ELE 3203: Communication Systems

Learning Outcome 2 part 2

Frequency Modulation

12/4/22
Learning Outcomes
•After completing this module, you will be able to:


Explain the Principle of Frequency Modulation


Sketch FM waveform in the time domain


Determine the Modulation index of FM signals


Describe & Calculate FM Sidebands and Bandwidth


Calculate the Power of FM signal


Explain available BW of Commercial FM


With the aid of block diagram show the generation methods of FM
 Carrier Parameters
What are the parameters of a sine wave? v(t)  V sin(2ft  )
A sine wave (Carrier) has three parameters v(t) Time varying voltage
V Peak voltage
f Frequency in Hertz
 phase in radians

There are three main parameters for a sine wave, Amplitude, Frequency and Phase. Changing
any parameter in accordance to an information signal will produce Modulation:

• Varying the Amplitude produces, Amplitude Modulation (AM), AM band (500 - 1600 kHz)

• Varying the Frequency produces , Frequency Modulation (FM), FM Radio (88 - 108 MHz)

• Varying the Phase produces, Phase Modulation (PM).

Frequency Modulation

In Frequency modulation FM, the carrier frequency is changed in proportion

with the instantaneous value of a modulating signal (information).

In the time domain

Frequency Modulation
 Frequency Modulation Principle
 Carrier frequency fc is changed with the
amplitude of the audio signal:
 Audio amplitude increases  fc increases
 Audio amplitude decreases  fc decreases
Note the carrier amplitude remains constant
during this process.

Mathematically, this can be represented by:

fout = fc + δ(t) = fc + k em

where fout is the fFM frequency, k is a constant, called modulation sensitivity of the FM
transmitter, unit [kHz/V], and em is the amplitude of the modulating frequency in volts.

The frequency deviation δ is a measure of the change in transmitter output frequency from the
rest frequency of the transmitter.

The rest frequency of a transmitter is the output frequency with no modulation.

 Frequency Modulation Principle
fout = fc + δ(t) = fc + k em
The frequency deviation of the carrier is directly proportional to the amplitude of the
applied modulating signal.
For a single modulating tone of em(t) = em sin(ωmt), the amount of frequency deviation is given:
δ(t) = k × em(t)
where δ(t) is the frequency deviation and em(t) represents the modulating signal. The figure below
shows how the carrier frequency is deviated by the variations of the audio signal.
Examples
Example 1: A certain FM transmitter has modulation sensitivity, k, of 10 kHz/V. If a 5-kHz sine
wave of 2 Vp-p is applied to this transmitter, determine the frequency deviation that occurs.
Solution.
The modulating signal amplitude varies between +1 and -1.
Therefore,
the +ve frequency deviation (increase) is δ = 1V × 10 kHz/V = 10 kHz
the -ve frequency deviation (decrease) is δ = -1V × 10 kHz/V = -10 kHz

Example 2: A certain 100 kHz FM transmitter has modulation sensitivity, k, of 10 kHz/V. If a 5-kHz
sine wave of 2 Vp-p is applied to this transmitter, determine the frequency deviation that occurs
when the modulating signal reaches an amplitude of 0.5V and -0.25V .
Solution.
When the modulating signal em amplitude is 0.5V, the frequency deviation (increase).
It is 0.5V × 10 kHz/V = 5 kHz, and the carrier frequency moves to 100kHz + 5 kHz = 105 kHz

When the modulating signal eM amplitude is -0.25V, the frequency deviation (increase).
It is -0.25V × 10 kHz/V = -2.5 kHz and the carrier frequency moves to 100kHz – 2.5 kHz = 97.5 kHz
The frequency deviation
The amount by which the carrier moves up and down is known as the frequency deviation δ.
The carrier frequency fc varies between fc - δ and fc + δ as shown below. The maximum
frequency deviation δ is the farthest away frequency from the original carrier frequency that
the FM signal can have. Sometimes it is referred to as the “Frequency swing".
Examples

Example 1: In an FM system a carrier frequency of 100 kHz is deviated by ±3 kHz. What is the
highest and lowest carrier frequency?

