COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

BTB35203

Analogue Modulation
Angle Modulation

Communication Technology Section

01/21/25 1
Communication System Chart
Communication
System

Continuous Wave Digital Wave

Amplitude Angle Analogue Pulse Digital Pulse

Modulation Modulation Modulation Modulation
(AM)

Frequency Phase
Modulation Modulation
(FM) (PM)

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Types of angle modulation

1. FREQUENCY MODULATION (FM)

2. PHASE MODULATION (PM).

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FM Communication Chart

Continuous Wave

Amplitude Angle
Modulation Modulation
(AM)

Frequency Phase
DSBFC DSBSC SSB Modulation Modulation
(FM) (PM)

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Angle Modulation

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COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
BTB15104

Angle Modulation
Frequency Modulation

Communication Technology Section

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FREQUENCY-MODULATION SYSTEM

Angle Modulation

In angle modulation, the amplitude of the modulated carrier

is held constant and either the phase or the time derivative
of the phase of the carrier is varied linearly with the
message signal vm(t).

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 Frequency Modulation
Introduction
 The need for modulation arises because the range of
frequencies contained in a baseband signal is not, in
general, the same as the range of frequencies which can
be transmitted by the communications channel.

 AM – amplitude modulation
 medium wave (300 kHz to 3 MHz), short wave

(3–30 MHz)
 FM – frequency modulation

 VHF (30 – 300 MHz )

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 Frequency Modulation (FM)
Introduction
 FM is the process of varying the frequency of a carrier
wave in proportion to a modulating signal.
 The amplitude of the carrier is constant while its
frequency and rate of changes varied by the modulating
signal

FM modulator FM signal

Frequency modulated signal

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 Frequency Modulation (FM)
Introduction

 The FM modulator receives two signals, the

information signal from an external source and the
carrier signal from a built in oscillator.

 The modulator circuit combines the two signals

producing a FM signal which is passed on to the
transmission medium.

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Frequency Modulation Waveform
 Point A, C and E are where the
information signal is at 0V.
 Point B is where the information
signal is at the max. positive
amplitude, point D is where the
information signal is at the max.
negative amplitude.
 During the time from point A to
B, the FM signal increases in freq.
to its max. value at point B.
 From point B to C, the FM signal
freq. decrease until reaching the
freq. of the carrier signal which
called the center frequency.

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Frequency Modulation Waveform
• At point D is where the info signal has the max.
negative amplitude.
• From point D to E, the FM signal decrease until
reaching the centre frequency.

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Frequency Modulation (FM)

The important features about FM waveforms are:

i. The frequency varies

ii. The rate of change of carrier frequency changes is the

same as the frequency of the information signal

iii. The amount of carrier frequency changes is proportional to

the amplitude of the information signal

iv. The amplitude is constant

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FM Analysis

Assume : Carrier signal: vc (t ) Vc cos(c t )

Information signal: vm (t ) Vm cos(mt )

In FM, frequency changes with the change of the amplitude of the information signal

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FM Analysis
 Thus, the instantaneous modulated frequency,

 c  kvm (t ) f  fc  k
Vm
cos  m t
or 2
 c  kVm cos mt
f  f c  f cos  m t
k is constant proportionality

kVm f = frequency deviation

f 
2
f k f Vm k f = frequency deviation constant
(deviation sensitivity, Hz/V)

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 Analysis of FM

The wave equation of the frequency modulation is:

vFM (t) Vc cosθ

The angle  is obtained as :
 w dt w c  kVm cos wmt  dt
kVm
w c t  sin wmt  
wm
Assu min g  0
 kVm 
vFM (t) Vc cos w c t  sin wmt 
 wm 

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 Analysis of FM

v FM ( t ) Vc cos(c t  m f sin m t )

kVm kVm kfVm kVm

mf    f  kfVm
where m 2f m fm 2

f
FM modulation index m f 
fm
In the FM, the value of modulation index, mf can be any value
from zero to infinity 0 ≤ mf ≤ ∞

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Carrier Frequency (fc)

 As in AM, the carrier frequency in FM system must be

higher than the information signal frequency.

FM radio : Uses carrier frequencies

between 88 MHz and 108 MHz.
Television: Frequency range = 54 MHz – 806 MHz
No. of channels = 67 channels
Bandwidth = 6 MHz

VHF: 54 MHz – 216 MHz (channel 2 – channel 13)

UHF: 470 MHz – 806 MHz (channel 14 – channel 69)
608 MHz – 614 MHz ( Radio Astronomy )

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Frequency Deviation
 Frequency deviation represents the maximum change of the
instantaneous frequency of the FM signal from the carrier frequency.

