Mehanna 4
Mehanna 4
Mehanna 4
En vue de l'obtention du
Rapporteurs :
JURY
Examinateurs :
Co-directrice de thse :
Directeur de thse :
Mme
M.
Mme
M.
Mme
M.
Marie LIBERT
Philippe REFAIT
Nadine PEBERE
Damien FERON
Marie-Line DELIA
Alain BERGEL
Remerciements
Je remercie aussi M. Rolf Gubner davoir bien voulu maccueillir au Corrosion and Metal
research Institute de Stockholm me permettant ainsi de vivre une exprience fort
enrichissante autant sur le plan scientifique quhumain. Mention spciale aux professeurs et
collgues sudois : Ingemar, Namurata, les deux Martin, Karin et Dag qui ont rendu mon
aventure sudoise formidable.
Je tiens galement remercier tout particulirement mon pre scientifique et spirituel, M.
Michel Azzi pour mavoir donn le got des sciences, pour son soutien dans les moments
difficiles et pour ses encouragements permanents.
Je souhaite remercier ma famille en France Marie-Claude et Rafael pour leur accueil, leur
gnrosit et leur soutien ainsi que ma professeur de piano Mme Paule Mis pour ses conseils
sur la vie et ses prires.
Finalement, je ne saurais jamais assez remercier mes parents Aziz et Marie et mes frres
Emile et Maher auxquels je dois tout.
ii
iii
iv
Sommaire
Introduction gnrale
Introduction gnrale
Introduction gnrale sur la biocorrosion anarobie
forme ionique M :
n+
M M + ne-
(1)
Pour que cette raction puisse se produire sur le matriau, il faut qu'une raction de rduction
se droule simultanment: les lectrons issus de loxydation sont utiliss pour transformer des
espces prsentes dans le milieu.
La corrosion prsente un enjeu conomique considrable estim entre 1 et 4 % du produit
national brut (PNB) des pays industrialiss. Ainsi par exemple, le Centre Franais de
lAnticorrosion, CEFRACOR value 28 milliards deuros les pertes conomiques gnrs
par la corrosion, en France, chaque anne.
Aux Etats-Unis, un rapport publi par le NACE (National Association of Corrosion
Engineers) en 2002, value les cots directs de la corrosion cest--dire les cots engendrs
par les dgts directs tels que le remplacement de tuyaux, lutilisation dinhibiteurs et les
services de maintenance des installations, etc 276 milliards de dollars amricains par an,
soit 3,1% du PNB du pays. Les cots indirects de la corrosion, comme les pertes occasionnes
par l'arrt des installations et les pertes de production, les dlais de livraisons prolongs, les
consommations de gazole leves dues aux dviations ou le temps d'attente dans un bouchon
lors de la rparation d'un pont, sont plus difficiles dterminer, mais avec une estimation
optimiste, ils peuvent tre considrs comme gaux aux cots directs. Cela veut dire que les
cots totaux de la corrosion pourraient atteindre les 6% du PNB des Etats-Unis (Koch et al.
2001). Les rsultats de ce rapport sont prsents dans le tableau 1. Cette analyse ralise sur
une priode de deux ans, estime les pertes 137,9 de milliards de US dollars par an
engendres dans les cinq principaux secteurs conomiques. Le secteur le plus touch est celui
des services publics avec des pertes de 47,9 milliards de dollars amricains par an, soit 34,7%
du dficit total. Cette tude comprend seulement une partie de l'activit conomique des EtatsUnis, lextrapolation de ces rsultats lchelle nationale, sur tous les secteurs, donne comme
rsultat 276 milliards de dollars US par an soit 970 US $ par habitant.
Introduction gnrale
Secteur
conomique
Service public
Transport
Infrastructures
Gouvernement
Production et
fabrication
Branche
Conduites deaux potables et uses
Rseau lectrique
Rseau de gaz naturel
Total
Vhicules motoriss
Bateaux
Avions
Trains
Transports de matires dangereuses
Total
Ponts des autoroutes
Stockage des matires dangereuses
Pipelines pour liquides et gaz
Canaux et ports
Total
Dfense
Stockage de dchets nuclaires
Total
Pte papier et papier
Raffinage du ptrole
Industrie alimentaire
Produits chimiques, pharmaceutiques et ptrochimiques
Electromnager
Exploration et production du ptrole et du gaz
Agriculture
Mines
Total
Cots en
milliards de $
36
6,9
5
47,9
23,4
2,7
2,2
0,5
0,9
29,7
8,3
7
7
0,3
22,6
20
0,1
20,1
6
3,7
2,1
1 ,7
1,5
1,4
1,1
0,1
17,6
Tableau 1 : Cots de la corrosion en milliards de dollars amricains par an pour les cinq
principaux secteurs conomiques aux Etats-Unis (Koch et al. 2001).