Solution: 97 kHz <fFM< 103 kHz

Example 2: In an FM system a carrier frequency is moved up to 210 kHz and down to 190kHz
what is the frequency deviation?

Solution: δ=

Example 3: In radio FM a carrier frequency is moved up to 99.075 MHz and moved down to
98.925 MHz, what is the frequency deviation?

Solution: δ=
FM Modulation index
 The ratio of the frequency deviation to the modulating frequency is known as the modulation
index (mf).
 In most communication systems using FM, maximum limits are put on both the frequency
deviation and the modulating frequency.

Modulation index=

 In standard FM broadcasting, the maximum permitted frequency deviation is 75 kHz and the
maximum permitted modulating frequency is 15 kHz.
 The modulation index for standard FM broadcasting is therefore 5.
Examples

In radio FM a carrier frequency is moved up to 99.075 MHz and moved down to 98.925 MHz,
and the audio signal to be transmitted ranges from 20 to 15,000 Hz. Determine the modulation
index for this FM system?

Solution:
δ=

mf
The Frequency Spectrum of the FM waveform

The complete analysis of the FM signal is rather complicated and only the results will be
presented. The FM signal can be written as

𝑒𝐹𝑚 = 𝑉𝑐𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑐𝑡 + 𝑚𝑓𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑚𝑡))

The complexity of the FM signal comes fro the fact that contains the sine of the a sine. To solve
for the frequency components of the FM signal, a mathematical tool Bessel functions is
required.
The𝑒 analysis shows:𝑡 + 𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔 𝑡))
= 𝑉 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔
𝐹𝑚 𝑐 𝑐 𝑓 𝑚
𝑒𝐹𝑚 = 𝑉𝑐 J0(mf) 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑐𝑡) Carrier
+𝑉𝑐 J1(mf) [𝑠𝑖𝑛((𝜔𝑐-𝜔𝑚)𝑡) – 𝑠𝑖𝑛((𝜔𝑐+𝜔𝑚)𝑡)] First order sideband
+𝑉𝑐 J2(mf) [𝑠𝑖𝑛((𝜔𝑐-2𝜔𝑚)𝑡) – 𝑠𝑖𝑛((𝜔𝑐+2𝜔𝑚)𝑡)] Second order sideband
+𝑉𝑐 J3(mf) [𝑠𝑖𝑛((𝜔𝑐-3𝜔𝑚)𝑡) – 𝑠𝑖𝑛((𝜔𝑐+3𝜔𝑚)𝑡)] Third order sideband
 .... etc Higher order sidebands
The Frequency Spectrum of the FM waveform

What this equation indicates is:

• Generally, there are an infinite number of sideband pairs for an FM wave.
• Each sideband pair is symmetrically located about the transmitter’s rest frequency, f C, and
separated from the rest frequency by integral multiples of the modulating frequency, n × f M,
where n = 1, 2, 3, … .
• The magnitude of the rest frequency and sideband pairs is dependent upon the index of
modulation, mf.
• The magnitude of the rest frequency and sideband is given by the Bessel function coefficients,
Jn(mf), where the subscript n of Jn is the order of the sideband pair.
The Frequency Spectrum of the FM waveform
The Bessel function coefficients,
Jn(mf), are given by Bessel table.

This by Bessel table shows only Significant

sidebands, i.e., those that have an
amplitude of greater than 1% (.01).

