VIH Migraciones y Derechos Humanos
VIH Migraciones y Derechos Humanos
VIH Migraciones y Derechos Humanos
C O L E C C I Ó N G R U P O S D E T R A B A J O C O L E C C I Ó N G R U P O S D E T R A B A J O
ISBN 978-987-722-419-1
9 789877 224191
Equipo
Rodolfo Gómez, Giovanny Daza, Teresa Arteaga, Cecilia Gofman, Natalia Gianatelli y Tomás Bontempo
Los libros de CLACSO pueden descargarse libremente en formato digital o adquirirse en versión impresa
desde cualquier lugar del mundo ingresando a www.clacso.org.ar/libreria-latinoamericana
VIH, Migraciones y Derechos Humanos: Perspectivas Internacionales (Buenos Aires: CLACSO, diciembre de 2019).
ISBN 978-987-722-419-1
© Consejo Latinoamericano de Ciencias Sociales | Queda hecho el depósito que establece la Ley 11723.
No se permite la reproducción total o parcial de este libro, ni su almacenamiento en un sistema informático, ni su transmisión
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CLACSO
Consejo Latinoamericano de Ciencias Sociales - Conselho Latino-americano de Ciências Sociais
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VIH, migraciones y Derechos Humanos: breves consideraciones introductorias
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VIH, migraciones y Derechos Humanos: breves consideraciones introductorias
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PREFÁCIO
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VIH, migrações e Direitos Humanos: breves considerações introdutórias
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VIH, migrações e Direitos Humanos: breves considerações introdutórias
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Marinilda Rivera Díaz, Monica Franch, Octávio Sacramento y Patria Rojas
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PREFACE
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HIV, migrations and Human Rights: brief introductory considerations
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Marinilda Rivera Díaz, Mónica Franch, Octávio Sacramento y Patria Rojas
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HIV, migrations and Human Rights: brief introductory considerations
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CIDADANIA E EPIDEMIA: O VIH/SIDA
NO ÂMBITO DAS MIGRAÇÕES
INTERNACIONAIS*
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INTRODUÇÃO
Nas últimas quatro décadas, o aumento dos fluxos internacionais de
pessoas, bens e informação constitui uma expressão marcante dos
processos da chamada “globalização tardia” (Turcan, 2016). Perante
este cenário tem sido usual o reconhecimento da emergência de um
mundo flexível, em movimento, pós-nacional, cosmopolita, ecuménico
e híbrido (Appadurai, 1996; Bauman, 2000; Beck, 2002; Elliot & Urry,
2010; Habermas, 2001; Hall, 2006; Hannerz, 1997; Inda, 2000; Inda
& Rosaldo, 2002; Matnstik, 1996; Schiller, Darieva & Gruner-Domic,
2011; Urry, 2007). Sem negar pertinência a tais concepções, importa,
porém, ter em conta que o modo como tende a enfatizar-se a porosida-
de das fronteiras, os transnacionalismos e a fluidez da vida social con-
temporânea nem sempre deixa espaço para se ponderar com a devida
atenção as múltiplas desigualdades históricas do “sistema-mundo”
(Wallerstein, 1974) e a economia política da circulação global de pes-
soas. Se as noções da fluidez, do hibridismo e de uma cidadania glo-
bal servem, de facto, para traduzir o que acontece com determinadas
* Uma versão similar deste texto, com o título “Política das migrações, violência
estrutural e VIH/SIDA”, foi publicada na revista Espaço Aberto, da Universidade Fed-
eral do Rio de Janeiro.
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2 Aqui entendida como uma condição que remete para os direitos civis, sociais e
políticos, a pertença e integração numa dada comunidade e a possibilidade de acesso
à participação política (Wiener, 2018), devendo ser equacionada, simultaneamente,
nos âmbitos nacional e supranacional em virtude do incremento dos fluxos e das
conexões globais.
3 Trata-se de uma estratégia bem evidente na Europa de Schengen e que assenta
na exportação de estruturas e dispositivos de controlo das suas fronteiras para ter-
ritórios vizinhos, com o propósito de suster antecipadamente os fluxos migratórios e
impedir a sua chegada ao perímetro fronteiriço (Lemberg-Pedersen, 2015, 2017).
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Cidadania e epidemia: o VIH/SIDA no âmbito das migrações internacionais
8 O grupo étnico dos Rohingya é um dos casos atuais mais dramáticos deste
vazio do Estado e da sua proteção. O não reconhecimento da cidadania e a feroz
perseguição que lhes é movida por parte de Myanmar resultam, acima de tudo, do
facto de serem considerados “imigrantes ilegais”, embora a sua presença no país seja
bastante antiga (Zarni & Cowley, 2014).
9 No âmbito dos seus trabalhos sociológicos sobre violência e paz, Galtung (1969)
foi pioneiro no uso do conceito de violência estrutural e na delimitação detalhada do
seu campo semântico. Trata-se de uma forma de violência subjacente à organização
estrutural da sociedade e não está associada a ações específicas e deliberadas de
determinados agentes e/ou instituições, pelo que tende a ser naturalizada. Resulta,
principalmente, de configurações políticas pautadas pela repressão e negação de di-
reitos, da segregação laboral e exploração económica, da desigualdade social e dos
quadros societários de marginalização, desproteção, injustiça e sofrimento. Vejam-
se, entre outros, Benson (2008), Farmer (2004), Parsons (2007), Scheper-Hughes e
Bourgois (2004), Vogt (2013), Winter e Leighton (2001).
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10 Aqui, o género não é inócuo, como se pode comprovar pela tendência global de
feminização da pobreza, inclusivamente nos países mais ricos (Goldberg, 2010).
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Cidadania e epidemia: o VIH/SIDA no âmbito das migrações internacionais
CONSIDERAÇÕES FINAIS
Na atualidade, as fronteiras e as migrações são objeto de intensa
disputa política e estão sujeitas a formas de gestão eminentemente
because Latino men and women are both more likely to engage in multiple sexual
relationships while in the United States in comparison to their home countries” (p.
7). De um modo geral, o diagnóstico atempado é fundamental para o desígnio co-
letivo de contenção da epidemia, ao permitir intervir nas cadeias de transmissão
e assegurar respostas terapêuticas rápidas que reduzem a carga viral para valores
indetetáveis, neutralizando eventuais novos contágios.
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AGRADECIMENTOS
Ao Centro de Estudos Transdisciplinares para o Desenvolvimento
(CETRAD-UTAD), entidade financiada por fundos nacionais através
da FCT – Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia, I.P. (Portugal), no
âmbito do projeto UID/SOC/04011/2019.
REFERENCIAS BIBLIOGRÁFICAS
Agamben, G. 1998 Homo sacer: Sovereign power and bare life
(Stanford: Stanford University Press).
Agier, M. 2008 Gérer les indésirables. Des camps de réfugiés au
gouvernement humanitaire (Paris: Flammarion).
Aldridge, R.; Miller, A.; Jakubowski, B.; Pereira, L.; Fille, F.; Noret,
I. 2017 Personas excluídas: El fracasso de la cobertura sanitária
universal em Europa (Londres: Informe del Observatorio de
la Red europea para reducir las vulnerabilidades en salud,
MdM). Em: <//www.medicos del mundo.org/actualidad-y-
publicaciones/publicaciones,informe-del-observatorio-2017>
(20-06-2018).
Alvarez, R. 1995 “The Mexican-US border: The making of an
anthropology of borderlands” em Annual Review of Anthropology
N° 24, pp. 447-470.
Amo, J.; Bröring, G.; Hamers, F.; Infuso, A.; Fenton, K. 2004
“Monitoring HIV/AIDS in Europe’s migrant communities and
ethnic minorities” em AIDS N° 18(14), pp. 1867-1873.
Amoore, L. 2006 “Biometric borders: Governing mobilities in the
War on Terror” em Political Geography N° 25(3), pp. 336-351.
Anderson, B. 2013 Us and them? The dangerous politics of
immigration control (Oxford: Oxford University Press).
Appadurai, A. 1996 Modernity at large: Cultural dimensions of
globalization (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press).
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CIUDADANÍA Y EPIDEMIA: EL VIH/SIDA
EN EL MARCO DE LAS MIGRACIONES
INTERNACIONALES 1
Octávio Sacramento
INTRODUCCIÓN
En las últimas cuatro décadas, el aumento del movimiento interna-
cional de personas, bienes e información constituye una expresión
profunda de los procesos de la llamada “globalización tardía” (Tur-
can, 2016). Ante este contexto se ha reconocido la emergencia de un
mundo flexible, en movimiento, posnacional, cosmopolita, ecuménico
e híbrido (Appadurai, 1996; Bauman, 2000; Beck, 2002; Elliot & Urry,
2010; Habermas, 2001; Hall, 2006; Hannerz, 1997; Inda, 2000; Inda
& Rosaldo, 2002; Matnstik, 1996; Schiller, Darieva & Gruner-Domic,
2011; Urry, 2007). Sin negar la pertinencia de tales concepciones, es
importante también tener en cuenta que el modo como se tiende a
enfatizar la porosidad de las fronteras, los transnacionalismos y la
fluidez de la vida social contemporánea no siempre deja espacio para
ponderar con la atención necesaria las múltiples desigualdades his-
tóricas del “sistema-mundo” (Wallerstein, 1974) y la economía polí-
tica de la circulación global de personas. Si las nociones de la flui-
dez, del hibridismo y de una ciudadanía global sirven, de hecho, para
traducir lo que ocurre con determinadas (categorías de) personas y
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Ciudadanía y epidemia: el VIH/SIDA en el marco de las migraciones internacionales
3 Aquí entendida como una condición que engloba los derechos civiles, sociales y
políticos, la pertenencia e integración en una comunidad y la posibilidad de acceso a
la participación política (Wiener, 2018), debiendo ser considerada, simultáneamente,
en los ámbitos nacional y supranacional en virtud del aumento de los flujos y de las
conexiones mundiales.
4 Se trata de una estrategia muy evidente en la Europa de Schengen y que asienta
en la exportación de dispositivos de control de sus fronteras para territorios vecinos,
con el propósito de sostener anticipadamente los movimientos migratorios e impedir
su llegada al perímetro fronterizo (Lemberg-Pedersen, 2015; 2017).
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arriesgadas que tienen sido causa de muchas muertes (Guerette & Clarke, 2005; Nev-
ins, 2007).
8 De acuerdo con Peutz y Genova (2010), estamos en presencia de un régimen
sociopolítico de deportación globalizado profundamente complejo que “manifiesta
nociones dominantes de soberanía, ciudadanía, salud pública, identidad nacional,
homogeneidad cultural, pureza racial y privilegio de clase” (p. 2).
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Balzacq & Carrera, 2006; Fekete, 2004; Gorodzeisky & Semenov, 2009;
Linke, 2010; Saux, 2007). De hecho, muchas de las etiquetas usadas
para hacer referencia a la inmigración reflejan esta orientación. El
uso habitual de terminologías generadoras de temores (avalancha,
ilegales) y de metáforas de guerra (la lucha contra, el combate, la de-
fensa) promueven la constitución de representaciones estereotipadas
del fenómeno asociadas al peligro, la criminalidad y el desorden, sus-
citando, inevitablemente, sospechas generalizadas y fuertes tensiones
y clivajes sociales (Balzacq & Carrera, 2006; Sohoni & Sohoni, 2014).
Al mismo tiempo que contribuyen a diseminar y exacerbar miedos, las
autoridades, generalmente, proponen más represión y securitarismo
para calmar el pánico social, siendo que esta estrategia tiende a reve-
larse paradójicamente, fomentando aún más inseguridad y muchos
otros efectos perversos, como se ha mencionado.
La producción generalizada de procesos de estigmatización y ex-
clusión en la esfera de las migraciones es ideológicamente impulsa-
da por la perspectiva de un “otro” racializado, percibido sobretodo
como fuente de peligro, desorden y amenaza a una cultura nacional
imaginada como unitaria, homogénea y estática (Vertovec, 2011).
Como destaca Linke (2010: 116), “The figure of the enemy-outsider
has emerged as a trope for people in motion, including migrants, im-
migrants, refugees, seekers of asylum and transient border-subjects,
who are perceived as potential threats to ‘homeland’ mobile security.
Human figures are criminalized as icons of global instability and di-
sorder”. De esta mirada de diabolización de las movilidades de la po-
breza ha resultado la creciente hegemonía de la creencia de que la se-
guridad y la estabilidad solo serán posibles si se superen o, al menos,
se moderen las situaciones susceptibles de complicar el ordenamiento
de las demarcaciones sistémicas en que se inscriben las identidades y
las desigualdades globales (Amoore, 2006). Se trata de una creencia
que fomenta el propósito de mantener y, si posible, reforzar las nume-
rosas fronteras (político-administrativas, étnicas, de pobreza) de un
mundo organizado según múltiples jerarquías (Sacramento, 2016a),
perpetuando el legado colonial de “ciudadanos y súbditos” (Sarró &
Mapril, 2011) en el posicionamiento de muchos países frente al “otro”
inmigrante, incluso en relación a aquel ya establecido en su territorio
y que tanto ha contribuido a su prosperidad.
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Ciudadanía y epidemia: el VIH/SIDA en el marco de las migraciones internacionales
9 El grupo étnico de los Rohingya es uno de los casos actuales más dramáticos de
este vacío del Estado y de su protección. El no reconocimiento de la ciudadanía y la
feroz persecución a que Myanmar los sujeta resultan, ante todo, del hecho de que
son considerados “inmigrantes ilegales”, aunque su presencia en el país sea bastante
antigua (Zarni & Cowley, 2014).
10 En el ámbito de sus trabajos sociológicos sobre violencia y paz, Galtung (1969)
fue pionero en el uso del concepto de violencia estructural y en la delimitación de-
tallada de su campo semántico. Se trata de una forma de violencia subyacente a la
organización estructural de la sociedad y no está asociada a las acciones específi-
cas y deliberadas de determinados agentes y/o instituciones, por lo que tiende a ser
naturalizada. Resulta, principalmente, de configuraciones políticas pautadas por la
represión y negación de derechos, de la segregación laboral y exploración económica,
de la desigualdad social y de los cuadros sociales de marginalización, desprotección,
injusticia y sufrimiento. Véanse, entre otros, Benson (2008), Farmer (2004), Parsons
(2007), Scheper-Hughes y Bourgois (2004), Vogt (2013), Winter y Leighton (2001).
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CONSIDERACIONES FINALES
En la actualidad, las fronteras y las migraciones son objeto de intensa
disputa política y están sujetas a formas de gestión eminentemente
securitarias y selectivas, particularmente en los países ricos. La finali-
dad prioritaria es establecer, a partir de criterios economicistas, socio-
identitarios y/o de seguridad, una estrecha selección entre quién es
bienvenido y quién es indeseado, con el fin de reprimir los proyectos
de movilidad de sujetos pobres, sin privilegios y, en muchos casos,
portadores de una alteridad cultural que el Occidente tiende a mirar
con exacerbado temor. Con esta política migratoria implacable se re-
fuerzan clivajes étnicas y económicas que generan profundas demar-
caciones, exclusiones y jerarquías sociales en el escenario mundial. El
resultado más inmediato es la obliteración de la ciudadanía a largos
centenares de miles de personas que se quedan a la puerta de las fron-
teras, sin tener para dónde ir y con las vidas encerradas en un limbo
de incertidumbres, así como a muchos otros centenares de miles que,
aunque hayan logrado acceder a las geografías deseadas, están en per-
manente desasosiego con la posibilidad de deportación y no pueden
vivir como ciudadanos de pleno derecho.
La violencia estructural que emerge en estas situaciones se reper-
cute transversalmente en las más diversas esferas de los cotidianos,
desde luego en el ámbito de la salud. En el caso específico del VIH/
SIDA, como quedó evidente a lo largo del texto, la violencia estruc-
tural que emana de las orientaciones políticas represivas-securitarias
hegemónicas para las migraciones se traduce en la configuración de
condiciones de acentuada vulnerabilidad epidemiológica. Poco sensi-
bles a los derechos humanos y a la ciudadanía, esas políticas son res-
ponsables por ambientes de precariedad y marginalización social que
intensifican la exposición al riesgo y la susceptibilidad al contagio.