Les consquences de la corrosion ne se limitent pas des cots conomiques, mais elles
concernent galement la sant (corrosion des alliages dentaires et des implants mtalliques
dans le corps), la scurit (pannes de vhicules, rupture de structures, contamination des
canettes de produits alimentaires), l'environnement (pollution des ports par les biocides,
utilisation de peintures qui seront interdites par les nouvelles normes), etc
Flemming et al. (1996) estiment que 20% des problmes de corrosion sont lis la
prsence de micro-organismes. En Grande-Bretagne, lvaluation a atteint mme 50% des
dgts engendrs par la corrosion (Booth, 1964). La corrosion induite par les microorganismes est responsable de 75% de la corrosion dans lindustrie ptrolire et de 50% des
dgts causs dans les pipelines et les conduits souterrains (Walch et al., 1992).
Introduction gnrale
Encore connue sous les noms de : biodtrioration des matriaux mtalliques, corrosion
biochimique, corrosion influence ou induite par les micro-organismes (CIM), corrosion
microbienne, corrosion bactrienne (seuls ces deux derniers termes tant retenus dans la
norme ISO 8044 (1999)), la biocorrosion a t dfinie pour la premire fois en France par
Chantereau en 1980. Pour dfinir cette altration particulire des matriaux, il a propos : la
corrosion bactrienne rassemble tous les phnomnes de corrosion o les bactries agissent
directement ou par lintermdiaire de leur mtabolisme en crant les conditions favorables
son tablissement . La biocorrosion correspond donc la dtrioration acclre dun
matriau due la prsence de biofilms sa surface (Beech et al., 2004). Toute surface dans un
environnement non strile peut tre colonise par des microorganismes qui peuvent former un
biofilm. Plus de 99% des bactries se dveloppent en biofilms (Coghlan, 1996 ; Donlan et al.,
2002) sur une grande varit de surfaces telles que les mtaux, les plastiques, les tissus
vivants (humains et vgtaux), les surfaces minrales (pierres, btons). Un biofilm peut tre
constitu dune seule espce bactrienne ou de plusieurs espces de bactries mais aussi de
champignons, algues, protozoaires (Lock, 1993). La capacit dadaptation des microorganismes formant un biofilm est exceptionnelle ce qui limite lefficacit des moyens de
lutte contre la corrosion. Ainsi, des biofilms bactriens peuvent se dvelopper des
tempratures allant de -12C +115C, des pH de 0 13, dans des milieux aqueux de
salinits 0 saturation, sous des pressions de 0,01 bar 1400 bars, la surface de tous les
matriaux, en prsence de biocides, la surface de lampes ultraviolets ou de sources
radioactives (Flemming, 1996). En effet, les bactries contenues dans un biofilm prsentent
des caractristiques trs diffrentes de leurs homologues planctoniques (bactries libres en
suspension) parmi lesquelles :
la production dexopolymres
des modifications structurales, par exemple la disparition des flagelles (Flemming, 1990 ;
Costerton et al., 1995),
la mise en place dun systme de communication chimique, appel quorum sensing
(Parsek et al., 2000),
une augmentation significative de leur rsistance aux agents antimicrobiens (dsinfectants,
antibiotiques, inhibiteurs de corrosion) et aux stress environnementaux (dshydratation,
privation nutritionnelle, rayonnements ultraviolets) (Frank et al., 1990 ; Morton et al.,
1998 ; Mah et al., 2001 ; Campanac et al., 2002) ce qui rend le biofilm plus tenace et par
suite la lutte pour lliminer plus difficile.
Le dveloppement dun biofilm se droule en plusieurs tapes (Figure 1). La premire
consiste en ladhsion rversible des bactries sur une surface par des liaisons chimiques non
covalentes. Lors de la deuxime tape daccumulation, les bactries scrtent des polymres
extracellulaires. Ces exopolymres reprsentent 85 98% de la matire organique du biofilm,
les bactries ne constituent quune faible portion du volume total. Les exopolymres
comprennent des polysaccharides, des protines, des glycoprotines et des lipoprotines et
forment une matrice qui renforce la structure du biofilm tout en lui conservant une grande
plasticit. Au cours de la troisime tape, les micro-organismes se divisent et forment des
micro-colonies dont la structuration implique lexpression de gnes lis au quorum
sensing . La quatrime tape consiste en la maturation du biofilm qui devient pais. La
dernire tape est la phase de dispersion : sous leffet des forces hydrodynamiques, les
bactries se dtachent de la matrice, retournent ltat planctonique, et peuvent ainsi
coloniser dautres surfaces (Characklis et al., 1990 ; Lappin-Scott et al., 1995 ; PrigentCombaret et al., 2005).
