation process for memories forming
prior to the treatment.
Recent research suggests that this kind of loss of memory is
not permanent.
6.13) BIOLOGICAL CAUSES OF
AMNESIA Amnesia
Anterograde
Loss of memory from the point of injury or trauma,
forwards. Loss of ability to form new memories.
People with senile dementia – mental disorder- severe
forgetfulness, mental confusion and mood swings.
Memories of distant past may be intact but memory of a
conversation that just took place will not be remembered.

Alzheimer’s Disease- most common type of dementia

(60-80%)
Primary memory problem in the beginning is anterograde
6.13) BIOLOGICAL CAUSES OF
AMNESIA
Alzheimer’s Disease
Acetylcholine, neurotransmitter involved in the formation of
memories in the hippocampus.
Neurons that produce Acetylcholine break down in the
early stages of this disease
Genes also appear to play a role in one form of early onset
Alzheimer’s
Those who do not get Alzheimer’s are not safe from other
forms of dementia caused by strokes, medications
Five drugs approved for treatment, but they only slow down
the symptoms
6.13) BIOLOGICAL CAUSES OF
AMNESIA
Alzheimer’s Disease- Risk Factors
High cholesterol, High Blood Pressure, smoking, obesity,
diabetes, lack of exercise
Important to keep the brain mentally active
Continued everyday learning stimulates a protein involved in
the formation of memories
Alzheimer’s is NOT caused by eating food from
aluminium vessels, using artificial sweetener, having
silver dental fillings, getting a flu shot (injection) =
MYTHS
People with dementia or traumatic brain injuries may end up
6.13) BIOLOGICAL CAUSES OF
AMNESIA
Infantile Amnesia
The inability to retrieve memories from before age 3
Spectator memory vs as though you are the camera
Early memories tend to be implicit – difficult to bring to
consciousness

Explicit memory does not begin to develop till age 2 when

the hippocampus is more fully developed and language
skills emerge.

As children are able to talk about shared memories with adults

they begin to develop autobiographical memory for events
f) Applying Psychology to
Everyday Life
6.14) Sleep, Exercise and Diet
3 important factors in improving or maintaining health
of ones memory
a)What Is Memory 6.1-6.2
b)The Information-Processing Model
6.3-6.5
c)Retrieval Of Long Term Memories
6.6-6.9
d)Forgetting 6.10-6.11
e)Neuroscience Of Memory 6.12-6.13
f) Applying Psychology To Everyday Life
6.14
The End.