Por otro lado, retrasan el diagnóstico y limitan el acceso a atención
médica a quien ya vive con el VIH, siendo que la identificación pre-
coz de la seropositividad y la asistencia clínica adecuada son funda-
mentales para controlar la infección, evitar el estado de SIDA y vivir
crónicamente con la enfermedad. Al mismo tiempo, y a una escala
colectiva, se ven afectadas las estrategias de prevención de la trans-
misión del virus y los demás procesos de gestión de la epidemia bajo
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AGRADECIMIENTOS
Al Centro de Estudios Transdisciplinarios para el Desarrollo
(CETRAD-UTAD), entidad financiada por fondos nacionales a través
de la FCT - Fundación para la Ciencia y la Tecnología, I.P. (Portugal),
en el marco del proyecto UID/SOC/04011/2019.
A la Prof. Ana Guzzi (Universidad de Puerto Rico), por su valiosa
contribución al proceso de traducción de este texto del portugués al
español.
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VIH Y MIGRACIÓN EN EL SALVADOR:
APUNTES DESDE LA SALUD
INTERNACIONAL
Antonio Hernández, Fátima Alas y Sandra Gómez
EL VIH Y LA MIGRACIÓN
El VIH y las migraciones tienen puntos de intersección que permiten
generar miradas integradoras para el abordaje de esta problemática
social. Las personas que migran y las personas con VIH comparten
el estigma, la discriminación, el rechazo y la violación a sus Derechos
Humanos que les implica esta situación. El fenómeno de la migración
ha sido ampliamente analizado desde diversas perspectivas; sin em-
bargo, un enfoque desde la medicina social y la salud colectiva contri-
buye a abordar la relación entre el espacio y la vida social.
Los movimientos físicos a través del espacio es lo natural, nor-
mal, dada la vida social humana; lo que es anormal, cambiable e his-
tóricamente construido es la idea que sociedades humanas necesitan
construir fronteras e instituciones políticas que definen y restringen la
movilidad espacial en manera particular, regularizadas, en una mane-
ra que la inmovilidad sea la norma (Favell, 2008: 271).
Las personas con VIH al igual que las que sufren otras enfermeda-
des, están en su derecho de desplazarse; sin embargo, las fronteras y las
políticas públicas no han facilitado el acceso al tratamiento y control de
la enfermedad durante el tránsito entre países. Dichos desplazamientos
de la población han tenido múltiples repercusiones en la salud de las per-
sonas, enfrentándose en ocasiones a graves obstáculos para la atención
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Antonio Hernández, Fátima Alas y Sandra Gómez
ANTECEDENTES
En El Salvador, el fenómeno de la migración no es nuevo. Es una
historia larga que ha tenido diferentes acentos y altibajos. Según el
Sistema Continuo de Reportes sobre Migración Internacional en las
Américas (SICREMI, 2014), entre los años setenta y ochenta la migra-
ción aumentó un 73% en relación a las décadas anteriores. Sin embar-
go, las razones que impulsaron a las personas a migrar, así como la
composición demográfica, han ido cambiando a lo largo del tiempo.
Durante la década de los ochenta, la migración se incrementó en un
307%, siendo la mayor parte de migrantes personas afectadas por la
guerra civil en la que el país estaba inmerso. En la siguiente década,
se impulsaron medidas neoliberales las cuales permearon en todas las
políticas públicas, produciendo un incremento en la exclusión social.
Como resultado, entre los años noventa y dos mil, la migración de
salvadoreños/as hacia Estados Unidos subió a un 400% (SICREMI,
2014), siendo este flujo migratorio mucho mayor en el período de la
postguerra que la que se tuvo durante la década del conflicto armado.
De igual manera, se observa un reflujo de población salvadoreña
retornada desde Guatemala, México y Estados Unidos habiendo un
incremento en las deportaciones de 4.216 en 1999 a 36.689 en 2004
(SICREMI, 2014). Esta circularidad migratoria (López & Godenau,
2015) es inducida por varios factores. Para el caso de El Salvador se
encuentran: a) la detención de los migrantes en Guatemala y México
que se retornan a El Salvador; b) el nuevo intento del migrante en
llegar a Estados Unidos; y c) el extravío en la ruta que obliga al mi-
grante a regresar o quedarse temporalmente en Guatemala o México
trabajando mientras logra reiniciar su camino. En este contexto, el
abordaje de esta problemática para México y los países del denomi-
nado Triángulo Norte (Guatemala, Honduras y El Salvador), quienes
tienen una alta población en tránsito y como destino Estados Unidos,
es impostergable. En El Salvador, se posee más de un tercio de su po-
blación en diferentes ciudades en Estados Unidos (Hernández, 2017),
enviando remesas en su mayoría al país, por lo que cualquier política
exterior antiinmigrante de parte de Washington, genera especulación
e incertidumbre en el ámbito económico y social salvadoreño.
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REFLEXIONES FINALES
El abordaje de las personas migrantes con VIH tiene varias deudas
pendientes con el derecho a la salud en El Salvador: a) Más investiga-
ciones sobre migración y género para ampliar la comprensión del fe-
nómeno de la feminización de la migración; b)visibilizar la exposición
al riesgo y la violencia que sufren las mujeres migrantes; c) establecer
mecanismos entre países para la protección y seguimiento a los cien-
tos de personas que emigran cada día y que corren un alto riesgo de
contraer el VIH durante su tránsito a Estados Unidos, debido a la vio-
lencia sexual a la que se ven expuestas y a la limitante estructural de
no poder proveer servicios de salud fuera de las fronteras nacionales,
y d) atender la migración invisible de la población LGBTT que con su
alta concentración de casos de VIH debe de priorizarse en las políticas
regionales por considerarse como una población triplemente vulnera-
ble. Urge el diseño de sistemas regionales de información en salud que
permitan proporcionar un seguimiento apropiado a aquellos pacien-
tes con enfermedades no transmisibles y cáncer que decidan migrar, y
no solo para las enfermedades de interés epidemiológico.
Las políticas norteamericanas anti-inmigrantes seguirán impac-
tando la situación económica y social en El Salvador; por tanto, son
un reto para los organismos regionales como la OPS, ONUSIDA y la
OIM, quienes deben de articularse con los gobiernos de la región para
el fortalecimiento de las protecciones sociales de los Estados y para
la garantía de los derechos humanos de las personas migrantes. La
Salud Internacional Sur-Sur como nuevo campo de estudios debe pro-
fundizar en el análisis de la categoría salud-migración con una mira-
da emancipatoria desde la responsabilidad que tienen los organismos
regionales y los Estados de garantizar el Derecho a la Salud de las
personas migrantes.
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BIBLIOGRAFÍA
Asamblea Legislativa de El Salvador 2011 Ley Especial para la
Protección y Desarrollo de la Persona Migrante Salvadoreña y su
familia (Ley 655 de 2011) (El Salvador).
Asakura, H.; Torres, M. 2013 “Migración femenina centroamericana
y violencia de género: pesadilla sin límites” en Zona Franca
(Argentina) Nº 22, pp. 75-86.
Burgos M.; Parvic T. 2011 “Atención en salud para migrantes: un
desafío ético” en Revista Brasileira de Enfermagem (Brasil) Nº
64(3), pp. 587-91.
Ceja, A.; Lira J.; Fernández, E; 2014 “Salud y enfermedad en los
migrantes internacionales México-Estados Unidos” en Ra-
Ximhai (México) Nº 10(1), pp. 291-306.
CEMLA, BID, FOMIN 2013 Programa de aplicación de los
principios generales para los mercados de remesas de América
Latina y el Caribe (México: Centro de Estudios Monetarios
Latinoamericanos).
Consejo Nacional para la Protección Nacional y el Desarrollo de
la Persona Migrante 2017 Política Nacional para la Protección
y el Desarrollo de la Persona Migrante y su Familia en <http://
reliefweb.int/report/el-salvador/pol-tica-nacional-para-protecci-
n-y-desarrollo-de-la-persona-migrante-salvadore-y>.
Equipo Multidisciplinario de Migraciones 2015 Sueños deportados.
El impacto de las deportaciones en los migrantes salvadoreños y
sus familias (Antiguo Cuscatlán: Universidad Centroamericana
José Simeón Cañas).
Favell, A. 2008 “Rebooting Migration Theory. Interdiciplinarity,
Globality, and Postdisciplinarity in Migration Studies” en
Brettell, C.; Hollifield, J. F. (eds.) Migration Theory. Talking across
Disciplines (Nueva York; Londres: Routledge; Taylor & Francis).
Gaborit, M.; Zetino, M.; Orellana, C.; Brioso, L.; Rodríguez M.;
Avelar, D. 2016 Atrapados en la tela de araña. La migración
irregular de niñas y niños salvadoreños hacia los Estados Unidos
(San Salvador: Talleres Gráficos UCA).
García, L 2016 Migraciones, Estado y una política del derecho humano
a migrar: ¿hacia una nueva era en América Latina? en <http://
dx.doi.org/10.7440/colombiaint88.2016.05>.
Hernández, A. 2017 Construyendo una Respuesta para los Migrantes
Frente a las Políticas Migratorias de Trump en <http://sincopa-sv-
blogspot.com/2017/09/construyendo-respuesta-para-migrantes.
html?m=1>.
73
Antonio Hernández, Fátima Alas y Sandra Gómez
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VIH y migración en El Salvador: apuntes desde la salud internacional
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FRONTERAS DE SALUD
Y DERECHOS HUMANOS: MUJERES
INMIGRANTES VIVIENDO CON VIH
EN PUERTO RICO
INTRODUCCIÓN
La salud de las personas está influenciada por un conjunto de causas
políticas, sociales y económicas que impactan sus vidas (Bernardini,
2012). En el mundo actual hemos sido testigos de cómo la esperanza
de vida y la buena salud aumentan en ciertas partes del mundo, mien-
tras que en otros lugares no mejoran o en algunos casos empeoran.
Además, hemos sido testigos de los adelantos en materia de derechos
humanos, incluyendo la salud, a través de organismos internaciona-
les y movimientos sociales. Sin embargo, tenemos cientos de lugares
alrededor del mundo cuyas sociedades están siendo cada vez más vul-
nerabilizadas y sus condiciones de vida precarizadas, al punto de la
deshumanización de esos pueblos. Estas desigualdades son en gran
medida el resultado de la globalización y su vertiente neoliberal que
genera una distribución desigual del poder, los ingresos, los bienes y
los servicios en los países. Como resultado de esto, actualmente existe
una gran cantidad de poblaciones que no tienen acceso a derechos hu-
manos como la salud. Una de estas poblaciones son los inmigrantes,
particularmente las mujeres.
La migración como factor socioeconómico juega un papel impor-
tante en la transmisión de enfermedades como el VIH/SIDA, generan-
do que esta población tenga mayores posibilidades de morir que el
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hispanos y latinos (Polanco, 2006; Chen, Gallant & Page, 2012; Mora-
les & Sutton, 2014). El VIH/SIDA es la cuarta causa principal de muer-
te entre hispanos de 35 a 44 años (Chen, Gallant & Page, 2012). Esto
debido en parte al diagnóstico tardío y al hecho de que no reciben un
cuidado de salud adecuado. Según Chen, Gallant y Page (2012), los
hispanos son más propensos a ser diagnosticados tarde en compara-
ción con las personas blancas.
En el caso del Caribe, estadísticas de la región indican que estos
y estas tienen la segunda tasa más alta de VIH en el mundo (Hi-
res, 2012; ONUSIDA, 2009). De los 315,000 casos de personas que
se estima vivían con VIH en el Caribe para el año 2017, 217,00 se
concentran en los países de República Dominicana y Haití, repre-
sentando esto un 70% de los casos (ONUSIDA, 2019). En esta misma
región del Caribe, el VIH/SIDA ha afectado desproporcionadamente
a las mujeres, donde actualmente el 50 % de los casos son mujeres
en comparación con el 35% en el 1990 (ONUMujeres, 2017), en su
mayoría pobres (Cáseres, 2009), cuya vía principal de transmisión
son las relaciones heterosexuales sin protección (Thompson, 2011;
Alexander, 2013). Es importante señalar también que la República
Dominicana es uno de los países con las tasas de VIH más altas en
mujeres en etapa reproductiva. En 2009, 67,000 personas vivían con
VIH en la República Dominicana y 33,000 de estas eran mujeres
(ONUSIDA, 2019).
La vulnerabilidad de la mujer, incluyendo las mujeres trans, al
VIH en gran medida es el resultado de factores socioeconómicos y
de la cultura patriarcal imperante que encarga al hombre a ser pro-
miscuo, infiel y no utilizar profilácticos, mientras que a la mujer se
le exige ser fiel y no se promueve la comunicación sexual, lo que
aumenta el riesgo de infección al VIH dentro de esta población (Ji-
ménez, 2014). Es importante señalar, además, que estas personas
viviendo con VIH, particularmente en la República Dominicana, re-
ciben servicios muy limitados de salud, y no tienen protección sobre
su derecho a trabajar (Juárez, 2012), lo que empeora aún más su
situación en el país. En Puerto Rico, de los 47.676 casos de VIH
reportados en la Isla desde el año 1981 al 2016, 570 eran personas
cuyo país de origen era República Dominicana, representando esto
un 1,20% del total de casos reportados para dicha fecha (Departa-
mento de Salud, 2016). De estos casos, 246 eran mujeres dominica-
nas (Departamento de Salud, 2016).
VIH Y MIGRACIÓN
Como hemos mencionado, esta infección afecta desproporcionada-
mente a ciertos sectores de la población que son más vulnerabilizados.
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sus condiciones de vida para ellas y sus familias por medio del trabajo
arduo y mejores salarios. Muchas veces dejan en su país a sus hijos e
hijas al cuidado de otros familiares, y les envían remesas, cuyos im-
puestos y pagos por transacciones reducen la cantidad de dinero que
ellas pueden enviar a sus familias y con lo que pueden quedarse para
apenas sobrevivir. De esta manera, a pesar de su trabajo arduo mu-
chas veces son explotadas y en la mayoría de los casos sus condiciones
de vida no mejoran. Es enorme el sacrificio realizado por los y las in-
migrantes para enviar dinero a sus familias, mientras sobreviven a la
inflación del costo de vida en Puerto Rico y los bajos salarios.
Por otro lado, muchas de estas mujeres inmigrantes día a día tie-
nen que enfrentar manifestaciones de violencia, incluyendo explota-
ción sexual, hostigamiento sexual, violencia doméstica y abuso sexual
(Grullón, 2011). Según Rey y Hernández (2010), mujeres dominicanas
que llegan voluntariamente buscando mejores oportunidades de vida
en ocasiones son forzadas al trabajo sexual, principalmente en los
massage parlors o casas de masajes y muchas se mantienen ejerciendo
estas actividades en situaciones de explotación por miedo a ser depor-
tadas. Según Nigro (2006), las trabajadoras sexuales son comúnmente
percibidas como pertenecientes a un grupo social que se involucra en
comportamientos de alto riesgo para la infección del VIH/SIDA. Por
lo tanto, esta situación puede ponerles en riesgo de infectarse con el
VIH/SIDA y otras Infecciones de Transmisión Sexual (ITS). Además,
se les complica el panorama, al ellas no poder contar con acceso ade-
cuado a servicios de salud y prevención.
Como hemos podido ver, las condiciones macrosociales, económi-
cas y políticas juegan un rol protagónico en la vulnerabilidad hacia el
VIH e inequidad en salud que enfrenta la población de mujeres inmi-
grantes, especialmente aquellas con estatus no regulado. Por lo tanto,
la creciente feminización de los flujos migratorios, particularmente de
la República Dominicana a Puerto Rico, ha intensificado la necesidad
de reducir estas desigualdades en acceso a los servicios de salud. Sin
embargo, hay una falta de investigaciones sobre mujeres dominicanas
con VIH/SIDA en Puerto Rico y Estados Unidos. Un estudio reciente
con madres dominicanas en Puerto Rico evidenció la falta de inves-
tigación sobre el estado de salud de esta comunidad en Puerto Rico y
recomendó examinar los factores sociales y los factores individuales
(vida diaria) en un intento por identificar las variables que influyen en
la desigualdad en salud de esta población (Colón, Colón, Reyes, Marín
& Ríos, 2013). Es por esto que se hace necesario desarrollar estudios
para conocer los factores sociales, económicos, culturales y políticos
que influyen en la infección del VIH/SIDA en esta población, así como
sus experiencias con el cuidado y el acceso a servicios de salud.