Introduction gnrale
Introduction gnrale
polyaspartate scrts par B. subtilis inhibent la corrosion de laluminium 2024 (rnek et al.,
2002 ; Mansfeld et al., 2002). De mme pour B. licheniformis qui produit une couche
adhsive protectrice de gamma-polyglutamate (Zuo et al., 2007). Par contre, des divergences
existent au sein dune mme famille : ainsi par exemple, les souches de Bacillus (Bacillus
licheniformis T6-5 et Bacillus firmus H2O-1) produisent des substances antimicrobiennes
efficaces qui empchent la formation de biofilms nocifs produits par une autre souche de
Bacillus (Bacillus pumilus LF4) et rduisent aussi la viabilit et ladhsion dun consortium
de bactries sulfato-rductrices (BSR) (Korenblum et al., 2008). Les substances polymriques
extracellulaires (en anglais EPS) secrtes par Desulfovibrio indonesiensis et D. vulgaris
favorisent la corrosion alors que celles de D. alaskensis linhibent (Stadler et al., 2008).
Dautres bactries sont galement responsables des pertes defficacit des inhibiteurs
commerciaux base dacide carboxylique ou desters. En effet, Serratia marcescens ACE2 et
Bacillus cereus ACE4 sont capables de dgrader les hydrocarbures aromatiques et
aliphatiques prsents dans ces inhibiteurs en les utilisant comme unique source de carbone
(Rajasekar et al. 2007 a). Ceci peut sexpliquer par la prsence des enzymes contenues dans
les micro-organismes : en effet, il a t dmontr que la souche ACE2 possde des enzymes
telles que la catalase, la cytochrome oxidase et la peroxidase qui dgradent les alcanes
linaires (C10-C20) et ramifis prsents dans le ptrole (Rajasekar et al. 2007 b ;
Muthukumar et al., 2007).
Tous ces exemples montrent la complexit de lintervention des micro-organismes dans la
dtrioration du matriau, cest pourquoi il est ncessaire didentifier les micro-organismes
impliqus, de bien comprendre les phnomnes de cette biocorrosion en lucidant les
mcanismes afin de trouver des solutions efficaces et radicales.
Au dbut des annes 2000, la dcouverte que des biofilms peuvent transfrer des
lectrons directement llectrode et produire de lnergie vient bouleverser les recherches
dans le domaine des piles combustibles microbiennes (PACMs). En effet, il a t dmontr
quun biofilm marin est capable dchanger des lectrons avec le support conducteur la
surface duquel il se dveloppe do le nom de biofilm lectroactif (Reimers et al, 2001). Leur
exprience est constitue dune anode enfonce de quelques centimtres dans les sdiments
marins connecte via une rsistance externe la cathode place au-dessus, dans leau de mer.
Les micro-organismes des sdiments lorigine de la production dnergie sont adhrs sous
forme de biofilm sur la surface de lanode (Lovley, 2006). Le principe de la PACM en
sdiment est bas sur la conversion de la matire organique des sdiments par des microorganismes en produits de fermentation, le plus connu tant lactate. Les micro-organismes
adhrs sur lanode oxydent alors ces produits de fermentation en CO2 en transfrant les
lectrons lanode (Bond et al, 2002). Ces lectrons se dplacent ensuite dans le circuit
lectrique extrieur jusqu la cathode place dans leau de mer pour effectuer la rduction de
loxygne. Dans le mme temps, les chercheurs du Laboratoire de Gnie Chimique ont
montr que de lacier inoxydable recouvert de biofilm marin constituait une excellente
cathode de pile combustible : la rduction de loxygne sur ce matriau industriel tait
similaire celle ralise sur platine (Bergel et Fron, Brevet 2002, extension internationale
2003). A partir de ces dcouvertes innovantes, plusieurs quipes de recherches se sont
intresses aux biofilms lectroactifs pour dvelopper des PACMs performantes (cf. Chapitre
I, section I.4.).
10
Introduction gnrale
Parmi les micro-organismes les plus tudis, la famille des Geobacteraceae a t identifie
comme prdominante dans la population bactrienne sur lanode dune PACM enfonce dans
des sdiments marins, plus particulirement, la souche Geobacter sulfurreducens est la plus
efficace pour transfrer des lectrons directement llectrode (Lovley, 2006).
En 2004, Dinh et al., ont remarqu que des biofilms lectroactifs pourraient tre corrosifs. Ils
isolent partir de biofilms naturels, deux micro-organismes anarobies, qui utilisent le fer
comme unique donneur dlectrons : un isolat Desulfobacterium-like qui rduit le sulfate et
une bactrie Methanobacterium-like qui produit du mthane et affirment que ces microorganismes jouent un rle dans la biocorrosion. Malgr les trs nombreuses recherches dans le
domaine des PACMs, limplication des biofilms lectroactifs dans la biocorrosion na t
voque quune seule fois dans la littrature par Dinh et al. (2004).