Note that the number of significant

sidebands depends on the modulation
index!
The Frequency Spectrum of the FM waveform

Message signal: one single FM signal in the frequency domain

frequency

fm
 Example
Find the carrier and the sidebands amplitude to the for a modulation index of mf = 1 and peak
amplitude carrier of 10V. If the carrier frequency is 100kHz and the modulating frequency is 1
kHz, sketch the frequency spectrum.
Solution: From the table
 3 sidebands
Carrier = 0.77 x 10 = 7.7 V
1st SB = 0.44 x 10 = 4.4 V
2nd SB = 0.11 x 10 = 1.1 V
3rd SB = 0.02 x 10 = 0.2 V
Example
A FM signal is generated using an un-modulated carrier 10 sin(2π5×105t) and a modulating
signal Vm=sin (2π×1000 t). If the modulation index is mf = 1. Determine the number of
sidebands,
Solution: their
Fromamplitudes
the table and sketch the waveform in the frequency domain?
 3 sidebands
Carrier = 0.77 x 10 = 7.7 V
1st SB = 0.44 x 10 = 4.4 V
2nd SB = 0.11 x 10 = 1.1 V
3rd SB = 0.02 x 10 = 0.2 V
FM Bandwidth
The total bandwidth, or true bandwidth, of an FM signal is:

BW  2nfm
where n is the number of sidebands, determined from the Bessel function table and
the modulation index, and fm is the maximum modulating frequency.

Note that the bandwidth can also be calculated from the frequency spectrum. An approximation,
knows as Carson’s rule, is an alternative rule to find the FM bandwidth without using the table as
follows:

BWcarson  2( fm   )
Where fm is the maximum modulating frequency and δ is the maximum frequency deviation.
Examples
Example 1:
An FM signal has a modulation index of 2.5 and the modulating signal is 7 kHz, determine
the BW of the signal
Solution:
From the table n = 6
BW = 2 × 6 × 7 = 84 kHz

Example 2:
An FM signal uses 5 kHz as a frequency deviation and a 2.5 kHz is the maximum modulating
frequency. Determine the bandwidth of the FM signal using Carson’s rule.
What is the true bandwidth of the FM signal.
Solution:
BWcarson = 2 ( 2.5 + 5 ) = 15 kHz
mf=5/2.5=2  from the table n=4
BW=2x4x2.5=20kHz
Power in the FM

The total power in FM signal is the sum of the power of all the sidebands.
The total power in one side band is

PT  PJ 0  PJ1  PJ 2 ... PJn

For the two

The total power in two sidebands is
sidebands

PT  PJ 0  2PJ 1  2PJ 2 ... 2PJn

Example
A FM signal is generated using an un-modulated carrier 10 sin(2π5×105t) and a modulating
signal Vm=sin (2π×1000 t). If the modulation index is mf = 1. Determine the total peak power?

Solution: From the table

 3 sidebands
Carrier = 0.77 x 10 = 7.7 V
1st SB = 0.44 x 10 = 4.4 V
2nd SB = 0.11 x 10 = 1.1 V
3rd SB = 0.02 x 10 = 0.2 V

Assuming a R=1Ω
 Pt=7.72+2x(4.42+1.12+0.22)=100.51 W
 Zero Carrier Amplitude (eigenvalue)
• For certain values of mf the carrier frequency of the FM wave
can disappear!
• If the modulating frequency is kept constant and the frequency
deviation is changed, the amplitude of the carrier goes from
positive to minus and crossing the zero value as shown by the
Bessel function.
• At modulation indices mf = 2.41, 5.53, 8.65, etc, the carrier
coefficient drops to zero and hence the carrier amplitude drops
to zero. These values are called eigenvalues .

An FM wave with mf ≅ 2.405. Note the null at the center rest

frequency. For this display, the modulation frequency was set to
10 kHz and the frequency deviation was set to 24.06 kHz, hence
mf ≅ 2.406 and J0 ≅ 0.
Narrow Band FM

 Narrowband FM (NBFM) is any FM system in which the modulation index is less

than π/2 = 1.57, or mf < π /2.
 NBFM is widely used in communication. It conserves spectrum space at the expense
of the signal-to-noise ratio.

 The higher the modulation index in FM, the greater the number of significant sidebands and
the wider the bandwidth of the signal.