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MÉTODO
Los objetivos específicos de esta investigación fueron: 1) explorar las ex-
periencias de las mujeres dominicanas en el manejo de la condición del
VIH/SIDA en Puerto Rico; y 2) explorar los factores relacionados al ac-
ceso a servicios de prevención, diagnóstico y tratamiento desde la pers-
pectiva de mujeres dominicanas que viven con VIH/SIDA en el contexto
migratorio en San Juan, PR. Para ello se llevó a cabo un diseño cualita-
tivo de tipo exploratorio que fue aprobado por el Comité Revisor de Su-
jetos Humanos en la Investigación de la Universidad de Puerto Rico, Río
Piedras (# UPR 1350114). Como parte de esta investigación se realizaron
cinco entrevistas a informantes claves a saber: 1) empleado del Departa-
mento de Salud; 2) empleada de organización sin fines de lucro dedicada
al servicio de mujeres dominicanas; 3) a empleados que ofrecen servicios
de salud para el VIH en la zona de San Juan. Además, se llevaron a cabo
veinte (20) entrevistas semiestructuradas a mujeres dominicanas mayo-
res de 21 años de edad que viven con la condición del VIH en Puerto
Rico. Todas las participantes estaban activas en tratamiento al momento
del estudio y llevaban 6 meses o más viviendo en Puerto Rico.
Las entrevistas fueron realizadas a participantes voluntarias en
diversas clínicas especializadas para el tratamiento de VIH ubicadas
en la zona metropolitana de San Juan. Las mujeres fueron recluta-
das a través de promociones colocadas en los centros y provistas al
personal de servicio. En algunas clínicas, las participantes fueron
identificadas por el personal de manejo de casos e invitadas a parti-
cipar si cumplían con los requisitos previamente descritos. Una vez
identificadas, se les orientaba sobre la investigación y se coordinó
una cita para llevar a cabo la entrevista de acuerdo a la disponibili-
dad de la participante. El día de la entrevista, cada participante com-
pletó la Hoja de Consentimiento Informado y procedió a contestar
un cuestionario sociodemográfico. La guía utilizada para la entrevis-
ta comprendía de ocho (8) preguntas semi estructuradas explorando
las siguientes cuatro (4) dimensiones: a) experiencia migratoria; b)
impacto de VIH en su vida diaria; c) recursos de apoyo; y d) percep-
ción de los servicios de salud. Una vez completada la entrevista, cada
participante obtuvo un incentivo de $25 dólares para cubrir gastos
de dieta y transportación.
RESULTADOS
PERFIL SOCIODEMOGRÁFICO DE LAS PARTICIPANTES
En cuanto al perfil sociodemográfico de las entrevistadas, el 50% de
las mujeres se encontraban entre las edades de 34 a 41 años de edad.
La mayoría de ellas eran solteras (45%) y residentes de la zona de
San Juan (75%). El 50% llevaba entre 10 a 15 años viviendo en Puerto
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¿Sabes lo que es cruzar ese mar? Y después que pasamos tanto trabajo, ya
estábamos de camino, ¿virar de nuevo? Estábamos deshidratados. ¿En-
tiendes? Salimos con poca comida. Hubo unos cuantos que murieron des-
hidratados. No fue fácil. Yo no le aconsejo a ningún joven a la edad que
nosotros vinimos acá, que se invente eso. Porque tú te ves en el medio del
mar, que tu no ves ni tierra. (MD20)
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de tanto tiempo en el mar. Fue una experiencia bien… pues que no se lo reco-
miendo a nadie. No me atrevería a volverlo hacer. Y no porque abusaran de
mí, sino por el tiempo, pues que uno expone la vida de uno. (MD2)
Mis razones para venir fueron los problemas económicos de mi país. Mu-
cho problema, tenía dos hijos pequeños. Los trabajos estaban bien difí-
ciles. Tenía muchas deudas. Tenía mucho problema económico. Y decidí
venir en el 2003 (MD1).
Pues mis razones para venir fueron que tenía mi esposo que había venido para
acá. En realidad vine siguiéndolo a él. Porque él era el que proveía el sustento
a la casa y él estaba acá. Pues él los dejó conmigo y se vino para acá primero.
Pero después de eso yo vine con él. Como dos años después. Dejé los nenes
con mi mamá en lo que resolvía, pero yo les mando el dinero siempre. (MD11)
Pues porque a ella y a mis tíos los pidió mi abuela. Y pues ya después que
ellos todos viajaron, pues empezaron todos a pedir sus hijos. Bueno, fue
difícil porque nosotros somos 8. Y ella nos pidió en dos grupos, cuatro y
cuatro. Yo fui la primera que vine, porque yo soy de todas la más pequeña.
Entonces el proceso fue medio largo, porque duramos por lo menos yo
duré 11 años. Ya los otros que vinieron detrás de mí cumplieron 11 años
allá esperando papeles. Pero es un proceso bien largo. (MD5)
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busca de una mejor vida y así poder proporcionar el sustento a sus fa-
milias que dejan al otro lado. Se percibe la esperanza siempre puesta en
la reunificación, aunque este proceso muchas veces dure años.
Acceso a servicios de salud: esta categoría fue definida como aque-
llas experiencias con programas que facilitaron la inserción de las mu-
jeres participantes a los servicios de salud en Puerto Rico. Dos muje-
res dominicanas participantes del estudio indicaron:
ADAP Puro, que es un programa del gobierno federal que nos cubre todos
los medicamentos y los servicios aquí, los laboratorios, todo lo que nos
hacen. En eso no tengo problemas. Y es un plan que yo lo renuevo cada
seis meses. (MD1)
Yo ahora le digo yo ahora me hice mis laboratorios, son gratis gracias a los
fondos Ryan White, a ADAP, son gratis igual también este… laboratorios,
dentistas. (MD16)
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como un mes más. O sea que tuve que esperar casi dos meses después que
me enteré. Una vez me entero pues de una vez empiezo a recibir tratamien-
to por el embarazo. (MD19)
Yo salí, pero salí bajita, el porcentaje del contaje estaba bien bajito. En-
tonces ellos no me pusieron en tratamiento, yo seguí sin tratamiento. En
el 2010, salí embarazada de mi nene, y ahí entonces me refirieron aquí. Y
ahí decidieron ponerme en tratamiento para proteger al bebé, que gracias
a Dios mi bebé es negativo. (MD1)
Me hice la prueba, luego de eso fue que me di cuenta de eso. Yo me [la] hice
en inmigración. O sea, me mandaron a hacer la prueba en inmigración y
no. Luego de eso me sentí mal, me hospitalizaron y ahí me dijeron que
tenía eso. (MD10)
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Yo no, por mi estado migratorio no puedo. Una vez yo tenga mis papeles
al día, me legalice, tampoco puedo durante 5 años. Que eso es lo que yo
no veo bien. Con respecto a los planes médicos porque si ya está legal en
el país, entonces, ¿por qué esperar 5 años para que te den un plan médico?
Ahora mismo, yo estoy en el proceso de migración, entonces tengo que
esperar 5 años, o sea que tengo que seguir con estas personas a través de
Ryan White, ADAP, para que me sigan cubriendo mis medicamentos. Si
vas a trabajar en el país, te vas a poner un seguro social, que esa era una de
las cosas que yo quería, mi seguro social para poder trabajar legalmente,
entonces para poder llenar planillas. Entonces, si tú vas a estar contribu-
yendo al país, ¿por qué? Ahora mismo yo aparte de esta condición de VIH
tengo un tumor en la espalda en el lado derecho. Yo me tengo que tratar
eso porque cada vez está más grande… Y no tengo plan médico. A través
de la clínica de VIH no me dan. De ahí me refieren a otro médico. No tengo
para cubrir ese gasto y tengo que cuidarme porque cada vez sigue crecien-
do. (MD19)
No, porque para uno aquí tener servicios, tiene que tener los 5 años. Y yo
pues una o dos veces llegué a ir al CDT, por la presión. Pero después visitas
al médico o recibir charlas ni nada de eso, no. (MD5)
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Orientar más donde pueden buscar ayuda. Porque si nosotros en ese mo-
mento que nos dicen que eres positivo y tú dices para donde voy a mirar y
tú no encuentras a donde y tú vas con miedo. Por eso te digo, yo quisiera
que anunciaran más donde están los sitios donde las personas puedan
accesar a esos servicios porque yo no lo tuve. (MD17)
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DISCUSIÓN
Las tendencias globales y su impacto adverso en la salud, el VIH y
otras enfermedades e infecciones crónicas se mantienen entre los
mayores y más urgentes retos de nuestros tiempos. Estas enfermeda-
des crónicas pueden emerger debido a la falta de acceso a servicios
por las propias restricciones de las políticas migratorias y de la mer-
cantilización del derecho a la salud que se hacen parte del andamiaje
neoliberal, generando que esta población presente mayor precariza-
ción de sus condiciones de vida en comparación con el resto de la
población del país de destino.
Las condiciones macrosociales, económicas y políticas juegan
un rol protagónico en la vulnerabilidad hacia el VIH e inequidad en
salud que enfrenta la población femenina inmigrante, especialmente
aquellas con estatus no regulado. Además, las mujeres inmigrantes
sin estatus migratorio regulado enfrentan circunstancias que actúan
como fronteras limitantes para alcanzar una vida saludable. En pri-
mer lugar, la falta de documentación que certifique su estatus migra-
torio las obliga a no buscar servicios médicos. A esto se le añade, la
falta de conocimiento sobre servicios de prevención, la percepción
sobre los servicios de salud y los derechos de pacientes inmigran-
tes que viven con VIH, manteniéndoles al margen de los servicios y
posicionándoles en condiciones de mayor vulnerabilidad para otras
condiciones de salud y la vida misma. Otra de las fronteras que en-
frentan estas mujeres es el hecho de que muchas veces logran tener
acceso a servicios únicamente cuando ya son VIH positivo, limitando
esto las opciones de prevención. Finalmente, es necesario reconocer
que la pobreza y la desigualdad por género juegan un rol protagóni-
co en la vulnerabilidad de las mujeres ante el VIH/SIDA. Estas condi-
ciones de pobreza muchas veces las obliga a mantenerse trabajando,
en ocasiones en condiciones de precariedad, aunque estén enfermas.
RECOMENDACIONES FINALES
Tomando en consideración los resultados de esta investigación, y las
experiencias más recientes de las caravanas migratorias en toda Amé-
rica Latina, es evidente que: 1) existe una necesidad de actualizar los
datos sobre la población inmigrante en los países de Latinoamérica
y el Caribe para que de esta forma nos preparemos para proveer ser-
vicios de salud preventivos y no remediativos, que a la larga son más
costosos; 2) se hace además imperativo cambiar paradigmáticamente
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AGRADECIMIENTOS
Las autoras desean agradecer profundamente a las mujeres domini-
canas y centros de servicios de VIH quienes nos abrieron sus puertas
para hacer posible esta tan necesaria investigación. Agradecemos de
igual manera a los Institutos Nacionales de la Salud que financian el
HIV/AIDS, Substance Abuse & Trauma Training Program de la Uni-
versidad de California, mecanismo R25 DA035692 que hizo posible
este trabajo exploratorio. Además, al Centro de Investigaciones So-
ciales de la Universidad de Puerto Rico, por el tiempo y los recursos
para poder llevar a cabo esta investigación; al Dr. Jesús Marrero por
sus revisiones a este artículo, a la Dra. Carmen Zorrilla de la Escue-
la de Medicina de la Universidad de Puerto Rico por compartir sus
experiencias y valiosos conocimientos en el campo del VIH con mu-
jeres en nuestro país. Por último, pero no menos importante, agrade-
cemos a las trabajadoras sociales Liara Martínez, Neisha Serrano y
Angélica García, por todo el apoyo en diversas fases de este proyecto
de investigación.
REFERENCIAS BIBLIOGRÁFICAS
Abaunza, C. 2016 “La emigración dominicana: cifras y tendencias”
en OBMICA 2016 “Estado de las migraciones que atañen a la
República Dominicana” en <obmica.org/images/Publicaciones/
Informes/2.-La-emigración-dominicana-cifras--y-tendencias.pdf>.
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Aids Watch 2014 “The Ryan White Program A Critical Component for
Ending AIDS in America” en <http://www.aidsunited.org/data/
files/Site_18/2014AidsUnited-FactSheet-RyanWhiteProgram.pdf>.
Alexander, C. 2013 “Oír su voz: Defining Influences of Sexual
Communication on the Risk for HIV/AIDS Among Latinas”,
Disertación sometida a la facultad de Chicago School of
Professional Psychology (Estados Unidos).
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HIV AMONG LATINO IMMIGRANTS
IN THE UNITED STATES:
THE IMPACT OF SOCIO-CULTURAL
DETERMINANTS AND MIGRATION
INTRODUCTION
In this chapter, we describe key HIV-related issues affecting Latino1
immigrants in the United States. We begin by discussing the dispro-
portionate impact of HIV among Latinos. We summarize issues re-
lated to migration that can serve to exacerbate HIV risk among Latino
immigrants, then describe health disparities experienced by Latino
immigrants living with HIV across the continuum of care. We provide
an overview of various sociocultural determinants that act as risk and
protective factors for HIV in this population. Finally, we discuss policy
consideration as well as challenges and opportunities in the develop-
ment of effective strategies for reducing HIV-related health disparities
among Latino immigrants in the United States.
1 Latino is a term used in the United States that refers to people who are native to or
have cultural ties to Latin America. The term Latino may be understood as a shorthand
for the Spanish word latinoamericano (Latin American in English) or the Portuguese
phrase latino americano, thus excluding speakers of Spanish or Portuguese from Eu-
rope. In this text, we refer to Latinos as individuals of Latino ethnicity of any race.
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turn making them more susceptible to HIV infection (Cianelli & Vil-
legas, 2016; Rojas et al., 2016). Below we discuss some of the primary
social determinants leading to HIV risk health disparities among La-
tino immigrants in the US.
SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS
Exclusion from educational institutions increases Latino immi-
grants’ HIV vulnerability by limiting social and economic opportuni-
ties (Galeucia & Hirsch, 2016). Education allows for social mobility
and economic stability, and higher levels of health literacy (Marmot,
2005). Higher levels of education have also been associated with a lon-
ger life span, better health outcomes, and practicing health-promoting
behaviors, such a HIV testing (Cutler & Lleras-Muney, 2010; Idris, El-
samani, & Elnasri, 2015; Montealegre, Risser, Selwyn, McCurdy, &
Sabin, 2012; Orish et al., 2014).
In 2014, 15% of Latinos ages 25 to 29, had a bachelor’s degree
or higher, compared to 41% of Whites, 22% of Blacks, and 63% of
Asians (Pew Hispanic Center, 2015). This gap is due in part to the
fact that Latinos are less likely than some other groups to enroll in
a four-year college or attend an academically competitive institu-
tion (Baker, Klaski, & Reardon, 2018). In a 2014 National Journal
poll, 66% of Latinos who directly enter the workforce or military
after high school cited the need to help support their family as a
reason for not enrolling in college, compared with 39% of Whites
(Pew Research Center, 2015). Additional educational disparities ex-
ist among Latinos in the US that may partially explain HIV risk and
outcome disparities among specific subgroups. For example, in the
US about 49% of Latinos aged 25 and older born in Honduras have
less than a high school education compared with 17% of their US-
born counterparts (López & Patten, 2015).
In addition to education, poverty has also been associated with
increased HIV risk and poor health outcomes after HIV acquisition
(Dang, Westbrook, Hartman, & Giordano, 2016). A study of Latino
men who have sex with men in three US states found that financial
hardship – measured as running out of money for basic needs – was
significantly associated with unprotected sex with a partner of sero-
discordant or unknown HIV status in the past three months (Ayala,
Bingham, Kim, Wheeler, & Millen, 2012). Similar to education, dis-
parities in poverty exist within Latino immigrants living in the US.
In the US, 26% of Latinos born in Mexico live in poverty, compared
to only 16% of Latinos born in Colombia and 19% of Latinos born in
Venezuela (Lopez & Patten, 2015).