Le travail prsent dans ce manuscrit repose sur une approche pluridisciplinaire autour
de llectrochimie et de la microbiologie. Ltude a t ralise au sein du Laboratoire de
Gnie Chimique (UMR 5503) dans le cadre du groupement de recherche europen GRDE+
SMILE (Surfaces of Materials in living Environments) en collaboration avec deux autres
laboratoires :
-Le Laboratoire dIngnierie des Systmes Biologiques et des Procds (LISBP) CNRSINSA, Toulouse, France, qui a purifi et fourni lhydrognase.
-Le Corrosion and Metal Research Institute, KIMAB, Stockholm, Sude, pour ses
comptences en lectrochimie et microscopie force atomique (AFM).
Ce travail de thse consiste aborder la biocorrosion anarobie par une double approche :
enzymatique et bactrienne. Le but de cette thse est dexplorer et didentifier de nouvelles
pistes dans le domaine de la biocorrosion anarobie, de bien dfinir le rle et les mcanismes
de nouveaux micro-organismes et enzymes impliqus dans la CIM et de vrifier la pertinence
de nouveaux mcanismes en biocorrosion.
Le chapitre I est une synthse bibliographique prsentant ltat de lart dans les domaines de
la biocorrosion anarobie et des piles combustibles microbiennes et le positionnement de
ltude.
Le chapitre II dtaille les matriels et mthodes ; il dcrit les conditions exprimentales
utilises.
Les chapitres III et IV prsentent les rsultats obtenus et sarticulent autour de sept
publications (2 publies, 3 soumises et 2 soumettre).
Des tudes rcentes ont dmontr lintrt dune approche enzymatique pour tudier la CIM
que ce soit en milieu arobie (Landoulsi, 2008, thse de doctorat) ou anarobie (Bryant et al.,
1993 ; Zadvorny et al., 2006). Nanmoins, le rle des hydrognases issues des bactries
sulfato-rductrices dans la biocorrosion anarobie demeure un sujet de controverse. Cest
pourquoi, le rle dune hydrognase de Clostridium acetobutilicum dans la CIM anarobie est
analys dans le chapitre III afin de vrifier la pertinence ou non de nouveaux mcanismes en
biocorrosion. Dautant plus que ce travail sinscrit comme une suite logique une thse
prcdente ralise dans notre laboratoire avec dautres types dhydrognases et qui a abouti
des rsultats fructueux (Da Silva, 2002, thse de doctorat).
Le chapitre IV prsente pour la premire fois limplication dans la CIM anarobie, dune
bactrie lectroactive Geobacter sulfurreducens qui fait lobjet actuellement de nombreuses
11
Introduction gnrale
tudes sur les PACMs dont entre autres, une thse qui a t soutenue lanne dernire dans
notre laboratoire (Dumas, 2007, thse de doctorat) sur la catalyse lectro-microbienne -par
G. sulfurreducens- dans les piles combustibles et qui a t rcompense par le prix
Lopold Escande. Notre travail a prouv pour la premire fois la pertinence du mcanisme de
transfert direct dans le domaine de la biocorrosion. Ltude a t ralise en testant 4 types
diffrents daciers dans des milieux distincts. Un stage de deux mois effectu au sein du
KIMAB a permis une meilleure comprhension des mcanismes impliqus.
Le dernier chapitre (V) consiste en une conclusion globale des rsultats prsents dans les
chapitres prcdents et ouvre des perspectives qui dcoulent de ce travail.
12
Chapitre I
Transferts lectroniques
matriaux / micro-organismes
anarobies
13
La biocorrosion nest pas, comme le souligne Damien Fron (Fron et al., 2002), une
nouvelle forme de corrosion mais rsulte de la conjonction dfavorable de trois facteurs (Fig.
1):
- un milieu aqueux gnralement jug peu agressif,
- un matriau rput compatible avec les conditions dexposition,
- des micro-organismes dont la prsence est le plus souvent inattendue.
Matriau
CIM
Microorganismes
Milieu
Les mcanismes de la biocorrosion sont varis refltant la diversit des diffrents types de
micro-organismes, de milieux et de matriaux. Actuellement, il est admis que les bactries
sulfato-rductrices (BSR) et thiosulfato-rductrices (BTR) jouent un rle prpondrant dans la
biocorrosion anarobie (Beech et al., 2004 ; Lee et al., 1995 ; Javaherdashti et al., 2006 ; Xu
et al., 2007) de nombreux types de mtaux comme les aciers inoxydables (Angell et al.,
2000), les aciers doux (Rao et al., 2000 ; Malard et al., 2008), les alliages cuivre-nickel
(Videla, 2001), etc. Par ailleurs, le rle cl des hydrognases prsentes dans certaines BSR a
souvent t suspect et dmontr dans des conditions de laboratoire (Bryant et al., 1991 ;
Zadvorny et al., 2006 ; DaSilva et al., 2002 ; 2004).