 When spectrum conservation is necessary, the bandwidth of an FM signal can be restricted

by putting an upper limit on the modulation index.
The Effect of Noise on FM

• Random electrical variations added to the AM signal altered the original modulation of the
signal. For FM, noise still adds to the signal, but because the information resides in
frequency changes instead of amplitude changes, the noise tends to have less of an effect.
• The random electrical variations encountered by the FM signal will indeed cause
distortion by “jittering” the frequency of the FM signal. However, the change in frequency
modulation caused by the jittering usually turns out to be less than the change in the
amplitude modulation caused by the same relative amplitude noise variations on an AM
signal. Also unlike AM, the effect of the frequency jittering becomes progressively worse as
the modulating frequency increases. In other words, the effect of noise increases with
modulation frequency.
 Pre-Emphasis and De-Emphasis
•To compensate for this last effect, FM communication
systems have incorporated a noise-combating system of
pre-emphasis and de-emphasis. How is this done?
•Pre-emphasis gives added amplitude to the higher
modulating frequencies prior to modulation under a well-
defined pre-emphasis (HPF) curve. This added amplitude
will serve to make the higher frequencies more immune to
noise by increasing their index of modulation.
•De-emphasis is just the opposite operation (using an LPF)
and it is done at the receiver. The net effect of the two
filtering processes is to cancel one another out. The figure
below shows the two filters used in the pre- emphasis and
de-emphasis.
 FM Stereo
FM stereo broadcasting was introduced during the early 1960s. The scheme that was adopted was chosen
to be compatible with the monaural FM radios that were in existence at the time.

• A left (L) and right (R) source of information are first pre-
emphasized and then combined to create two signals, or
the L + R signal (the mono signal), and the difference
signal, or L – R.
• The L – R signal is AM modulated with a fc=38-kHz and
suppressed carrier (DSBSC).
• The unmodulated carrier signal is also divided in frequency
to give a 19 kHz signal called a pilot subcarrier signal, that
will be used at the receiver to aid in the demodulation of
the received signal.
The L + R signal frequencies : 0 Hz to 15 kHz.
• All three signals (L+R), modulated (L-R) and the pilot
subcarrier signal, are applied to a summer/adder circuit at The pilot subcarrier signal frequency: ~19-kHz.
the output of the generator. The L – R signal with DSBSC: 23kHz to 53 kHz.
Frequency Modulation Versus Amplitude Modulation
Advantages of FM: FM typically offers some significant benefits over AM.
• FM has superior immunity to noise, made possible by clipper limiter circuits in the receiver.
• In FM, interfering signals on the same frequency are rejected. This is known as the capture
effect.
• FM signals have a constant amplitude and there is no need to use linear amplifiers to increase
power levels. This increases transmitter efficiency.

Disadvantages of FM
• FM uses considerably more frequency spectrum space.
• FM has used more complex circuitry for modulation and demodulation.
• In the past, the circuits used for frequency modulation and demodulation involved were complex.
With the proliferation of ICs, complex circuitry used in FM has all but disappeared. ICs are
inexpensive and easy to use. FM and PM have become the most widely used modulation method in
electronic communication today.
Major applications of AM and FM
 Example:
A spectrum analyzer with input impedance of 50 Ohm is used to measure the power in an AM
waveform. The AM signal is modulated with a sine wave. The effective carrier power PC is 750 mW and
each sideband power PUSB and PLSB is 120 mW, compute:

• The total effective power

• The peak carrier voltage VC
• The lower and upper peak sideband voltages VLSB and VUSB
• The modulation index m

Solution:

• The total effective power is: Pt =750+2x120=990mW

• The peak carrier voltage VC: Vc=sqrt(50x750mW)/0.707=8.66V
• The lower and upper peak sideband voltages VLSB and VUSB are:
VLSB=VUSB= Vc=sqrt(50x120mW)/0.707=3.46V
• The modulation index m : m=(2x3.46)/8.66=0.8
FM Generation – 1: Using a VCO