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INTERPERSONAL FACTORS
Presence of interpersonal resources – such as social support, par-
ticularly familial support among Latino immigrants (Mulvaney-Day,
DeAngelo, Chen, Cook, & Alegria, 2012) – have negatively associ-
ated with sexual risk behaviors among Latino immigrants (Schwartz
et al., 2012). Maintaining close relations with nuclear and extended
family members throughout the lifespan is a hallmark of Latino
culture. This type of family cohesion serves as a distinctive cultural
protective factor against risk behaviors among Latinos in the US
(Dillon et al., 2013). Conversely, interpersonal factors may also be a
liability. For instance, increased social connections may place Latino
immigrants at greater risk for discrimination and other accultura-
tive stressors. The acculturation process can also lead to significant
changes in the Latino family structure over time (i.e., differential lev-
els of acculturation between foreign-born parents and their US-born
children) that place Latino immigrants at higher risk for substance
use and sexual risk behaviors that would, in turn, make them more
susceptible to HIV infection (Córdova et al., 2016). Understanding
the role of cultural mechanisms in Latino families and its impact of
health behaviors, is an important step in predicting and preventing
HIV risk among Latino immigrants (Prado, Szapocznik, Maldonado-
Molina, Schwartz, & Pantin, 2008).
NEIGHBORHOOD-LEVEL FACTORS
Residential neighborhood characteristics, such as neighborhood dis-
advantage, have been associated with high HIV rates (Fede, Stewart,
Hardin, Mayfiled-Smith, & Sudduth, 2011); Ishida, Arnold, Stupp,
Kizito, & Ichwara, 2012) and low AIDS survival (Hanna, Pfeiffer, To-
rian, & Sackoff, 2008; McFarland, 2003). These characteristics have
been shown to partially account for racial/ethnic disparities in HIV/
AIDS survival (Trepka et al., 2013; Arnold, Hsu, Pipkin, McFarland, &
Rutherland, 2009) and antiretroviral initiation (Arnold et al., 2009).
Conversely, resource-rich communities tend to have greater social
capital, engagement, and social cohesion, as well as the presence of
organizations and institutions of social support (e.g., churches, civic
organizations, social and sports clubs, etc.) (Putnam, 2000). Residing
in these types of communities can foster social cohesion – or “loose”
interpersonal connections –that potentially lead to positive structural
benefits including better access to social and health services. These
neighborhood-level determinants can serve to mitigate health-com-
promising behaviors such as risky substance use behaviors among
Latinos (Sánchez et al., 2016). Conversely, neighborhoods with poor
physical infrastructure, high residential mobility, low social cohesion,
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CULTURAL FACTORS
Culture can be described as knowledge, skills, attitudes, and behav-
iors shared among a group of people and may be transmitted from
one generation to the next (Carter, 1995). Elements of culture may be
expressed through “familial roles, values, affective styles, individual-
ism, collectivism, and religiosity” (Betancourt & López, 1993: 630).
Although these same contextual processes are important predictors
of problematic outcomes across ethnic groups (e.g., Barrera et al.,
2001), with foreign-born Latinos, these processes may be exacerbat-
ed through immigration-related issues such as acculturation-related
stressors. Previous studies have linked acculturative stressors to sub-
stance use disorders and engaging in HIV risk behaviors in this popu-
lation (Guilamo-Ramos, Jaccard, Pena, & Goldberg, 2005).
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LATINA WOMEN
Latina women are disproportionately affected by HIV, with infection
rates more than four times greater than that of their White counter-
parts (CDC, 2018). Approximately 90% of Latina women are infected
through heterosexual intercourse (CDC, 2018). Acculturation, older
age, undocumented immigration status, low levels of income and edu-
cation, and alcohol use have been associated with greater sexual risk
behaviors among Latina immigrants (Álvarez & Villarruel, 2015; Dillon
et al., 2010). Higher level of acculturation has been linked with reports
of younger age of sexual initiation and more sexual partners among
Latina immigrants (Dillon et al., 2010). Researchers have posited that
positive associations between acculturation and sexual activity among
Latina immigrants may be due to a greater exposure to more permis-
sive US sexual norms as time in the US increases (Sastre et al., 2015).
Conversely, acculturation can be protective against HIV, as accultur-
ated Latinas are more likely to use condoms than their less acculturated
counterparts (Gilliam, Neustadt, Whitaker, & Kozloski, 2011; Alonzo
et al., 2016). Latina immigrant women with undocumented immigra-
tion status are more likely to have unstable romantic relationships and
multiple concurrent short-term sexual partners – placing this Latina
immigrant subgroup at greater vulnerability for contracting HIV (Mon-
tealegre, Risser, Selwyn, McCurdy, & Sabin, 2012).
Low socioeconomic status also places Latina immigrants at
greater HIV risk. Economic disadvantage leads to limited power in
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HIV Among Latino immigrants in the United States [...]
HETEROSEXUAL MEN
Men account for 88% of diagnoses among Latinos. The rate of HIV
diagnosis among Latino men is three times greater than White non-
Latino males (CDC, 2017). A multitude of factors contribute to in-
creased sexual risk behaviors among Latino immigrant men. Among
these are: (a) cultural gender norms (machismo), condom beliefs (i.e.,
condoms decreasing sensation and reducing spontaneity), (b) distrust
in the US healthcare system and lack of confidence in patient-provider
confidentiality, (c) loneliness, and (d) fear of being detained if found
to be HIV positive (Ibañez et al., 2017; Kim-Godwin, & Bechtel, 2004;
Rhodes et al., 2006).
Latino men are particularly prone to social isolation that can
lead to greater alcohol use, thereby increasing the likelihood of sexual
risk behaviors (Rhodes, Hergenrather, Bloom, Leichliter, & Montano,
2009). Many men immigrate to the US in search of a better life for
themselves and their loved ones. They leave behind families and must
adjust to a new country with an unfamiliar culture and language. This
sense of loneliness can lead to episodes of risky behaviors, such as en-
gaging in sexual relations with sex workers (Rhodes et al., 2009). Ad-
ditionally, those with undocumented immigration status may go into
social isolation for fear of being discovered and deported. These same
apprehensions can keep undocumented immigrants from accessing
health and sexual health education, testing, and treatment.
A subset of Latino males at particular risk for contracting HIV
are migrant workers. A confluence to socio-demographic, ecological,
and behavioral factors contribute the high rates of HIV risk in this
population (Knipper et al., 2007; Organista & Kubo, 2005; Viadro &
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Mariana Sánchez, Diana Sheehan y Derrick Forney
Earp, 2000). These men often face social and structural barriers, in-
cluding immigration status (fear of deportation), geographical isola-
tion, language barriers, separation from extended families, hazardous
working conditions, substandard living conditions, limited access to
health services, poverty/economic stress, and ethnic/racial intolerance
(Carroll et al., 2005; Carroll et al., 2011); Many migrant workers re-
port high levels of depression and anxiety, which exacerbate health-
compromising behaviors (Sánchez, Serna, & De La Rosa, 2012). So-
cio-cultural risk factors [e.g., acculturation and acculturation-related
stress, traditional gender roles (machismo), poor family functioning,
and stigma] also place migrant workers at greater HIV vulnerability
(Sánchez, Serna, & De La Rosa, 2012; Sánchez, 2015).
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HIV Among Latino immigrants in the United States [...]
Researchers have also posited that highly educated Latino MSM may
perceive themselves at lower risk for contracting HIV, thus engaging
in risk behaviors with higher frequency (Ramírez-Vallas et al., 2008).
The use of club drugs (i.e., cocaine, crystal methamphetamine, ket-
amine, and volatile nitrites) among Latino MSM is a significant con-
tributor to HIV risk in this population (Ramírez-Vallas et al., 2008).
Older age has been associated with increased condom among La-
tino MSM (Ramirez-Vallas, et al., 2008). This generational difference
has been attributed to the era of HIV in which men first learned of the
virus. Older generations experienced the devastating effects of HIV/
AIDS in its early years. Improved treatment for HIV is allowing people
living with HIV to live longer and healthier lives. Young Latino MSM,
who did not witness the toll of AIDS epidemic in the 1980s and 1990s,
might view HIV as less threatening and disregard prevention messag-
es and practices (Garcia, Betancourt, Scaccabarrozzi, & Jacinto 2014;
Ramírez-Vallas et al., 2008).
Are at considerable risk for contracting HIV, particularly those
with early sexual debut and older sexual partners (García et al., 2014).
Bullying, harassment, family disapproval, social isolation, and sexual
violence are experienced frequently by Latino youth MSM (Garcia et
al., 2014). These experiences can cause poor self-esteem and depres-
sion, leading to substance use and risky sexual behavior (CDC, 2018b;
Garcia et al., 2014). Additionally, sex education programs that are not
sensitive to the needs of Latino youth MSM may be ineffective in re-
ducing HIV vulnerabilities in this population.
POLICY CONSIDERATIONS
Political climates and policies across multiple sectors help to shape
health and health disparities, including HIV vulnerability among La-
tino immigrants in the US. These policies can serve to either exacer-
bate or mitigate Latino immigrants’ HIV risk through the develop-
ment of legislation that establishes supportive or hostile environments
and facilitate or limit access to institutions (Galeucia & Hirsch, 2016).
Examples of policies that reduce Latino immigrant’s vulnerability to
HIV include labor policies protecting migrant and domestic workers
against wage theft and employer discrimination. These policies aid
to reduce stress by increasing economic empowerment and access to
health care services. Various states have also passed laws that expand
access to driver’s licenses and identification for undocumented immi-
grants. As of 2018, there are currently 12 states and the District of Co-
lombia with policies in place-granting immigrants’ access to driver’s
licenses (National Immigration Law Center, 2015). These laws reduce
fear by limiting opportunities for the detainment of undocumented
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HIV Among Latino immigrants in the United States [...]
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Mariana Sánchez, Diana Sheehan y Derrick Forney
136
PSYCHOSOCIAL DETERMINANTS
OF CONDOM USE AMONG A NON-CLINICAL
COMMUNITY-BASED SAMPLE OF LATINA
MOTHERS AND DAUGHTERS
INTRODUCTION
Between 2004 and 2010, HIV/AIDS dropped from the fourth to the
10th leading cause of death among U.S. Latinas ages 35-39 (Centers
for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], 2012). The decline in the
death rate from HIV/AIDS for this age group may be due in part to in-
novative treatment options prolonging life expectancies for HIV/AIDS
patients. However, significant health disparities in HIV/AIDS continue
to impact Latinos in the United States and Latinos represent 18% of
the U.S. population and 24% of all newly diagnosed HIV cases (CDC,
2017b). This population has the second highest rate of HIV/AIDS
among ethnic groups (CDC, 2017a). Moreover, the HIV/AIDS rate for
adult and adolescent Latinas is over three times higher than that of
their White counterparts (5.3 vs. 1.6, respectively) (CDC, 2017a) and,
among Latinas with HIV, 90% acquired HIV via sexual contact with a
heterosexual partner who has HIV/AIDS (CDC, 2017b).
Consistent and correct use of latex condoms is highly effective in
reducing the risk of sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) including
HIV (CDC, 2013; Civic et al. 2002; Lindemann et al. 2005). Although
Latinas acknowledge that using condoms reduces the risk of acquir-
ing HIV and other STDs, they use condoms inconsistently (Rocca &
Harper, 2012) For Latinas, the risk of acquiring HIV is exacerbated by
a low perception of their own risk (Shedlin & Deren, 2002; Ehrhardt
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Patria Rojas, Mariana Sánchez, Gira Rosado Ravelo, Christyl Dawson y Stephanie Diez
et al., 1992) and a cultural belief that condoms are not needed in pri-
mary relationships due to fidelity and trust between partners (Corbett,
Dickson, Gomez, Hilario et al., 2009; Wilson & Koo, 2008). Below, we
provide an overview of the literature that guided the present study as
well as the framework that guided the data analysis.
BACKGROUND
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Psychosocial Determinants of Condom Use Among a non-Clinical Community-Based Sample [...]
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Psychosocial Determinants of Condom Use Among a non-Clinical Community-Based Sample [...]
METHODS
PARTICIPANTS
Data for the present chapter originate from a study of intergenera-
tional transmission of Substance abuse between Latina mothers and
daughters (N=316) in Miami-Dade County, Florida (De La Rosa et al.,
143
Patria Rojas, Mariana Sánchez, Gira Rosado Ravelo, Christyl Dawson y Stephanie Diez
2010). The general criteria for inclusion in the current study for both
mothers and daughters were congruent with the original study: (1)
willingness to be interviewed for at least 2-3 hours; (2) being 18 years
of age or older; (3) self-identifying as Latina; (4) living in Miami-Dade;
and (5) willingness to provide at least two phone numbers to facilitate
correspondence during enrollment in the study. In addition to these
criteria, participants’ substance use frequency is reported, which in-
cludes their alcohol and illegal substance use, and their use of pre-
scription drugs without medical authorization, during the past year.
The study was reviewed and approved by the Internal Review Board
of a large public university in South Florida.
Participants in the current study were 241 self-identified Latina
substance mis-using (n = 129) and non-mis-using (n = 112) adult
mothers and daughters. Sixty percent of the current study’s sample
were daughters (N=145) and 40% were mothers (N=96). Forty-four
percent (N=42) of mothers were substance mis-users while 60% of
the daughters (N=87) were substance mis-users. In total, 53.5% of the
sample was substance mis-using Latinas. Most daughters were single
(77%, N=112) compared to slightly more than half of the mothers
(53%, N=51). Most participants were foreign-born, mostly from Cuba
and South American countries (e.g., Colombia, Perú, and Venezuela).
Only participants who were sexually active (male partners) during the
last 12 months were eligible for the study. Participants’ sexual activity
refers to vaginal, anal, and oral sexual activities.
All study participants were recruited between October 2004 and
October 2006 by using the snowball sampling method (chain refer-
ral) for a one-time face-to-face interview (McCracken et al., 1997).
Recruitment strategies included participation in community health
fairs, visiting health clinics, advertisements on local radio and tele-
vision stations, advertising in a local alternative newspaper, and an-
nouncements at a drug court program. Potential participants were
also recruited at substance abuse support groups such as Narcotics
Anonymous (NA) and Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) meetings. Recruit-
ment and participants’ interviews were done by two undergraduate
and four master’s level staff members. Participants chose the language
and location in which they preferred to be interviewed. An incentive
of $40 was provided to each participant who met the inclusion criteria
and submitted a signed informed consent document.
Interviews were conducted in either Spanish or English using
a structured questionnaire. The questionnaire consisted of existing
measurement scales that were widely used in other research stud-
ies and possessed language sensitivity to Latino culture and women.
The questionnaire was pilot-tested prior to the parent study in order
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Psychosocial Determinants of Condom Use Among a non-Clinical Community-Based Sample [...]
MEASURES
CONDOM USE
Condom use was measured using an adapted measure of sexual be-
havior from Turner’s Transition study, a study of substance use and
sexual risk behavior trajectories of young adults (Life Course and
Health Research Center, 1997). Participants answered open ended
questions about the reasons why they did or did not use condoms
during the last 12 months. Participants were first asked the following
questions regarding their sexual behavior first in the last 3 months
and then in the last 12 months: “How many times did you have vaginal
sex?” “How many times did you have anal sex?” Subsequently, partici-
pants were asked “How many times did you have oral sex during the last
twelve months?” Based on their responses (if > 0), participants were
asked to report how many times they or their partners used condoms
(“How many of those times (reported # of times they had sex in the
last 12 months) did you or your partner use condoms?” If the number
of times condoms were used was less than the number of times they
had sex, participants were asked “What were the reasons for not using
condoms?” Participants using condoms sometimes or every time they
had sex were asked, “What were the reasons why a condom was used?”
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Patria Rojas, Mariana Sánchez, Gira Rosado Ravelo, Christyl Dawson y Stephanie Diez
STATISTICAL ANALYSES
Preliminary data analysis was done to examine the correlation be-
tween condom use among mothers and daughters. There is no signifi-
cant correlation between mothers’ and daughters’ condom use. Partic-
ipants’ reasons for using or not using condoms during the 12 months
prior to assessment were coded by two master’s level researchers and
grouped into categories. Due to the use of open-ended questions, par-
ticipants’ reasons for using or not using condoms are not mutually
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Psychosocial Determinants of Condom Use Among a non-Clinical Community-Based Sample [...]
RESULTS
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Psychosocial Determinants of Condom Use Among a non-Clinical Community-Based Sample [...]