Il est communment admis que la corrosion microbienne des mtaux en milieux anarobies
est due la catalyse de la rduction du proton ou de leau :
2H+ + 2e- H2 ou 2H2O + 2e- H2 + 2OH-
(1)
(2)
Les ions sulfures se combinent aux ions ferreux pour former des dpts de sulfure de fer
(FeS). Le FeS ainsi form catalyse la rduction du proton ou de leau sur la surface du
matriau, ce qui entrane une augmentation du transfert dlectrons donc une acclration de
la dissolution du mtal. La corrosion dpend de luniformit du dpt de FeS, de son tat
cristallin, de la nature de lacier, des dfauts de surface de lacier, etc. En ralit, les
mcanismes de biocorrosion sont certainement plus complexes que ce simple mcanisme et
restent difficiles lucider.
Bien que la plupart des recherches sur la biocorrosion anarobie se soient concentres sur les
BSR, des tudes rcentes ont dmontr limplication dautres types de bactries, comme les
bactries mthanognes (Zhang et al., 2003 ; Feugas et al., 1997) et les bactries clostridiales
(Ford et al., 1989 ; Walch et al., 1989).
14
Etymologiquement, une bactrie sulfurogne est une bactrie qui produit des ions
sulfures. Ces ions peuvent provenir de la rduction de composs oxyds comme le soufre luimme, le thiosulfate ou le sulfate. Toutes les bactries peuvent rejeter de faibles quantits de
sulfures quand elles consomment des protines par exemple. Par ailleurs, certaines bactries
utilisent des composs minraux soufrs comme accepteur dlectrons dans leur mtabolisme
nergtique et secrtent des sulfures. On y trouve les bactries sulfato-rductrices (BSR) et/ou
thiosulfato-rductrices (BTR) que nous appellerons aussi gnriquement bactries
sulfurognes. Le mtabolisme de ces bactries se caractrise par la rduction dun accepteur
terminal dlectrons : le sulfate, coupl loxydation dun donneur dlectrons, qui est le plus
souvent, une substance organique (lactate ou actate) ou lhydrogne (Fig. 2) (Dupont-Morral,
2004).
Il existe plus de deux cents espces de BSR avec des morphologies et des mtabolismes trs
diversifis : msophiles, thermophiles, Gram-ngatif, spores Gram-positif (Castro et al.,
2000). Les espces les plus tudies appartiennent au genre Desulfovibrio, la plupart ont t
isoles de sites de corrosion dans des pipelines (Padilla-Viveros et al., 2006). Le groupe des
BTR, est plus restreint et rassemble des bactries strictement anarobies Gram-ngatif, Grampositif et thermophiles (Klein et al., 2001). Signalons que dans les zones oxiques des
sdiments, le thiosulfate S2O32- peut tre oxyd en sulfate SO42- par des espces
chimiolithotrophes (telles que Thiobacillus), et cette oxydation peut tre incomplte dans les
zones anarobies par les BSR (Bak et al., 1987).
15
16
Figure 3 : Mcanisme de corrosion par prcipitation des sulfures de fer par les BSR.
Pour expliquer que le dpt de sulfure de fer catalyse la rduction du proton ou de leau, il a
t propos que les BSR, de part leur activit, peuvent rguler localement le pH (Crolet,
1992). Localement, le sulfure dhydrogne produit par les BSR entrane la formation de FeS
et engendre laugmentation de lacidit (plus de protons libres). Sur les zones entourant le
dpt de FeS, le pH reste stable et neutre. Le mtabolisme bactrien pourrait donc induire une
pile par acidification diffrentielle : FeS tant la cathode (pH plus faible) et le fer lanode (pH
plus lev). De plus, en 1996, Campaignole dmontre quen prsence de BSR utilisant le
sulfate comme accepteur terminal dlectrons, la vitesse de corrosion peut se stabiliser
quelques mm par an tandis quelle atteint 1 cm par an, si ces bactries utilisent du thiosulfate.
Selon ces rsultats, le thiosulfate et la thiosulfato-rduction apparaissent un facteur de risque
majeur en biocorrosion, ce qui conforte en partie le modle de lautorgulation du pH, qui
prvoit (en thorie) une pile diffrentielle plus forte dans le cas du thiosulfate que dans celui
du sulfate. En laboratoire, des bactries sulfato-rductrices Desulfovibrio Capillatus isoles
doloducs mexicains provoquent des phnomnes de corrosion importants sur lacier doux
en prsence de thiosulfate qui est rduit mtaboliquement en sulfure (Miranda et al., 2006).