A very simple and direct method of generating an FM signal is by the use of a voltage
controlled
oscillator (VCO). The frequency of such an oscillator can be varied by an amount proportional
to the magnitude of an input (control) voltage. Such oscillators, in the form of an integrated
circuit, have very linear characteristics over a frequency range which is a significant percentage
of the center frequency. Despite the above desirable characteristic, the VCO fails in one
respect as a generator of FM - the stability of its center frequency is not acceptable for most
communication purposes.
 FM Generation – 2: Varactor Modulator
 The capacitance of varactor diode D1 and L1 form the parallel tuned circuit of the
oscillator.
 The value of C1 is made very large so its reactance is very low.
 C1 connects the tuned circuit to the oscillator and blocks the dc bias on the base
of Q1 from being shorted to ground through L1.
 The values of L1 and D1 fix the center carrier frequency.
 The modulating signal varies the effective voltage applied to D1 and its
capacitance varies.

 Most LC oscillators are not stable enough to provide a

carrier signal.
 The frequency of LC oscillators will vary with
temperature changes, variations in circuit voltage, and
other factors.
 As a result, crystal oscillators are normally used to set
carrier frequency. Figure: A direct-frequency-modulated
carrier oscillator using a varactor diode.
 FM Generation – 3: Frequency-Modulating a Crystal Oscillator
• Crystal oscillators provide highly accurate carrier frequencies and
their stability is superior to LC oscillators.

• The frequency of a crystal oscillator can be varied by changing the

value of capacitance in series or parallel with the crystal.

• By making the series capacitance a varactor diode, frequency

modulation can be achieved.

• The modulating signal is applied to the varactor diode which changes

the oscillator frequency.

Figure: Frequency modulation

of a crystal oscillator with a
varactor diode.
FM Generation – 3: Frequency-Modulating a Crystal Oscillator

• Rarely can the frequency of a crystal oscillator be changed more than several
hundred hertz from the nominal crystal value which may be less than the total
deviation desired.

• For example, to achieve a total frequency shift of 75 kHz, which is necessary in

commercial FM broadcasting you may need to use frequency multipliers.

Figure: How frequency multipliers Figure: Frequency modulation

increase carrier frequency and deviation. of a crystal oscillator with a
aractor diode.
FM Generation – 4: Reactance modulator
The reactance modulator is a very popular
means of FM generation.
A reactance modulator changes the frequency of
a tank circuit of an oscillator by changing its
reactance.
The reactance modulator is an amplifier designed
so that its input impedance (L, C) has a reactance
that varies as a function of the amplitude of the
applied input voltage of the modulating signal.
The variations of the input reactance varies the
output frequency of the amplifier.

Figure: A direct-frequency-modulated
carrier oscillator using a reactance
modulator.
FM Generation – 2: Crosby modulator (optional)

A system that uses reactance modulator with automatic frequency control is called Crosby
systems. A Crosby system for 90 MHz is shown below. The reactance modulator starts at
5MHz and frequency deviation of ± 4.167 kHz. After the multiplication block the output
frequency is 90 MHz and 75 kHz frequency deviation which is the standard used for
commercial FM transmission.
FM Generation – 2: Phase Locked Loop
The key block in the PLL system is the phase
comparator.

When both input frequencies to the phase

detector are equal the difference error is

very small the two frequencies are said to be

locked to each other.

Under this condition the phase comparator

output is zero and therefore the voltage
controlled oscillator is fixed to one frequency.

When there is difference between the VCO and

the reference frequency the PLL reacts to this
change fast and applies the necessary output
voltage to move the VCO back to its location Figure: The block diagram of a phase locked.
 Commercial FM band
• The maximum permissible carrier deviation, δ, is ±75 kHz
• Modulating frequencies is ranging from 50 Hz to 15 kHz
• The modulation index can range from as low as 5 for fm = 15 kHz (75 kHz/15 kHz) to as high
as 1500 for fm = 50 Hz (75 kHz/50 Hz).
• The ±75-kHz carrier deviation results in an FM bandwidth requirement of 150 kHz for the
receiver.
• A 25-kHz guard band above and below the upper and lower FM sidebands.
• Total bandwidth of one channel is 200Hz.
End of LO2 Part 2
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