DISCUSSION
As the guiding theoretical frameworks posit, participants’ condom
use was in consonance with their Latinas’ beliefs. Results of the pres-
ent study indicate that not using condoms for vaginal sex among this
sample of Latinas was predominantly based on (a) perceived trust in
their partners, (b) believing that being in a monogamous relationship
eliminated their risk of acquiring HIV or other STDs (37.10%), and
(c) in response to their family planning needs (19.89%). A combined
fifty-seven percent of the women not using condoms was due to a
combination of trust in their partners and the use of other types of
contraception. Because of gender roles and power differences in es-
tablished relationships, condoms may be mainly used for contracep-
tive purposes. Of the women who used condoms all the time, twenty
five percent used condoms exclusively to protect themselves from ac-
quiring HIV/STDs (25.14 %). As expected, the results of these General-
ized Estimated Equations suggest that younger Latinas may have a
less stigmatized view of condoms, more power to negotiate, and use
them more often in their primary relationships, not only when they
suspect their partners are engaging in extramarital sex or they are in
short term relationships. Other authors have reported similar results
suggesting how the patriarchal discourse may be less associated with
younger Latinas with less stigmatized views of safer sex negotiation
(Rivera-Diaz et al., 2015). The results presented in this chapter high-
light the importance of continuing the gender-specific HIV prevention
education and equal rights campaigns (McQuiston & Gordon, 2000;
Sangi-Haghpeykar, Poindexter, Young, Levesque, & Horth, 2003; Fer-
nandez-Esquer, Atkinson, Diamond, Useche, & Mendiola, 2004).
Unexpectedly, alcohol abuse and illicit substance abuse was not
associated with lower condom use in this sample. In this sample of
mostly alcohol, marijuana and non-prescribed sedative users, having
less than high school education compared to some college was associ-
ated with low condom use. These results support previous studies that
indicate that condom use is affected by heavy alcohol and substance
abuse prevalent among younger single Latinas and it suggests that
this relationship is irrespective of their alcohol and illicit substance
abuse (Graves & Leigh, 1995; Rehm, Shield, Joharchi, & Shuper, 2012;
Abbey, Parkhill, Buck, & Saenz, 2007; Kelly, Masters, Eakins, Dan-
ube, George, Norris, & Heiman, 2014). This association points out the
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STUDY LIMITATIONS
Several limitations need to be considered when discussing the results
of this study. First, the study is cross-sectional. The results can only
point to possible relationships among the variables found at a single
assessment point. Second, although it helps to recruit relatively small
and dispersed populations, snowball sampling increases the possibil-
ity that the participants may not be representative of all Latinas living
in the United States. To account for this limitation, efforts were un-
dertaken to include participants from major Latino subgroups such
as Cuban Americans and Puerto Ricans. However, some groups (e.g.,
Mexican Americans and Puerto Ricans) were not well represented due
to their underrepresentation in the Miami-Dade County area in gener-
al. According to census data, Latino subgroups in Miami-Dade County
constituted 60.97% of the county’s total population in the year 2000.
The largest subgroup was Cuban, followed by Colombians and other
Central American groups such as Hondurans and Nicaraguans. Thus,
the current study’s sample was representative of Latinas living in
Miami-Dade County, but not the larger United States. Future studies
are needed with more nationally representative samples to enhance
the generalizability of the present results. Because sexual behavior is
highly taboo, Latinas do not like to discuss it with anyone, including
their own partners (Moreno, 2007). In accordance with this concern,
some participants may have been untruthful about their condom use.
To account for this problem, interviewers confirmed and validated
condom use by asking participants these questions on more than one
occasion. Additionally, these questions were asked after the first hour
of the interview, in an effort to build rapport with the participants.
A major limitation is the assessment of condom use or non-use,
in that it was not separately analyzed for sex with single participants
with committed partners versus casual partners, which limits the in-
terpretation of condom use correlates. Since only women were inter-
viewed, it was not possible to obtain information from their sexual
partners which may or may not have confirmed the accuracy of the
information that was reported. Lastly, the amount and quality of the
HIV prevention education received by these women was not mea-
sured, therefore, it is not possible to quantify how much or the quality
of education they received. Future studies need to consider this limi-
tation and include the intervention education to the study design and
analysis. Asking women about condom use during the last 12 months
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Patria Rojas, Mariana Sánchez, Gira Rosado Ravelo, Christyl Dawson y Stephanie Diez
could have resulted in recall bias and idealized condom use rates were
reported. To account for this, the Marlowe Crowne Social Desirability
Scale was used, which helps inform whether women were responding
in a socially desirable manner. Results showed that women answered
sensitive questions with honesty regardless of their behaviors.
POLICY IMPLICATIONS
Latinas with less than high school education and older women appear
to be the high-risk population for decreased condom use. Although
younger (especially single) Latinas were more likely to use condoms,
those with less than a high school education or who report substance
abuse, also reported less condom use. Additionally, older women, par-
ticularly those who reported being married were also less likely to use
a condom. Policies that encourage community interventions may be
needed. Although there has been some success in promoting condom
use among younger single women, there has been less success in the
widespread use of condoms among those in long term committed rela-
tionships. Such is true particularly among Latina women. Perhaps La-
tinas would be more likely to negotiate condom use if it had less of an
association to promiscuity. Developing better community campaign
for condom use would first require an awareness of the risks. Policies
that encourage community interventions may be needed to address
specific populations and assist in empowering women and increasing
the self-efficacy condom use skills. However, current administrative
proposal budget cuts of hundreds of millions from CDC prevention ef-
forts and nearly $1 billion from global HIV/AIDS prevention programs
may create “catastrophic damage to HIV prevention”, according to
the Presidential Advisory Council on HIV/AIDS. Such moves would
hinder prevention efforts for communities and leave them vulnerable
to a rise in HIV infection.
CONCLUSIONS
These results remind us that there are psychosocial, structural as well
as cultural factors that need to be taken into consideration within the
Latina sexual behavior dynamics context. Sexual intercourse often
takes place within a relationship in which for the most part there is
a level of trust involved. Although women report “not feeling at risk,”
with their main partners, they may be at risk because they usually
do not talk to their partners about their sexual history or the risk of
acquiring an STI (Fernandez-Esquer, Atkinson, Diamond, Useche, &
Mendiola, 2004). Trust was reported as the most common reason for
not using condoms during sex in this sample, as the guiding disso-
nance theory posits, as long as Latina women associate condom use
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Age (years)
39.87±12.56 28.96±10.15 33.37±13.65
Income (%) 0.805
0-14,999 66.15 58.18 63.04
15,000-34,999 26.15 29.09 28.26
35,000 or more 7.69 12.73 8.70
Education (%) 0.103
Less than high school 31.30 14.55 26.09
High school or equal 19.85 21.82 17.39
Some college 26.72 42.27 45.65
Bachelor 17.56 12.73 8.70
Graduate 4.58 3.64 2.17
163
Patria Rojas, Mariana Sánchez, Gira Rosado, Christyl Dawson y Stephanie Diez
Table 3. Reasons for not using condoms or not insisting on condom use during vaginal sex
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Psychosocial Determinants of Condom Use Among a non-Clinical Community-Based Sample [...]
Table 4. Correlates of Condom Use among substance mis-using and non-mis-using Latinas.
Age
Mother or Daughter
Mother
Substance use
Non-misuser
Marriage
Married or committed
HIV prevention
No
Income
0-14,999
Education
165
166
CHILDREN, WAR, HIV/AIDS
AND THE HUMAN RIGHTS IMPERATIVE:
BIO-PSYCHO-SOCIAL OUTCOMES
Hugo Kamya
INTRODUCTION
The face of HIV/AIDS has changed considerably over the past 30 years
across the world. In Africa, devastating effects can be traced to vari-
ous populations, including women and children. This article explores
the status of children affected by war and HIV/AIDS using key bio-
psychosocial outcomes.
The effects of the HIV/AIDS epidemic are widespread and persis-
tent, reaching across cultures, borders, and generations. HIV/AIDS has
been regarded as one of the most destructive diseases humankind has
ever faced, and it has brought profound social, economic, and public
health consequences (Verma & Lata, 2016: 315). HIV/AIDS has become
one of the world’s most serious health and development challenges;
however, much progress has been made in recent years. In 2013, there
were 210,000 new HIV infections among children in sub-Saharan Af-
rica, which is a 43% decrease of new HIV infections in children since
2009 (United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS, 2014). Even with over-
all rates of HIV/AIDS decreasing, the number of children orphaned due
to HIV/AIDS remains a social and public health issue.
Global statistics indicate that 90% of all children orphaned as a
result of HIV/AIDS live in sub-Saharan Africa (Nabunya & Ssewama-
la, 2014). Uganda is one of the countries that has been hit the hardest.
Even with declining rates of infection, “Uganda, is estimated to have
167
Hugo Kamya
over 2.7 million orphaned children, with 1.2 million of them directly
resulting from HIV/AIDS” (Nabunya & Ssewamala, 2014: 131). While
the effects of such great loss due to HIV can be felt by leaders, and
community members, it begins long before that for the children of
those who are infected. When the adults in the house become sick, it is
usually the beginning of a long, painful process that affects the health
and wellbeing of dependents in the house.
This distress is intensified in communities with higher levels of
poverty, and in areas recovering from war (Sayson & Meya, 2001). In
these communities, children are most vulnerable, “often, they cease to
receive sufficient parental care and support long before their parents
and guardians lose their jobs, their sources of household income, and,
eventually, their lives” (Sayson & Meya, 2001: 543). As described in a
study in Ghana that investigated children affected by HIV/AIDS, “Pa-
rental deaths and illnesses are childhood traumatic events that are asso-
ciated with several physical, psychiatric and psychosocial health prob-
lems” (Doku, Dotse, & Mensah, 2015: 1). Distress related to the illness
or loss of parents or caregivers is compounded by increased demands
on the children, which might lead to further physical or mental dam-
age (Verma & Lata, 2016: 316). Physical, psychiatric, and psychosocial
problems might be better understood as bio-psycho-social outcomes.
This article will examine the bio-psycho-social outcomes for chil-
dren orphaned due to HIV/AIDS. Many children are often orphaned.
It also examines specific issues of war and conflict in the lives of these
children. Special attention will be directed to Uganda as a case illus-
tration. These issues are further explored in the context of globaliza-
tion and human rights.
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Children, War, HIV/AIDS and the Human Rights Imperative: Bio-Psycho-Social Outcomes
and other emotional labor (Sayson & Meya, 2001). Outcomes for boys
and girls are different even in the absence of parental HIV/AIDS: “fol-
lowing the loss of a parent, girls are more likely to take on additional
household responsibilities, such as taking care of a surviving parent
and young children” (Nabunya & Ssewamala, 2014: 135).
In general, sub-Saharan culture and traditions prefer boys to
girls. Orphaned girls are at particular disadvantage in regard to social
isolation, which can result from removal from school early on, and
early sexual activity including early marriages and even early infec-
tion with HIV/AIDS (Sayson & Meya, 2001). Orphaned girls may feel
that their attractiveness or sexuality is an asset to be utilized, putting
them at risk for the very disease to which they lost their parents. Some
girls seek out, or are sought out by older men who might act as “sugar
daddies.” These types of relationships might help the girls in the short
term with school fees, food, or others assets but have the potential to
cause long term damage due to exchanged sexual favors that increase
the child’s physical and emotional risk” (Sayson & Meya, 2001: 546).
These factors expose the children to great risk.
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Hugo Kamya
their jobs, become stigmatized, and die” (Sayson & Meya, 2001: 541).
So much of the burden falls on the children of those who are infect-
ed, leaving both parents and children feeling scared, confused, and
powerless. Family systems and health systems are unable to meet the
growing needs of those infected with HIV/AIDS, often leaving gaps in
care for both parents and children. In addition, “the children’s plight
is further aggravated by the adults’ loss of income and earning capac-
ity due to illness and to increased costs of health care” (Sayson &
Meya, 2001: 544). Distress and adjustment difficulties experienced by
children are exacerbated by reduced income, or complete loss of in-
come, and by limited medical treatment available for HIV/AIDS.
Children may incur additional psychological distress when they
begin to lose other adults to HIV/AIDS, such as teachers or extended
family members. These losses limit the available outside support sys-
tems for children, and can lead to further trauma. After parental loss,
“children may experience stigma, changes in living situations and a
lack of support, which continues to complicate their grieving process”
(Nabunya & Ssewamala, 2014: 131). The psychological impact left in
the wake of multiple losses can destabilize a child’s sense of self and
leave them with long-term adjustment difficulties that may limit their
ability to be self-sufficient once they become orphaned.
In some cases, due to the loss of one or both parents, children may
be dispersed among relatives or several households without opportu-
nities to engage in collective grieving. Orphaned children are often
treated as second class members of society with great burdens placed
on them by families that take them in. Often, they are the last to sleep
and first to rise—with a massive list of chores to complete. The over-
all impact of all these conditions is the generational transmission of
deprivation among children. Female children often carry the brunt of
these effects. Girls often continue the vicious cycle of oppression and
suppression into future generations. These girls are often married off
at an early age or seek out older men for economic security. In some
cases, they become homeless, where social support is reduced and
psychosocial distress intensifies. Even for children in less extreme cir-
cumstances, psychological problems relating to loss and bereavement
may affect behavior and development. Stigma associated with HIV/
AIDS frequently compounds their emotional stress and vulnerability.
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Sometimes, we crossed the same river two or three times to escape being
noticed by the enemy. We kept running. We did not know who we were
running away from. We could not trust anyone. It was very scary. We had
to make it one way or other. Some of the children belonged to the enemy
and they reported on us. We were too scared to sleep at night. We won-
dered what would happen to us. We hated them and I suppose they hated
us. (Mot)
Life in the camp was very bad. We received small rations of food, corn-
meal, nothing much. Sometimes we would have to trade in our food to
get other necessities. We had to decide whether we eat in the morning and
spend the day on empty stomachs or eat in the evening and have a good
night’s sleep… (Chet)
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Children, War, HIV/AIDS and the Human Rights Imperative: Bio-Psycho-Social Outcomes
those who killed their families. For some, military life provided them
with a needed surrogate family, and such families became a means of
survival. Children became easy targets to ensure these wars even as
the children did not know who the enemy was.
On yet another level, the negative effects of globalization have
been a major factor in the life of the child. Many children have ex-
perienced hatred fueled by interethnic conflicts and the history that
surrounds them. Indeed, the ease with which weapons technology is
accessible to warring groups makes it easier to recruit children and
to use them for dangerous tasks. In some cases, the machinery of war
has created even more distrust among all parties to war. The competi-
tive edge of globalization has sought to create winners and losers. For
children scarred by the violence of war, life is a cheap commodity.
Retaliation has continued to create emotional disconnection between
the victim and the perceived enemy. For many of these children, grow-
ing up in a war zone means seeing too much death too often; it means
seeing too much violence. It means living on the brink of death—wit-
nessing violence, perpetrating violence. It means seeing too many
losses, separations, and abandonment. It is being raped every night. It
is living in constant fear of today and tomorrow.
For many children in Uganda who has survived war, they must
live with the aftermath of war. Many children struggle, not only with
the visible but also the invisible wounds of war. Many have lost their
childhood simply because they lived in these war zones. They have
had to grow up overnight to manage their livelihood and well-being.
The Convention on the Rights of the Child has come under assault for
many of these children.
Many of these children continue to be among the most vulner-
able in the population. They live in poverty, are homeless, and often
find themselves having to prostitute themselves for survival. The chil-
dren who were caught in these wars became street children, exposing
themselves even to greater violence and abuse. In the Ugandan con-
text, some have contracted HIV while living on city streets.
The impact of war and HIV has had devastating effects on the
life of the child. Many children have suffered neglect and abuse. The
rights of the child have also been affected. Children affected by HIV
or war have been denied equal access to education and health care. In
some cases, these children have been placed in early child marriages
and trafficked for sex and labor.
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who have either been killed or have often been separated from their
families of origin. Many have contracted HIV/AIDS. Even after the
war, many female children have failed to be reintegrated in their fami-
lies and communities. Often, they have been seen as having brought
a curse on their families of origin during and after the war as fami-
lies struggle to understand themselves. All these issues have had se-
rious bio-psychosocial outcomes for the children, especially female
children.