17
Rfrences
Mcanismes
Costello, 1974
Iverson, 1984
Mattson, 1989
Crolet, 1995
Le mcanisme le plus ancien qui a tent dexpliquer la corrosion induite par les BSR
est celui de la dpolarisation cathodique propos par Von Wolgozen Khr et Van der Vlugt en
1934. Grce leur activit hydrognase, les BSR utilisent lhydrogne produit par la
rduction du proton sur le matriau pour rduire le sulfate. La consommation de lhydrogne
entranerait un dsquilibre ractionnel et favoriserait la rduction du proton augmentant par
consquent loxydation du fer (Pankhania, 1988).
Raction anodique :
4 Fe 4 Fe2+ + 8eDissociation de leau :
8 H2O 8 H+ + 8OHRaction cathodique :
8 H+ + 8e- 8 H
Dpolarisation cathodique lie aux BSR : SO42- + 8 H S2- + 4 H2O
Produits de corrosion :
Fe2+ + S2- FeS
Produits de corrosion :
3 Fe2+ + 6 OH- 3 Fe(OH)2
Equation bilan:
4 Fe + SO42- + 4 H2O 3 Fe(OH)2 + FeS + 2 OH-
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
18
(10)
Elle est suivie soit par une seconde rduction mono-lectronique de lhydrogne adsorb
(raction de Heyrovsky) :
M-Hads + H2O + e- M + H2 + OH-
(11)
(12)
Les deux ractions de la seconde tape sont les tapes qui limitent la cintique du processus
sur les matriaux mtalliques et les aciers. La consommation du produit de ces ractions
(lhydrogne) ne peut donc pas avoir deffet sur la vitesse dextraction des lectrons du
matriau. Dans le courant des annes 80 plusieurs auteurs (Videla, 1988), dont en France
Jean-Louis Crolet (Crolet, 1990 ; Crolet et al., 1992 ; 1998), ont eu le mrite de mettre en
lumire linvalidit de ce mcanisme. Toutefois, ils utilisent souvent des termes impropres en
qualifiant la raction cathodique dirrversible. Dun point de vue thermodynamique, les
diffrentes tapes de la raction cathodique sont rversibles et la notion de
rversibilit/irrversibilit na rien voir avec le fait quelles limitent la vitesse. La confusion
entre les concepts dtape limitante et dirrversibilit ne contribue sans doute pas une claire
comprhension des mcanismes. En outre, certaines BSR pourvues dhydrognases ont la
capacit utiliser lhydrogne comme donneur dlectrons. La production dhydrogne par la
corrosion favorise donc la croissance de ces bactries qui, en retour, peuvent acclrer la
corrosion par lun des mcanismes dcrits ci-dessous. La consommation de lhydrogne par
les BSR peut donc favoriser la corrosion, mais par un chemin beaucoup plus indirect que
suppos par la thorie de dpolarisation cathodique.
Les auteurs (Wanklyn et al., 1952) supposent que les sulfures produits par les BSR ont
plutt une influence sur la branche anodique du processus de corrosion que sur la branche
cathodique. Pour eux, la dissolution du mtal :
Fe Fe2+ + 2e-
(13)
est favorise par la libration dions sulfures S2- par les bactries qui fait prcipiter les ions
Fe2+:
Fe2+ + S2- FeS
(14)
Ce mcanisme suppose que la vitesse de la raction anodique de dissolution du fer soit limite
par la prsence des ions ferreux (ou ferrique), ce qui parat toutefois assez peu probable.
19
(15)
20
Les EPS renferment des groupements ioniques, des mtabolites tels que les acides et
leurs sels et provoquent une augmentation de la teneur en eau dans les irrgularits du
matriau mtallique (Beech et al., 1995 ; Sand, 1997). Une htrognit intrinsque stablit
alors modifiant ainsi lenvironnement physico-chimique et une diffrence entre
lenvironnement proche du mtal et le reste de la solution est cre entranant la variation du
potentiel lectrochimique. Cest la corrosion par pile de concentration. La diffrence par
rapport la corrosion galvanique, tient dans le fait que les ractions anodiques et cathodiques
ont lieu sur le mme mtal (Fe) alors que pour la corrosion galvanique, il y a couplage entre
deux mtaux de natures diffrentes (Fe et FeS). Seule la concentration du fluide qui baigne le
mtal varie en raison de laccumulation des EPS dans les cavits poreuses du mtal (Beech,
2004 ; Cristbal et al., 2006).
Autres mcanismes proposs pour expliquer la corrosion des matriaux par les
BSR:
Lopes et al., (2006) ont suggr que D. desulfuricans endommage la couche passive de lacier
inoxydable 304L en dissolvant les ions nickel, ce qui influence, positivement le mtabolisme
des BSR favorisant ainsi la biocorrosion.