 A fundamental characteristic of an FM signal is that the frequency

deviation is proportional to the amplitude of the modulating signal,
Vm and independent of the modulating frequency, fm

kVm or f  Vm
f 
2

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Frequency Deviation
The highest frequency for FM wave is

f max  f c  f
The minimum frequency for FM wave is

f min  f c  f
The total change of the frequency from
minimum frequency to the maximum
frequency is called
frequency carrier swing, fcs

f cs 2f

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01/21/25 22
FM Frequency Spectrum

As obtained, the FM signal is

vFM (t ) Vc cos(c t  m f sin mt )

v FM (t ) V (cos  t[ m (cos  t )]  sin  t[ m sin  t ])
c c f m c f m

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01/21/25 24
FM Frequency Spectrum

 Where Jn is a Bessel Function from first type, nth order

 J0 - will give the amplitude of the carrier
 Jn – will give the amplitude of the sidebands, with
frequency (  n )
c m
01/21/25 25
FM frequency spectrum

|Jn|

J0

J1 J1

J2 J2

J3 J3

fc-3fm fc-2fm fc-fm fc fc+fm fc+2fm fc+3fm

freq
An FM frequency spectrum

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Bessel Functions

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01/21/25 28
TABLE OF BESSEL FUNCTIONS

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Bessel Functions

• The first row gives the sideband number, while

the first columns gives the modulation index.

• The remaining columns indicate the amplitudes

of the carrier and the various pairs of sidebands.

• Sidebands with relative magnitude of less than

0.001 have been eliminated.

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Bessel Functions

Some of the carrier and sideband amplitudes have negative

signs. This means that the signal represented by that
amplitude is simply shifted in phase 180 (phase inversion).
As you can see, the spectrum of a FM signal varies
considerably in bandwidth depending upon the value of the
modulation index. The higher the modulation index, the
wider the bandwidth of the FM signal.

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Bessel Functions

With the increase in the modulation index, the carrier

amplitude decreases while the amplitude of the various
sidebands increases. With some values of modulation index,
the carrier can disappear completely.

01/21/25 32
Bessel Functions exercise

• Given a FM modulator with the following parameters

Deviations sensitivity, Kf = 3 kHz/V
kVm
Carrier frequency, fc = 500 kHz  f 
2
Modulating signal,Vm =5 cos (2 x 10k t)
f k f Vm
a) Find the modulation index
f m kV
mf   m
fm f m = 5(3 kHz) /(10 kHz)= 1.5

b) sketch the frequency spectrum

01/21/25 33
FM Bandwidth

• Theoretically, a FM signal contains an infinite number of side

frequencies so that the bandwidth required to transmit such
signal is infinite.

• However, since the values of Jn() become negligible for

sufficiently large n, the bandwidth of an angle-modulated

signal can be defined by considering only those terms that
contain significant power.

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FM Bandwidth Requirement

From Bessel table: B.W 2nf m (max) actual bandwidth

n = number of significant sideband

Carson's rule is given by the expression

BW 2(f  f m ) approximate bandwidth

Carson’s rule is an approximation and gives

transmission bandwidth that are slightly narrower than
the bandwidths determined using the Bessel table.

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  The actual BW required to pass all the
significant SBs for an angle-modulated wave is
equal to two times the product of the highest
modulating-signal frequency, fm and the
number of SBs, n found from the Bessel
function.
B  2( n  f m )
Hz

 Carson’s rule approximate the BW necessary to

transmit an angle-modulated wave as twice the
sum of peak freq deviation, f and the highest
modulating-signal freq.fm.
B 2(f  f m )
Hz

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Examples
Calculate the bandwidth occupied by a FM signal with a
modulation index of 2 and a highest modulating frequency of
2.5 kHz.
B.W . 2 4 2.5
Solution: B.W 2nf m (max) 20kHz

Example:
Assuming a maximum frequency deviation of 5 kHz and a
maximum modulating frequency of 2.5 kHz, the bandwidth
would be

Solution: B.W . 2( 2.5kHz  5kHz )

2 7.5kHz
15kHz
01/21/25 37
Power in FM
In FM, the amplitude of the modulated signal is the same as
the amplitude of the un-modulated carrier signal. Power of FM
wave dissipated in a load, R is:

V2 V2 V2
P  rms  c  c
FM R ( 2 )2 R 2R PFM = Pc

But the power in the carrier is distributed over the various

FM sidebands that results from the modulation. This power
is contained at the various frequency Spectrum
components, in amounts determined by the mf and the
corresponding Bessel Function

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Narrow Band FM (NBFM)
1. Modulation index approximates to 1

2. The frequency deviation is between 5 kHz to 10khz

3. Bandwidth : 10 – 30kHz

4. The maximum modulating frequency : 3 kHz

5. NBFM is used for communication, in competition with

SSB, having its main applications in various form of
mobile communication (eg. Police, ambulances, etc)

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Wide Band FM (WBFM)

1. Modulating frequency range from : 15 kHz – 30 kHz

2. The maximum frequency deviation frequency : 75 kHz

3. Modulation index is more than 1 (between 5 to 2500)

4. Bandwidth is approximately 15 times higher than the

NBFM system

5. WBFM is used for broadcasting with or without stereo

multiplex and for the sound accompanying TV
transmission

01/21/25 40
Advantages of FM compared to AM

1. All the transmitted power in FM is useful, whereas in AM

most of it in the transmitted carrier, which contains no
useful information

2. FM has the advantages over the AM, of providing greater

protection from noise for the lowest modulating
frequency

3. In FM, the transmitted amplitude is constant. This

characteristic has the advantages of significantly
improving immunity to noise and interference

01/21/25 41
Disadvantages of FM compared to AM

1. Since the reception is limited to line of sight, the

area of reception for FM is much smaller than AM

2. Equipments for the transmitter and receiver are

more expensive and complex

3. A much wider bandwidth is required by FM, up to

10 times larger than needed by AM. This is the
most significant disadvantage of FM.