The plight of the female child must be placed in the context of
the overall situation for women in Uganda. “The status of women in
Uganda reflects the broader structural inequalities in the country”
(Ogland, Xu, Bartkowski, & Ogland, 2014: 874). Women are signifi-
cantly less educated than men and provided fewer opportunities to
attain a formal education. According to the Uganda Bureau of Sta-
tistics and Macro International Inc. (2007), 20% of women have no
formal education. The number of uneducated men is much lower, at
only five percent. Additionally, Uganda’s universal primary education
policy, implemented in 1997, a national policy aimed at providing free
primary education for all children, still sees a large gender gap be-
tween girls and boys who complete primary education. Only 42% of
girls will complete their primary education compared to 55% of boys
(Uganda Bureau of Statistics and Macro International Inc. 2007).
Gender inequality between men and women in Uganda is significantly
high. There are a number of factors contributing to the problem but,
also, there is a tremendous amount of pain and suffering, as a result,
among Ugandan women. They suffer from sexism, lack of access to
resources, including formal education and employment, and physical
and sexual violence as a result of these gender disparities.
When one considers the employment status of women in Uganda,
it is important to note that 75% of women are employed in agricul-
tural jobs due to lack of formal education. This employment field is
particularly problematic for Ugandan women because the property
women are most often tending to is owned by the family, particularly
the men. As a result, women are expected to work without compen-
sation. Furthermore, this often leaves women without employment
year-round (Ellis, Manuel, & Blackden, 2006). This lack of primary
education, and the need to rely on agriculture are major contributors
to frequently putting women at the mercy of their husbands and/or
family to live sustainably, which can in turn put them at great risk to
sexual violence and mistreatment due to a systemic, male dominant
society in which men often exert power over women in physically,
sexually, and emotionally abusive ways (Ogland et al., 2014). A soci-
etal framework in which women and men are unequally educated,
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Hugo Kamya
The life of the female child cannot be overstated from what wom-
en suffer in Uganda. These girls have no role models aside from the
women who raise them. Many women suffer as a result of the abuse
promoted by culture and society, and many are recovering from the
wounds of war. Violence and the atrocities of war often put women in
precarious situations. They are often rejected by their communities.
Turshen (2000) underscores the ways in which rape and other forms
of violence affect women.
Communities reject women who have been raped and strip them
of their social standing. Their tarnished reputation has economic
consequences in societies that base women’s access to such resources
as land on their relationships with fathers, husbands, brothers, and
sons. Customary and statutory laws regulate those relationships and
severely limit women’s political power in much of Africa. Rape affects
women’s eligibility (to marry or remain married) and, ultimately, their
ability to provide for themselves and their children. (2000: 804)
In discussing gender issues and the systematic violence against
women that takes place as part of a larger social construct, evidence
proves that women lose their rights to economic prosperity and politi-
cal assets as they are not only deliberately reduced to a “lesser than”
status through male patriarchy but quite literally stripped of resourc-
es and any access to these resources that would allow them to gain
economic mobility and rights to a formal education. This, thereby,
perpetuates the construct of women as property and the violence per-
petrated against them (Turshen, 2000). The female child is not spared
this cycle of violence and cultural oppression, all of which contribute
to the violations of the rights of the child.
The plight of women and the female child require serious re-
sponses at local, national, and international levels. A response must
take into account social justice issues in the life of the child. Atten-
tion to the protection of the life of the child must be the overriding
force. Children’s rights must be recognized and monitored. Educa-
tion is key so that all people know their rights in the face of abuse.
The rights of the child must be balanced against the socio-cultural
traditions that often undermine those rights. But these strategies call
for a multi-pronged approach. Attempts to attend to children have
often been performed in silos. The need to develop permanent bodies
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Children, War, HIV/AIDS and the Human Rights Imperative: Bio-Psycho-Social Outcomes
CONCLUSION
While it is vastly important to recognize the work being done in
Uganda and other sub-Saharan countries to reduce the rates of HIV/
AIDS, there are still numerous long-term implications which must be
addressed. The health and general well-being of HIV/AIDS orphans
“should be given high priority in all health and social program designs
and delivery” (Satzinger, Kipp, & Rubaale, 2012: 430). It is essential
to examine the whole picture, and the whole person, when designing
and delivering social programs, specifically, the bio-psycho-social out-
comes. Social workers, in particular, strive to be culturally responsive.
The Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) provides an appro-
priate backdrop to address the issues that affect the life of the child.
The CRC advocates for the rights of the child. The CRC outlines chil-
dren’s rights and standards in health care; education; and legal, civil,
and social services. The plight of children affected by HIV/AIDS and
war highlights the importance of the Convention on the Rights of the
Child. The articles within the CRC relate to the protection of the child:
13. Best interests of the child (Article 3): Decisions affecting children
should be made with the best interests of the child as the primary guiding
concern.
14. Protection from all forms of violence (Article 19): children has the right
to protection from neglect; physical, mental, or emotional abuse; and any
other form of maltreatment…
15. Sexual exploitation (Article 34): Governments should protect children
from all forms of sexual exploitation and abuse.
16. Separation from parents (Article 9): Children have the right to live with
their parents), unless it places them at risk. Children have the right to con-
tact with both parents, even if they do not live together, unless the child is
at risk.
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Children, War, HIV/AIDS and the Human Rights Imperative: Bio-Psycho-Social Outcomes
(Doku et al., 2015: 2). While that research is being completed, the is-
sues and negative outcomes associated with HIV/AIDS orphanhood
will continue to impact many lives.
Attending to the life of the child in the context of HIV and war, a
human rights approach is imperative. Such imperative has important
implications for research, practice and policy. One response is an ap-
proach that attends to gender inequality and imbalance. In Uganda,
and indeed in Sub-saharan Africa, the power imbalance at many lev-
els of society puts women and the children at serious disadvantages
not only at protecting themselves from HIV/AIDS and the ravages of
war but also accessing services to address HIV/AIDS and the wounds
of war in their lives and their children. An important human rights
imperative is to provide services and enact policies that target this in-
equality and imbalance. Research strategies that continue to explore
these inequalities cannot be overemphasized.
An important aspect of change is providing women greater educa-
tional opportunities to increase women’s education and awareness of
key issues that affect their lives and their children as well as to reduce
the risks of violence. Studies have consistently shown that the risk for
violence against women often drops for those women who have at-
tained a higher education. Such women are often in better positions
to advocate for themselves and to influence policy.
Access to appropriate knowledge and information is a human
rights imperative. Education provides a pathway to empowerment.
Learning opportunities ought to target women’s self-empowerment
toward self-determination while addressing issues of health, safety
and well-being for themselves and their children. Practitioners, educa-
tors, researchers and policy-makers ought to work together to develop
structures that support women and their children. There are cultural
beliefs that have increased women’s disempowerment. Often these
cultural beliefs have been sustained because women’s voices have
been missing at legislative bodies. Equal representation also affirms
the spirit of a human rights perspective. Researchers and policymak-
ers must argue and offer convincing evidence for the value of the pres-
ence of women’s voices.
Equality in decisions about sexual matters must be addressed.
Such attention compels practitioners, educators, researchers and pol-
icy makers to engage in practices that address women’s sexual citizen-
ship Women must be seen as equal partners whose human rights and
discourse of political participation matters.
Research, policy and practice must also address public health in
the context of a human rights perspective. Women’s issues (and their
children) are public health issues. Any intervention ought to take into
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Hugo Kamya
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Bennett, O.; Bexley, J.; Warnock, K. (eds.) 1995 Arms to Fight, Arms
to Protect: Women Speak Out about Conflict (London: Panos).
Birdthistle, I.; Mayanja, B.; Maher, D.; Floyd, S.; Seeley, J.; Weiss, H.
2013 “Non-consensual Sex and Association with Incident HIV
Infection Among Women: A Cohort Study in Rural Uganda,
1990-2008” in AIDS & Behavior N° 17(7), pp. 2430-2438. In:
<doi:10.1007/s10461-012-0378-8>.
Buyinza, F.; Hisali, E. 2014 “MICROEFFECTS Microeffects of
Women’s Education on Contraceptive Use and Fertility: The
Case of Uganda” in Journal Of International Development N°
26(6), pp. 763-778.
Doku, P. N.; Dotse, J. E.; Mensah, K. A. 2015 “Perceived social
support disparities among children affected by HIV/AIDS in
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Ewelukwa Ofodile, U. 2009 “The universal declaration of human rights
and the African child today: Progress or problems?” in American
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Kamya, H. 2012 “HIV/AIDS: The Global Pandemic” in Healy, M.;
Link, R. (eds.) Handbook of International Social Work (Oxford:
Oxford University Press).
Nabunya, P.; Ssewamala, F. M. 2014 “The Effects of parental loss on
the psychosocial wellbeing of AIDS-orphaned children living in
AIDS-imp1acted communities: Does gender matter?” in Children
and Youth Services Review N° 43, pp. 131-137. In: <doi: 10.1016/j.
childyouth.2014.05.011>.
National Association of Social Workers 2008 Code of Ethics In:
<https://socialworkers.org/pubs/code/default.asp>.
Ogland, E.; Xu, X.; Bartkowski, J.; Ogland, C. 2014 “Intimate
Partner Violence Against Married Women in Uganda” in Journal
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183
VIH/SIDA, MIGRACIONES Y POLÍTICAS
DE AJUSTE NEOLIBERAL
Mónica Franch
INTRODUCCIÓN
En este artículo, discuto algunas cuestiones surgidas a partir de una
investigación exploratoria, de tipo etnográfico, con el objetivo de com-
prender las experiencias de migrantes brasileños viviendo con VIH/
SIDA en Cataluña. El contexto en que tales experiencias se sitúan está
marcado por los efectos de la crisis económica global que afectó, de
manera especialmente severa, a los países del sur de Europa desde el
año 2008. Como mostraré más adelante, la respuesta adoptada por el
Gobierno español frente a la crisis, en consonancia con lo que ocurrió
en la mayoría de las llamadas economías desarrolladas, consistió en
la aplicación de políticas de ajuste neoliberal, que tuvieron su máxima
expresión en la publicación del Real Decreto 16/2012. Tales políticas
afectaron negativamente las posibilidades de cuidado y atención de
las personas viviendo con VIH/SIDA, especialmente de aquellas en si-
tuación más vulnerable, entre los que se destacan los migrantes.
Al margen de ser los más afectados por las nuevas políticas
de ajuste fiscal, los migrantes son, igualmente, el grupo en el que,
185
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VIH/SIDA, migraciones y políticas de ajuste neoliberal
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VIH/SIDA, migraciones y políticas de ajuste neoliberal
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Mónica Franch
CONSIDERACIONES FINALES
Inspirada en las ideas de Didier Fassin (2016), en este artículo me pro-
puse a reflexionar sobre la “economía moral” que se vislumbra a partir
de las políticas y prácticas ligadas al acceso a la salud de la población
migrante, sobre todo de aquella en situación irregular. Entiendo que el
escenario de la última década, marcado por los efectos de la crisis de
2008 en las economías europeas, especialmente en las mediterráneas, y
por la adopción de medidas de ajuste fiscal como respuesta a la crisis,
redefinió y acortó el espacio de la ciudadanía, afectando el derecho a la
salud de las personas cuyas vidas, parafraseando a Judith Butler (2008),
pesan o importan menos, siendo ese peso definido, entre otras cosas,
por el pasaporte. Tales redefiniciones no se hacen sin complicidades,
pero también provocan resistencias, algunas de las cuales fue posible
entrever en las incursiones etnográficas. El “cuerpo enfermo” o bioló-
gicamente marcado por su serología (en este caso), apareció, por un
lado, como objeto de sospecha y, por otro lado, como soporte de redes
de solidaridad y acceso a la ciudadanía. De este modo, entiendo que
las migraciones se refieren no solo al flujo de personas y a la condición
(importante, por otra parte) de vulnerabilidad en que estas personas se
encuentran pero también a la formación de redes y a la circulación de
“modos de hacer” (Certeau, 1994) que pueden contrarrestar tendencias
excluyentes, aunque también pueden contribuir al establecimiento de
jerarquías entre los grupos afectados por esas mismas tendencias.
BIBLIOGRAFÍA
Álvarez Del Arco, D. et al. 2016 “Adquisición del VIH en inmigrantes
que viven en Europa. Resultados de estudio AMASE –
Avanzando en el acceso de los inmigrantes a los servicios de
salud en Europa” en VIII Congreso Gesida (Madrid). En <http://
www.sidastudi.org/es/registro/ff80818152732bb601527d3997540
063>acceso 10 de octubre de 2016.
Bauman, Z. 1999 Globalização: as consequências humanas (Río de
Janeiro: ZAHAR).
Butler, J. 2008 Cuerpos que importan: Sobre los límites materiales y
discursivos del “sexo” (Buenos Aires: Paidós).
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O TEMPO É HOJE: INTERSEÇÕES
ENTRE NEOLIBERALISMO E A EPIDEMIA
DA AIDS NA PERIFERIA CAPITALISTA
INTRODUÇÃO
O objetivo deste trabalho é analisar a interseccionalidade entre o neo-
liberalismo e a epidemia de AIDS na África do Sul, no Brasil e em Mo-
çambique. A pesquisa tem natureza qualitativa e foi realizada coleta
de dados documentais e de campo nos três países pertencentes às duas
regiões mais desiguais do mundo, que concentram respectivamente a
primeira e a terceira maior população de pessoas vivendo com HIV e
AIDS, dois países que compartilham fronteira e fluxos migratórios na
África Austral e um na América Latina.
O Brasil tem fortes vínculos políticos e econômicos com África
do Sul e Moçambique, segundo uma proposta de cooperação sul-sul
iniciada nos anos 2000 e de integração dos países da África Austral,
sobretudo os de língua portuguesa, nos projetos de acumulação de
capital de grandes multinacionais do setor agro-minerador, com sede
no Brasil. Para o desenvolvimento do estudo, foram analisadas mais
de três décadas de epidemia no contexto da supremacia neoliberal,
enfocando-se a ação do Estado e as respostas dos movimentos de pes-
soas com HIV/ AIDS.
Dados do Programa Conjunto das Nações Unidas sobre HIV/
AIDS (UNAIDS, 2016) informam que das 36,7 milhões de pessoas que
vivem com HIV no mundo, 19 milhões estão no continente africano.
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2 Tratamento que, segundo Heunis, Wouters e Kigozi (2012), Pillay, Barron e Zungu
(2015) e Rocha (2011), vai muito além do já restrito acesso aos antirretrovirais, de-
mandando a organização de uma ampla rede de proteção social e a garantia da inte-
gralidade do direito à saúde. Demandas estas deslegitimadas pelo discurso neoliberal,
para o qual até mesmo as necessidades básicas de saúde devem ser relegadas total ou
majoritariamente ao mercado (Barbosa & Rocha, 2016; Bond, 2014; Harvey, 2008).
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metade das pessoas vivendo com HIV (48%) recebendo TARV, enquan-
to que a média global identificada em 2014, era de 41% (Barbosa et
al., 2017).
Mesmo não tendo uma população expressiva de imigrantes —me-
nos de 1% dos 208 milhões de brasileiros são imigrantes— número bem
inferior à média mundial de 3,7%, o rápido crescimento econômico ob-
servado no período 2003-2014 atraiu imigrantes econômicos de vários
países. Além disso, logo após o terremoto que devastou a frágil estru-
tura do Haiti, em 2010, um rápido fluxo migratório daquele país em
direção ao Brasil resultou em mais de 48.000 imigrantes que, diante da
crise econômica e do racismo velado pelo mito da democracia racial
brasileira, vêm sofrendo diversas formas de xenofobia, sendo inseridos,
majoritariamente, no circuito do mercado informal e precário. Embora
fosse de amplo conhecimento a condição precária de saúde destes ho-
mens e mulheres antes mesmo da sua diáspora, não existem estudos ou
dados precisos sobre a incidência de HIV/ AIDS entre estes.
Outro fluxo migratório se abriu a partir da crise social, política
e econômica da Venezuela. A escassez de alimentos, medicamentos e
serviços de saúde fez com que mais de 50.000 imigrantes venezuela-
nos se estabelecessem no Brasil, especialmente no estado de Roraima.