Bien que de nombreuses tudes dmontrent la prsence souvent dominante des BSR
dans les biofilms prlevs sur des pipelines corrods (entre 11% et 73% de la totalit de la
communaut bactrienne ; Kleikemper et al., 2002 ; Ravenschlang et al., 2000), une tude
rcente ralise sur des pipelines mexicains montre que la proportion des BSR est parfois
faible bien que la corrosion soit prsente (Lopez et al., 2006). Lanalyse de la diversit
microbienne dnote la prsence de trois groupes physiologiques : anarobies facultatifs
(membres de Enterobactereaceae), halophiliques anarobiques carbohydrate fermentatives
(membres de Halanaerobiaceae) et rductrices de sulfates (membres de Desulfovibrionales).
21
En conclusion, tous ces rsultats doivent tre interprts avec prcaution car plusieurs
facteurs, tels que la maturit et lge du biofilm, le nombre dchantillons ou mme les
techniques danalyse influencent la description de la communaut bactrienne. Il faut
certainement en retirer la ncessit deffectuer plus dtudes consacres lidentification des
micro-organismes rellement impliqus dans la MIC.
Des tudes ont soulign un effet notable de lhydrognase sur la corrosion ainsi des
travaux ont dmontr que les vitesses de corrosion de lacier doux, dans leau de mer
artificielle strile sont similaires aux valeurs obtenues avec des souches non-corrosives de
BSR nayant pas une activit hydrognase (0,48 mm/an) alors quen prsence de souches de
BSR possdant une activit hydrognase, les vitesses de corrosion atteignent 7,79 mm/an
(Hilbert et al., 2000 ; Bryant et al., 1991). De plus, des dtecteurs de la prsence
dhydrognase sont commercialiss par Caprocco, au Canada afin de dtecter la corrosion
(Boivin et al., 1990). Bryant et al., (1993) ont montr une corrlation entre hydrognase et
corrosion. Leurs expriences consistent plonger des coupons daciers dans un vase B et le
connecter, uniquement par la phase gazeuse, un vase A contenant une solution Tris
tamponne, de lhydrognase et du mthyl viologne. Une couleur bleue apparat indiquant
que lhydrognase assure la rduction du mthyl viologne suivant la raction :
H2 + 2 MV2+ (incolore)
HASE
2 MV+ (bleu) + 2 H+
(16)
22
(17)
(18)
(19)
(20)
(21)
A-
HASE
NADH
(22)
B-
23
HASE
Mn+ + ne-
(23)
Cependant, dautres travaux ont dmontr quil ny a pas de lien entre les hydrognases et la
corrosion, bien au contraire, il a t dmontr quune souche de SRB hydrognase-ngative
est plus corrosive quune souche hydrognase-positive (Kumar et al., 1999), et une autre
tude a montr que les hydrognases priplasmiques de D. vulgaris catalysent rversiblement
loxydo-rduction de lhydrogne et quil y a absence de corrosion (Dinh et al. 2004).
Limplication des hydrognases contenues dans les bactries ou libres en solution dans la
corrosion demeure un sujet de controverses.
Bien que le concept des piles combustible microbiennes (PACMs) soit ancien, avec
un dveloppement accentu dans les annes 60, lorsque la NASA sest intresse la
transformation des dchets organiques en lectricit sur les vols spatiaux, il connat un
vritable essor depuis le dbut du XXIme sicle avec une augmentation relle des puissances
dlivres ouvrant la voie des applications potentielles grande chelle : diversit des
combustibles en particulier issus des matires organiques, source dnergie et
dintensification dans les installations de traitement des effluents (stations dpuration
(Logan, 2005 ; Angenent et al., 2004 ; Rabaey et al., 2005) dchets des brasseries, dchets
agricoles (Min et al., 2005) et agroalimentaires (Heilmann et al., 2006)), sources
dlectricit dans les lieux retirs dpourvus dinfrastructure. En 1963, les premires piles
combustible biologiques furent commercialises en tant que sources dnergies dans les
radios, signaux lumineux et autres appareils en mer (Shukla et al., 2004) En vingt ans
(1986-2006), le nombre de publications sur les PACMs a t multipli par 15 et les densits
de puissances maximales ont augment dun facteur 100.
Une pile microbienne convertit lnergie disponible dans un substrat biodgradable en
lectricit grce lintervention de micro-organismes. A lanode, il y a oxydation des
composs organiques et les lectrons circulent dans le circuit lectrique externe jusqu la
24
Avant les annes 2000, il tait inimaginable quune bactrie puisse transfrer
directement les lectrons provenant de son mtabolisme interne une lectrode solide. Le
transfert lectronique tait alors ralis par lintermdiaire de mdiateurs ajouts dans le
milieu. Un mdiateur lectrochimique est une molcule qui peut soxyder puis se rduire et se
recycler, il peut catalyser soit la raction cathodique soit la raction anodique. La figure 6
reprsente un schma de mcanisme de transfert indirect en prsence dun mdiateur artificiel
du ct anodique dune PACM.