01/21/25 42
Frequency Modulation
 Amplitude modulation has two drawbacks; that is serious
deficiencies in dynamic range and in noise immunity

 For these reason, Frequency Modulation (FM) is introduced.

This is due FM is offering a wide dynamic range which is
suitable for high fidelity system such as in FM stereo and can
reduce the effect of noise

 However, it require a wide bandwidth and a complex system

transceiver

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FM Waveform

01/21/25 44
Summary of FM

01/21/25 45
COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
BTB15104

Angle Modulation
Phase Modulation

Communication Technology Section

01/21/25 46
PM Communication Chart

Continuous Wave

Amplitude Angle
Modulation Modulation
(AM)

Frequency Phase
DSBFC DSBSC SSB Modulation Modulation
(FM) (PM)

01/21/25 47
01/21/25 48
Phase Modulation (PM)

Phase modulation is a system in which the phase of the

carrier signal is varied by the information signal. The
amplitude of the carrier is kept constant.

The phase  in the equation v Vc cos(c   )t

is varied so that its magnitude is proportional to
instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal.

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Phase Modulation (PM)

With PM, the maximum phase deviation,  occurs during

the zero crossings of the modulating signal. That is, the 
is proportional to the slope or first derivative of the
modulating signal.

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Phase Modulation (PM)
If Carrier signal vc (t ) Vc cos c t

Modulating Signal vm (t ) Vm cos mt

Modulating signal
The expression for PM wave is:

PM equation: vPM (t ) Vc cos(c   )t

where
  vm (t ) kVm cos mt
K = Deviations sensitivity,
in (rad/V)

01/21/25 51
Phase Modulation (PM)

Giving
vPM (t ) Vc cos(c t  kVm cos mt )

where
kVm  m p

= is the maximum value of phase change

introduced by this particular modulation signal
and is proportional to the maximum amplitude of
the modulating signal

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Phase Modulation (PM)
The range for
 i
s
    
The value of  is called the modulation index for PM,
which is denoted by mp

So, general equation for PM is

vPM (t ) Vc cos(c t  m p cos mt )

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01/21/25 54
Comparison between PM & FM
Comparisons between PM and FM

1. The modulation index – is defined differently in each system

f
In FM its modulation index :
mf 
fm

In PM its modulation index : m p  KVm

where;

k= phase modulator sensitivity in radians per volt
= phase deviation in radians k
Vm=modulating-signal amplitude in volts Vm

01/21/25 55
Comparison between PM & FM
2. In PM, the phase deviation is proportionally to the
amplitude of the modulating signal and is independent
of its frequency

3. In FM, the frequency deviation is proportionally to

the amplitude of the modulating signal Vm as well as
its frequency, fm

4. The main difference between PM and FM, is how the

information signal will change the carrier signal.

Note: PM is not very widely used because

it tends to require more complex receiving hardware
there can be ambiguity problems in determining whether, for example, the
signal has changed phase by +180° or -180°.

01/21/25 56
Example 1:

 Given a PM modulator with the following parameters

Deviations sensitivity, K = 0.75 rad/V

Carrier frequency, fc = 500 kHz

Modulating signal, Vm = 4 sin (2 5k t)

a) Determine the modulation index of the modulator

m = KpVm
= 4(0.75 rad/v)
=3

57
Example 1:

b) Sketch the output spectrum for the modulator

58
Example 2:

 A PM modulator is designed with the following parameters

a) Determine the modulation index and sketch the output

spectrum for the modulator

59
Example 2:

b) Change the modulating signal amplitude for the modulator to 4V

and repeat step a)

c) Change the modulating signal frequency for the modulator to

1kHz and repeat step a)

60
Example 3:
 A PM modulator has a deviation sensitivity 0.2 rad/V and a
modulating signal = 10 sin (2π4000t). Determine:

a) the peak phase deviation

 kVm
= 0.2 (10)
= 2 rad

b) the modulation index

m m
=2

61
Example 3:

c) the peak phase deviation and modulation index produced if the

modulating signal doubled in amplitude.

 kVm
= 0.2 (20)
= 4 rad

m m
=4

62
Example 4:

 A phase modulator has k = 2 rad/V. What RMS voltage of a sine-

wave would cause a peak phase deviation of 60°?

Solution:

First, we need to convert the unit to radians.

Remembering that a circle has 360° or 2 rad, we see that;

360° = 2 rad
60° = 2 rad x 60
360
=  rad
3

63
Example 4:
 The voltage to cause this deviation can be found from;

so
k
Vm

Vm 
k
= (/3) rad =  V
2 rad/V 6

This is peak voltage. = 0.524 V

 We can find the RMS value in usual way;

VRMS = Vpeak /2
= 0.524 /2
= 0.37 V

64
Summary