Muitos destes relatam ter escolhido o Brasil para poder acessar os ser-
viços universais e gratuitos do SUS, já que no seu país de origem não
conseguem antirretrovirais e até mesmo medicações básicas como
analgésicos. Mesmo o Governo Temer, iniciado com o golpe de Estado
de 2016 e que oficialmente deve se estender até janeiro de 2019, tecen-
do profundas críticas ao Governo de Nicolas Maduro, classificando-o
de violador dos direitos humanos, este não vem facilitando o acesso
dos venezuelanos à condição de refugiados, o que poderia melhorar
as possibilidades de acesso a trabalho e à rede de proteção social do
Brasil. Além disso, indo contra a Lei Nacional de Imigração, regu-
lamentada em 2017, que aborda a questão da imigração como um
problema de direitos humanos, o Presidente brasileiro participou no
dia 12 de fevereiro de 2018 um encontro realizado em Boa Vista que
visava discutir a situação migratória da Venezuela, no qual só levou
membros do Governo Federal das pastas de segurança pública, inexis-
tindo debate sob a perspectiva dos direitos humanos.
Segundo relatório do UNAIDS (2017), em 2016, havia no Brasil
830.000 pessoas vivendo com HIV. A prevalência estimada para o Bra-
sil ficou entre 0,4 e 0,7% da população, que nesse ano era de 207,7
milhões. O grupo populacional que apresenta maior prevalência é o
dos adultos jovens: homens e mulheres entre 24 e 49 anos, com inci-
dência na população de jovens gays. A AIDS também vem crescendo
entre adolescentes e jovens de 15 a 24 anos: entre estes, o número de
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Solange Rocha, Ana Cristina Vieira, Evandro Alves Barbosa Filho e Isabel Casimiro
casos subiu de 8,1 por 100.000 para 11,3 a cada 100.000 entre os anos
de 2005 e 2012. Além disso, 66% dos novos casos aconteceram dentro
de relações estáveis, ou seja, em tese, com apenas um parceiro.
No caso brasileiro, a nova ofensiva das forças conservadoras, ini-
ciada na primeira metade dos anos 2010, tem como aliados partidos
e políticos ideologicamente vinculados às Igrejas protestante e cató-
lica, que promovem um discurso público de controle dos corpos das
mulheres e de interdição ao debate sobre os direitos civis, sexuais e
reprodutivos da comunidade LGBTTIQ.
Os problemas crônicos de financiamento, assistência e cobertura
fazem com que menos de 50% dos brasileiros e brasileiras vivendo
com HIV/ AIDS recebam os antirretrovirais. Como foi apontado por
Vieira et al. (2014), entre o acesso ao tratamento e sua integralidade
existe um grande hiato. A partir de pesquisa empírica e bibliográfica,
as autoras apontam a precariedade enfrentada por usuários dos cen-
tros de referência de HIV/ AIDS no Brasil.
As autoras também evidenciam que a falta de uma rede de pro-
teção social com recursos humanos e materiais para viabilizar a inte-
gralidade do cuidado aos homens e mulheres com HIV, que vá além
da Política de saúde, é um dos principais desafios à efetivação dos
princípios e diretrizes do SUS e do Programa Nacional de HIV/ AIDS.
Obviamente, a resposta a esse conjunto de demandas é obstaculizada
pelo programa de contrarreforma do Estado (Barbosa, 2013).
Diante da complexidade e duração do tratamento demandado pe-
las pessoas que vivem com HIV e AIDS, que não pode ser reduzido a
serviços emergenciais e focais, ou a linhas de cuidado fragmentadas,
fica evidente que o modelo neoliberal, amplamente difundido pelo Go-
verno Brasileiro, se configura como uma nova barreira à integralidade
do tratamento e que este, junto ao crônico subfinanciamento do SUS,
coloca em risco as conquistas do Brasil como vanguarda do controle
da epidemia de HIV/AIDS e de proteção da vida de mulheres e homens
que vivem com HIV e AIDS.
O futuro do SUS e do Programa Nacional de HIV/ AIDS parecem
ainda mais incertos desde 2016, quando o Brasil passou por um golpe
de Estado que levou ao impeachment da Presidente Dilma Rousseff.
Este golpe, conduzido pelo Congresso Nacional, foi fomentado pelos
setores mais conservadores da política brasileira. Justamente aqueles
que implantaram e defendem o neoliberalismo como ideologia das
práticas políticas e orientações conservadoras no campo dos direi-
tos sexuais e reprodutivos, sobretudo das mulheres e da população
LGBTTIQ, representando um retrocesso às políticas e debates que fi-
zeram o Brasil se tornar uma referência exitosa e contra hegemônica
à epidemia de HIV/ AIDS.
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CONSIDERAÇÕES FINAIS
A hegemonia neoliberal teve implicações muito mais deletérias às
condições de vida nos países da periferia capitalista. Dentro desses
países, as mulheres, crianças, a população LGBTTIQ, os imigrantes e
as frações mais pauperizadas da classe trabalhadora sofrem as conse-
quências das reformas neoliberais, destituindo-os dos poucos direitos
de cidadania implementados nos países em desenvolvimento. O neoli-
beralismo criou um cenário de destituição do trabalho e dos sistemas
de proteção social propício ao rápido crescimento da pandemia de
HIV/ AIDS, da mesma forma que fomentava o empobrecimento dos
soropositivos e de suas famílias.
Os três países aqui estudados enfrentaram suas próprias epide-
mias de HIV em um contexto de forte pressão de sujeitos nacionais
e internacionais para a mercantilização dos serviços de saúde e de
bem-estar social, segundo as diretrizes da globalização neoliberal.
Além disso, com exceção do Brasil, eles implementaram Programas
de HIV/ AIDS fundamentados na perspectiva liberal de saúde e em
discursos conservadores sobre sexualidade, desejo e identidade, que
pouco problematizam as relações de poder que fazem com que deter-
minados grupos sociais adoeçam e morram, concentrando despropor-
cionalmente a carga da epidemia de HIV/ AIDS em decorrência de sua
condição de vulnerabilidade social. Como se vê, a mundialização ne-
oliberal não criou apenas uma ordem econômica determinante para
a rápida e complexa disseminação do HIV. Também criou uma ordem
discursiva sobre o HIV, que neutraliza e interdita o debate sobre a
epidemia, criando obstáculos para que este assuma uma radicalidade
anticapitalista, antipatriarcal e antirracista e, portanto, crítica ao glo-
balismo neoliberal.
A necessidade de fomentar essa radicalidade é imprescindível, até
porque países como a África do Sul, que implantou o maior programa
de antirretrovirais do mundo, e o Brasil, que desenvolveu um progra-
ma de HIV/ AIDS que serviu de referência internacional, estão corren-
do riscos de retrocesso, diante da ofensiva dos discursos neoliberais e
conservadores.
Portanto, o que se espera é que nos três países as epistemolo-
gias críticas sejam resgatadas e fomentadas para criar um debate
contra-hegemônico sobre as interseccionalidades entre o neoliberalis-
mo e a epidemia de HIV/ AIDS e que este resulte em novas respostas
e práticas políticas. Afinal, se passadas mais de três décadas, o neo-
liberalismo permanece atual, a validade da organização coletiva dos
sujeitos coletivos progressistas também continua a sê-lo. Como se vê,
o tempo é agora.
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(CISAPE) (Dissertação de mestrado). Curso de Mestrado em
Serviço Social, Departamento de Serviço Social, Universidade
Federal de Pernambuco, Recife, Pernambuco, Brasil.
Barbosa, E. A., Fº.; Rocha, M. S. G. 2016 “Três décadas de
neoliberalismo e de lutas contra a epidemia de HIV e AIDS na
periferia capitalista: uma análise crítica da África do Sul, Brasil
e Moçambique” em A. C. de S. Vieira, S. Rocha; E. A. Barbosa,
Fº. (orgs.) HIV AIDS e as teias do capitalismo, patriarcado e
racismo: África do Sul, Brasil Moçambique (Recife: Editora
Universitária da UFPE), pp. 27-155.
Barbosa, E. A.; Fº, Vieira, A. C. de S.; Rodrigues, C. S. 2016 “A
reprodução das relações capitalistas na África do Sul pós-apartheid:
a unidade entre transformismo político e reforma neoliberal” em
A. C. de S. Vieira; S. Rocha; E. A. Barbosa, Fº. (orgs.) HIV AIDS e
as teias do capitalismo, patriarcado e racismo: África do Sul, Brasil
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Barbosa, E. A., Fº; Vieira, A. C. de S.; Soriano, C. 2016 “A reprodução
das relações capitalistas na África do Sul Pós-apartheid: a
unidade entre transformismo político e reforma neoliberal”
em Vieira, A. C. de S.; Rocha, S.; Barbosa, E. A. Fº. (orgs.) HIV
AIDS e as teias do capitalismo, patriarcado e racismo: África do
Sul, Brasil Moçambique N° 1 (Recife: Editora Universitária da
UFPE), pp. 157-206.
Barbosa, E. A., Fº; Vieira, A. C. de S.; Rocha, M. S. G. 2017
“Challenges and lessons in three decades of the HIV epidemic
and neoliberalism: an analysis of Brazil, Mozambique and
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PREVENÇÃO DO VIH/SIDA
E TRABALHADORES DO SEXO IMIGRANTES.
O PAPEL DAS ORGANIZAÇÕES
DA SOCIEDADE CIVIL EM PORTUGAL
INTRODUÇÃO
Segundo o relatório do Centro Europeu de Prevenção e Controlo das
Doenças (ECDC, 2015), 37% dos novos casos diagnosticados de infe-
ção pelo vírus da imunodeficiência humana (VIH) na Europa ocorrem
na população imigrante. Esta é, pois, uma população vulnerável. O
grupo das pessoas que fazem trabalho sexual (TS) é também mais
vulnerável ao risco de contrair infeções sexualmente transmissíveis
(IST). Daí resulta uma elevada prevalência da infeção por VIH entre
as pessoas que fazem TS1 em Portugal. O artigo debruça-se sobre a
atividade de organizações da sociedade civil (OSC) na área da preven-
ção das IST em Portugal, de modo a analisar como se relacionam com
as populações que exercem TS e concebem as ações de prevenção e o
apoio social que lhes dirigem.
O trabalho do sexo é entendido como toda e qualquer prestação
remunerada de serviços sexuais. Pode revestir variadas formas, tais
como “serviços, desempenhos ou produtos sexuais comerciais (pros-
tituição, pornografia, striptease, danças eróticas, chamadas eróticas)”
(Oliveira, 2011: 14). O trabalho do sexo de interior ou indoor é aquele
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CONCLUSÃO
O caráter pré-moderno da administração pública portuguesa emerge
em todo o seu esplendor quando estão em causa populações parti-
cularmente fragilizadas, como é o caso dos imigrantes que exercem
trabalho sexual. Impossibilitados de se regularizarem por via de uma
atividade profissional que não é legalmente reconhecida, encontram-
-se num limbo legal que compromete o seu acesso a direitos funda-
mentais, tais como direito à saúde.
Existem direitos legalmente consagrados que nem sempre são
respeitados devido a uma micro-gestão arbitrária exercida por fun-
cionários públicos por vezes pouco esclarecidos quanto às leis que de-
veriam fazer cumprir. Oliveira (2013) expõe a este propósito atitudes
discriminatórias que envolvem insultos, humilhações e negligência, o
que leva a que, em situações mais extremas, o imigrante recorra a cui-
dados de saúde amadores que podem comprometer a sua saúde. Nes-
te contexto, o desenvolvimento de estratégias de acesso aos serviços
de saúde torna-se uma necessidade essencial e envolve, por exemplo,
inscrições no Sistema Nacional de Saúde (SNS) e prescrições médicas
passadas em nome de outrem, e a busca de centros de saúde específi-
cos, reconhecidamente considerados mais recetivos.
Os prestadores públicos de cuidados de saúde não atuam todos
da mesma forma, de acordo com um quadro legislativo e regulamen-
tar claramente definido. Uma relativa autonomia burocrática, resul-
tante de um enquadramento regulamentar que deixa espaço para a
ambiguidade, permite que as questões sejam resolvidas por funcioná-
rios administrativos que selecionam as regras a serem aplicadas, pois
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REFERÊNCIAS
Aboim, S. 2016 A Sexualidade dos Portugueses (Lisboa: Fundação
Francisco Manuel dos Santos).
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THE HISTORY OF THE AIDS EPIDEMIC
IN THE UNITED STATES:
LESSONS LEARNED AND FUTURE
DIRECTIONS
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the nation’s attention (AIDS, 2016). Never before had the U.S. seen
thousands of sick people laying their bodies down on Wall Street,
chaining themselves to the fence of the US Food and Drug Admin-
istration (FDA), or storming the National Institute of Health (NIH)
(Manganiello, 2010).
The HIV epidemic is widely recognized as having prompted one
of the most remarkable intersections ever of illness, science and activ-
ism. AIDS activists became “patient experts” both in the political and
bureaucratic processes in Washington and in the scientific process.
While protests opened the door, their knowledge and the sophistica-
tion of their demands were ultimately allowed them to become effec-
tive advocates for change (Colvin, 2014). Expert patients were trained
on the existing evidence and use this knowledge to engage with health-
care workers and the wider community (Manganiello, 2010). They
connected with each other and with academic researchers through
advocacy networks and worked with researcher and practitioners in
the areas of epidemiology, virology and health economics to develop
legal and political campaigns against governments and drug compa-
nies (Marx, 2012). They helped foster the creation of a new range of
HIV surveillance mechanisms and databases, contributed to clinical
trial research, and worked to energize conferences aimed at generat-
ing evidence to be used in response to HIV and AIDS (Marx, 2012).
Activist mobilization of scientific knowledge dur-
ing earlier eras in the epidemic was framed and energized
through the lens of crisis and emergency. During the initial
“plague years”, when HIV represented a terrifying death sentence,
activists demanded awareness efforts and effective prevention strate-
gies, more rapid treatment research, and social solidarity for stigma-
tized and marginalized populations (Colvin, 2014). During the second
period, the struggle for treatment access, activists called for global
regulation of pharmaceutical pricing and changes in the attitudes
of the philanthropic organizations, known for steering money away
from poor African countries and their citizens, claiming these coun-
tries were unable to effectively implement life-saving medications
(De Cock, Jaffe, & Curran, 2011). In both periods, the urgent plea of
activists was to end the needless death and suffering resulting from
human rights violations. The late Jonathan Mann, founder of World
Health Organization (WHO) Global Program on AIDS, was one of the
first public health professionals during the early epidemic to advocate
non-discrimination, an ideal that reached beyond borders regardless
of race, ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, socioeconomic status,
and access to care (Fee, 2008). Mann proposed a three-pronged ap-
proach to linking health and human rights (Fee, 2008).
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hunger strike that a federal judge ordered their immediate release and
closing of the Guantanamo base in Cuba (Wasem, 2009). In 2010, the
HIV ban on travel and immigration came to an end.
Now being HIV positive is no longer an automatic ground of inad-
missibility for foreign nationals seeking to enter as tourists or short-
term visitors (Wasem, 2009). Furthermore, HIV status may be a basis
for applying for asylum, if an immigrant is able to show past persecu-
tion, or fear of future persecution, because of their HIV status. How-
ever, for lawful permanent resident applicants, being HIV-positive
could still affect the outcome of their becoming a US resident (Cas-
taneda, 2016; Martinez-Donate, 2015). While doctors will no longer
perform an HIV antibody test as part of the medical examination, they
can still ask a question about overall health. Thus, these inequities
in the immigration system still disproportionally affect documented
and undocumented people and their families. For example, the lack of
healthcare available to immigrant populations impedes HIV testing,
treatment, and prevention efforts. This is shown by national estimates
suggesting that Latinos are significantly less likely to be engaged at
any stage of the HIV continuum of care including diagnosis, linkage,
retention, prescription of antiretroviral therapy, and viral suppres-
sion. This disparity is likely related to high rates of being uninsured,
community stigma, and legal status.
Immigrants are approximately 1 billion people worldwide who re-
side outside their country of birth (WHO, 2010). This group includes
labor migrants, refugees, asylum seekers, returnees, and undocument-
ed migrants who have chosen to either settle in the host country, relo-
cate, or move to another country (Tanser, Barnighausen, Vandormael,
& Dobra, 2015). Migrants are at a higher risk of HIV acquisition, and
will be less likely to benefit from the survival and preventive impact of
HIV care (Tanser et al., 2015). Immigrants require very specific health
systems infrastructure and interventions to rapidly and successfully
progress through the HIV treatment cascade. In addition, immigrants
commonly have distinct health profiles that are closely linked to their
social values, cultural norms, and geographic backgrounds (Schulden,
2014). The health needs and expectations of the immigrant are also
likely to be at odds with the host country, the U.S., which will have
important implications for the timely entry into, and retention within,
the HIV cascade of care (Martinez-Donate, 2015). A large body of re-
search has shown that immigrants learn about their HIV status a par-
ticularly long time after infection, attributing delays in HIV testing to
feelings of vulnerability, loneliness, confusion, helplessness, and other
social acculturation experiences related to their new environment
(Schulden, 2014). Furthermore, access to HIV testing is not always
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The History of the AIDS Epidemic in the United States: Lessons Learned and Future Directions
SELF-TESTING – HIV
Optimizing HIV prevention, care, and treatment requires regular test-
ing by most adults (WHO, 2010). HIV self-testing is defined as any form
of HIV testing in which an individual collects his or her own sample;
performs rapid laboratory test; and knows the results first hand (Napi-
erala Mavedzenge, Baggaley & Corbett, 2013). Self-testing could add a
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CONCLUSIONS
In summary, the HIV epidemic is widely recognized as having
prompted one of the most remarkable intersections ever of illness,
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Karina Villalba, Jennifer Attonito, Wissam Al Khoury y Patria Rojas
266
LAS AUTORAS Y LOS AUTORES
NATALIE ÁLAMO
Estudiante doctoral del programa de psicología social-comunitaria de
la Universidad de Puerto Rico, Recinto de Río Piedras. Posee certifi-
caciones en abuso sexual e intercesoría en agresión sexual. En los pa-
sados años ha trabajado como asistente de investigación con diversos
profesores/as en temas como bienestar psicosocial en jóvenes, VIH e
inmigración, violencia vial, VIH y estigma, entre otros. Actualmente
se encuentra trabajando en su disertación doctoral sobre la construc-
ción de los encuentros sexuales en los jóvenes heterosexuales y el ries-
go a VIH y otras ITS. Correo-e: natalie.alamo1@upr.edu.
FÁTIMA ALAS
Con estudios en Educación para la Salud de la Universidad de El Sal-
vador. Forma parte del núcleo investigador salvadoreño del Grupo de
Trabajo de Salud Internacional y Soberanía Sanitaria del Consejo La-
tinoamericano de Ciencias Sociales (CLACSO). Posee formación com-
plementaria en Cooperación para el Desarrollo y Políticas de salud
y abogacía del Derecho Humano a la salud. Correo-e: fatima.alvaz@
gmail.com.
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VIH, migraciones y derechos humanos: perspectivas internacionales
WISSAM AL KHOURY
Nació y creció en Líbano. Se graduó con un grado de doctor en medi-
cina de la University of Balamand. Además, tiene un grado de bachi-
llerato en Biología y un grado de maestría en Administración de Nego-
cios de la American University of Beirut (AUB). Dr. Khoury realizó su
residencia en medicina interna en la Florida International University,
donde también actualmente cursa su Ph.D. en el Departamento de
Promoción de la Salud y Prevención de Enfermedades. Correo-e: wis-
samelkhoury1@hotmail.com; walkh002@fiu.edu.
JENNIFER ATTONITO
Obtuvo su Ph.D. en Promoción de la Salud y Trabajo Social en la Flo-
rida Atlantic University. Su disertación abordó los efectos neurocogni-
tivos del VIH y el abuso del alcohol. Actualmente es miembro faculta-
tivo en la Florida Atlantic University en el área de Administración de
Servicios de Salud donde es miembro fundador de una colaboración
universitaria en investigación sobre adicciones. Además, ejerce en la
Junta Concejal del programa de Coordinación de Cuidado del Palm
Beach County Opiate Task Force. Dr. Attonito analiza resultados de in-
tervenciones basadas en evidencia para mejorar la adherencia al tra-
tamiento del VIH entre adultos consumidores de alcohol e investiga la
combinación de efectos del VIH, el envejecimiento, y el abuso de al-
cohol en el deterioro neurocognitivo. Además, su investigación actual
se refiere a los enfoques regulatorios de la epidemia de opiáceos en la
Florida, EU. Correo-e: miamijen@gmail.com.
ISABEL CASIMIRO
Doctora en Sociología, con grado y postgrado en Historia y Estudios
del Desarrollo. Es profesora auxiliar e investigadora en el Centro de
Estudos Africanos de la Universidade Eduardo Mondlane, Mozambi-
que, desde 1980. Fue Directora Adjunta (1982-83) y Directora (1990-95)
268
Los autores
CHRISTYL DAWSON
Es una estudiante de doctorado en Epidemiologia en la Escuela de
Salud Pública y Trabajo Social Robert Stempel de la Florida Interna-
tional University. Recibió una beca del Instituto Nacional de Salud
(P20- NIMHD por sus siglas en inglés) a través del proyecto de inves-
tigación del Center for Resesarch on Latinos in the United States (C-
SALUD) que está asociado con el Center for Research on US Latinos,
HIV/AIDS and Drug Abuse (CRUSADA). Correo-e: cdaws011@fiu.edu.
STEPHANIE DIEZ
Se graduó de la Escuela de Salud Pública y Trabajo Social Robert
Stempel College de la Florida International University. Ha recibido
tres premios del Instituto Nacional de Salud (NIMHD por sus siglas
en inglés) por su excelente trabajo doctoral. Recibió una beca del
Center for Research on US Latino HIV/AIDS and Drug Abuse. Los
estudios de investigación de la Dra. Diez se enfocan en las conductas
adictivas y las intervenciones relacionadas con los efectos psicológi-
cos, sociales y emocionales causados por estas adicciones. Correo-e:
sdiez002@fiu.edu.
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VIH, migraciones y derechos humanos: perspectivas internacionales
MÓNICA FRANCH
Licenciada en Historia, con especialización en Antropología por la
Universidad de Barcelona, Mestre en Antropología por la Universidad
Federal de Pernambuco y Doctora en Antropología por la Universidad
Federal de Rio de Janeiro. Es profesora de antropología en el Depar-
tamento de Ciencias Sociales de la Universidad Federal de Paraíba, y
miembro de los programas de postgrado en Antropología (PPGA) y
Sociología (PPGS) en la misma universidad. Coordina el GRUPESSC
- Grupo de Pesquisa em Saúde, Sociedade e Cultura. Correo-e: moni-
cafranchg@gmail.com.
DERRICK FORNEY
Obtuvo una maestría en salud pública. Ejerce en el Departamento de
Promoción de la Salud y Prevención de Enfermedades, el Center for
Research on U.S. Latino HIV/AIDS and Drug Abuse (CRUSADA), y
en la Escuela de Salud Pública y Trabajo Social Robert Stempel de la
Florida International University. Correo-e: dforn004@fiu.edu.
SANDRA GÓMEZ
Médica de la Universidad Salvadoreña Alberto Masferrer. Forma parte
del núcleo investigador salvadoreño del Grupo de Trabajo de Salud
Internacional y Soberanía Sanitaria del Consejo Latinoamericano de
Ciencias Sociales (CLACSO). Correo-e: drasandragomez@outlook.es.
ANTONIO HERNÁNDEZ
Investigador de El Salvador en el Grupo de Trabajo CLACSO Salud In-
ternacional y Soberanía Sanitaria. Miembro del Equipo Coordinador
Regional Red de Sistemas y Políticas de Salud. Miembro de ALAMES/
Movimiento por la Salud Dr. Salvador Allende.
HUGO KAMYA
Es profesor en la Simmons University donde imparte los cursos de
práctica clínica, trauma, y terapias narrativas y de familia. Originario
de Uganda, Kamya llegó hacen más de 30 años a los Estados Unidos.
Estudio en Harvard University donde obtuvo un grado de maestría en
Divinidad. Además, obtuvo una maestría en Trabajo Social del Bos-
ton College y obtuvo el grado de doctor en Psicología de Boston Uni-
versity. El trabajo de Dr. Kamya se ha enfocado en las poblaciones
inmigrantes y esfuerzos internacionales para acceder a necesidades
de servicios sociales de personas afectadas por el VIH/SIDA. Conti-
núa consultando y desarrollando asociaciones de colaboración con
agencias y organizaciones, y presentando a nivel nacional e interna-
cional, e investigando y publicando sobre VIH/SIDA. Colabora en un
270
Los autores
MARTA MAIA
Doctora em Antropología Social, investigadora del Centro em Rede
de Investigação em Antropologia / Instituto Superior de Ciências do
Trabalho e da Empresa - Instituto Universitário de Lisboa (CRIA/ISC-
TEIUL). Correo-e: marta.maia@iscte-iul.pt.
GIRA J. RAVELO
Profesora de investigación en el Center for Research on US Latinos
HIV/AIDS and Drug Abuse (P20-CRUSADA) en la Florida Internatio-
nal University (FIU). Su investigación se enfoca en estudios basados
en la participación comunitaria (CBPR) y las influencias sociocultu-
rales en la disparidad de la salud de los latinos, en particular el abuso
de drogas, VIH/SIDA, y otras poblaciones vulnerables como los latinos
envejecientes, los inmigrantes latinos y los trabajadores de la indus-
tria agrícola en EUA. Correo-e: gravelo@fiu.edu.
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VIH, migraciones y derechos humanos: perspectivas internacionales
SOLANGE ROCHA
Doctora en Trabajo Social por la Universidade Federal de Pernam-
buco, con pasantía de doctorado en el Programa de Postgrado en So-
ciología de la University of Cape Town – UCT, África del Sur (becaria
CNPq). Es periodista e investigadora asociada de la University of Cape
Town e investigadora del Núcleo de Estudos e Pesquisas em Políticas
Sociais e Direitos Sociais - NEPPS/CNPq, especializada en los temas:
movimientos sociales, comunicación, sanidad, VIH/Sida, políticas pú-
blicas, derechos humanos. Desde 2009 coordina varias investigacio-
nes entre Brasil, África del Sur y Mozambique. Actualmente es con-
sultora en género y derechos de las mujeres asociada a la red Gender
At Work (www.genderatwork.org). Correo-e: msolgrocha@gmail.com.
CAMILA RODRIGUES
Estudiante de Doctorado en Ciencia Política de la Facultad de Cien-
cias Sociales y Humanas de la Universidade Nova de Lisboa (FCSH-
UNL). Investigadora del Instituto Português de Relações Internacio-
nais (IPRI). Correo-e: camilapombeiro@gmail.com.
PATRIA ROJAS
Posee una maestría en salud pública de la Escuela de Salud Pública de
la Boston University y una maestría en Bienestar Social de la Escuela
de Trabajo Social de la misma institución. Obtuvo su doctorado en
Administración de Bienestar Social de la Florida International Uni-
versity. La Dra. Rojas es catedrática auxiliar de la Escuela de Salud
Pública y Trabajo Social Robert Stempel de la Florida International
University. Su investigación se enfoca en los comportamientos saluda-
bles de los latinos, el uso de sustancias, la salud mental y el VIH/SIDA
entre latinos y latinas. Correo-e: patria.rojas@fiu.edu.
MIRIAM RUIZ
Posee un bachillerato en Arte en Historia de las Américas con una
segunda concentración en Educación en Historia, para Escuela Se-
cundaria de la Universidad de Puerto Rico. Completó una maestría en
Educación en Salud Pública, Recinto de Ciencias Médicas de la Uni-
versidad de Puerto Rico. Actualmente se desempeña como educadora
en salud. Correo-e: miriam.ruiz@upr.edu.
OCTÁVIO SACRAMENTO
Doctor en Antropología (ISCTE-IUL), Master en Sociología de la Cul-
tura y de los Estilos de Vida (Universidade do Minho) y Licenciado
en Antropología Social y Cultural (Universidade Nova de Lisboa). Es
profesor en la Universidade de Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro (UTAD,
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Los autores
MARIANA SANCHEZ
Posee una maestría en Trabajo Social y un doctorado. Labora para el
Departamento de Promoción de la Salud y Prevención de Enfermeda-
des y el Center for Research on U.S. Latino HIV/AIDS and Drug Abuse
(CRUSADA) en la Escuela de Salud Pública y Trabajo Social Robert
Stempel de la Florida International University. Correo-e: msanche@
fiu.edu.
DIANA SHEEHAN
Posee una maestría en salud pública y un doctorado. Labora para el
Departamento de Epidemiología y el Center for Research on U.S. La-
tino HIV/AIDS and Drug Abuse (CRUSADA) en la Escuela de Salud
Pública y Trabajo Social Robert Stempel de la Florida International
University. Correo-e: dsheehan@fiu.edu.
KARINA VILLALBA
Tiene una maestría en Salud Ambiental y un doctorado en Promoción
de la Salud y Prevención de Enfermedades. La investigación de Dr.
Villalba se enfoca principalmente en el VIH, los desórdenes de uso de
sustancia, neurocognición y genómica. Su interés incluye la contribu-
ción de la interacción gene-ambiente en la etiología de los desórdenes
de uso de sustancias, la adaptación y evaluación de intervenciones
basadas en teorías para el VIH/SIDA y los desórdenes de uso de sus-
tancias y la comprensión de los efectos de los eventos traumáticos
durante la niñez y adultez en el VIH + personas con desórdenes de uso
de alcohol. Su investigación integra ciencias básicas y conductuales
con la meta de que puedan resultar en intervenciones basadas en la
población. Actualmente, está realizando un estudio para determinar
como el grado de lograr abstinencia a corto plazo o reducir notable-
mente el consumo de alcohol mejora la función cognitiva y cerebral.
Correo-e: kvill012@fiu.edu.
273
LAS COMPILADORAS Y LOS COMPILADORES
MÓNICA FRANCH
Licenciada en Historia, con especialización en Antropología por la
Universidad de Barcelona, Mestre en Antropología por la Universidad
Federal de Pernambuco y Doctora en Antropología por la Universidad
Federal de Rio de Janeiro. Es profesora de antropología en el Depar-
tamento de Ciencias Sociales de la Universidad Federal de Paraíba, y
miembro de los programas de postgrado en Antropología (PPGA) y
Sociología (PPGS) en la misma universidad. Coordina el GRUPESSC
- Grupo de Pesquisa em Saúde, Sociedade e Cultura. Correo-e: moni-
cafranchg@gmail.com.
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VIH, migraciones y derechos humanos: perspectivas internacionales
PATRIA ROJAS
Posee una maestría en salud pública de la Escuela de Salud Pública de
la Boston University y una maestría en Bienestar Social de la Escuela
de Trabajo Social de la misma institución. Obtuvo su doctorado en
Administración de Bienestar Social de la Florida International Uni-
versity. La Dra. Rojas es catedrática auxiliar de la Escuela de Salud
Pública y Trabajo Social Robert Stempel de la Florida International
University. Su investigación se enfoca en los comportamientos saluda-
bles de los latinos, el uso de sustancias, la salud mental y el VIH/SIDA
entre latinos y latinas. Correo-e: patria.rojas@fiu.edu.
OCTÁVIO SACRAMENTO
Doctor en Antropología (ISCTE-IUL), Master en Sociología de la Cul-
tura y de los Estilos de Vida (Universidade do Minho) y Licenciado
en Antropología Social y Cultural (Universidade Nova de Lisboa). Es
profesor en la Universidade de Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro (UTAD,
Vila Real, Portugal) e investigador en el Centro de Estudos Transdis-
ciplinares para o Desenvolvimento (CETRAD-UTAD). Sus principales
experiencias de investigación incluyen trabajo de campo etnográfico
sobre trabajo sexual femenino en regiones ibéricas de frontera; VIH/
sida en el nordeste de Portugal; movilidades turísticas-migratorias y
configuraciones transnacionales de intimidad euro-brasileñas. Más
recientemente tiene trabajado sobre la renta social de inserción en
la región del Duero (Portugal) y sobre los procesos de acogida y
integración local de los refugiados que llegan a Portugal a través del
sistema de recolocación europeo. Correo-e: octavsac@utad.pt.
276
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C O L E C C I Ó N G R U P O S D E T R A B A J O C O L E C C I Ó N G R U P O S D E T R A B A J O
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