25
Figure 6 : Schma dune PACM utilisant un mcanisme de transfert indirect en prsence dun
mdiateur artificiel. Le mdiateur accepte les lectrons issus de loxydation du substrat
(glucose) et se rduit sur la bactrie puis soxyde lanode laquelle il transfre les
lectrons. Le mdiateur se rduit et soxyde ainsi durant plusieurs cycles. Dans ce systme, le
substrat (glucose) est partiellement oxyd en CO2 (Lovley, 2006).
Du ct anodique, les exemples de mdiateurs sont relativement nombreux. Les mdiateurs
les plus utiliss sont la thionine, le rouge neutre, les drivs de la phnazine, de la
phnothiazine, de la phnoxazine et de la quinone, notamment le 2-hydroxy-1,4naphtoquinone (HNQ) (Newman et al., 2000 ; Katz et al., 2003 ; Shukla et al., 2004). Ces
mdiateurs artificiels sont utiliss dans les PACMs microbiennes avec des bactries telles que
Escherichia coli (Emde et al., 1989 ; Park et al., 2000), Proteus vulgaris (Allen et el., 1993 ;
Kim et al., 2000), Propionibacterium freunreichii (Emde et al., 1990), Actinobacillus
succinogenes (Park et al., 2000) et les espces Pseudomonas spp. et Bacillus spp. (Katz et al.,
2003 ; Shukla et al., 2004).
De ct cathodique, un seul mdiateur artificiel a t test dans les PACMs : le rouge neutre
qui permet la rduction du dioxyde de carbone en mthane et le fumarate en succinate en
prsence dActinobacillus succinogenes (Park et al., 1999 a ; Park et al., 1999 b). Toutefois,
des ions mtalliques ont parfois t rajouts dans le compartiment cathodique pour faciliter le
transfert lectronique. Ainsi par exemple, une bactrie mangano-oxydante, Leptothrix
discophora oxyde les ions Mn+ en oxyde de manganse MnO2 en milieu arobie (Rhoads et
al., 2005). Ce dernier se rduit alors la cathode pour redonner lion Mn+. Un mcanisme
similaire est observ avec des bactries ferro-oxydantes telles que Thiobacillus ferroxidans ou
Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans qui oxydent les ions Fe2+ en Fe3+. Ce sont les ions Fe3+ qui se
rduisent alors la cathode (Lopez-Lopez et al., 1999 ; Ter Heijne et al., 2007).
Mme si quelques mdiateurs ont montr une bonne efficacit, ce mode de transfert a de
nombreux dsavantages qui en font aujourdhui un procd dsuet (Schrder, 2007).
Linconvnient majeur est quune PACM base sur ce type de transfert a un fonctionnement
limit dans le temps : les applications des PACMs se font souvent en continu, et ncessitent
un renouvellement permanent ou discontinu de mdiateurs ce qui augmenterait le cot de
fonctionnement de la PACM. Ceci pose des problmes technologiques et mme
environnementaux car les mdiateurs sont connus pour tre des composs toxiques (Lovley,
2006 ; Schrder, 2007).
26
Reimers et al., ont dcouvert, en 2001 (Reimers et al., 2001), un nouveau type de
PACM qui a rvolutionn la recherche portant sur les interfaces micro-organismes/matriaux.
Ils ont mis en lumire que les bactries du biofilm pouvaient transfrer les lectrons
directement lanode. Le transfert direct dlectrons entre une bactrie et une lectrode
implique un contact entre la cellule bactrienne et la surface de llectrode. Contrairement au
mcanisme indirect, aucun compos dissous, ajout dans le milieu, nintervient pour
transporter les lectrons de la bactrie vers llectrode. Cette nouvelle PACM fournit de
llectricit partir des sdiments marins, un environnement naturel renfermant une flore
indigne et de la matire organique naturelle. Elle est constitue dune anode enfonce dans
les sdiments marins connecte via une rsistance externe la cathode place au-dessus dans
leau de mer (Fig. 7). Les micro-organismes des sdiments lorigine de la production
dnergie sont adhrs sous forme de biofilm la surface de lanode (Tender et al, 2002 ;
Ryckelynk et al., 2005 ; Reimers et al., 2006, Lovley, 2006). Ce biofilm est qualifi
dlectroactif car il est capable de transfrer les lectrons issus de loxydation des produits de
fermentation au support mtallique sur lequel il se dveloppe. Outre les sdiments marins,
tous les environnements naturels ou renfermant une flore microbienne complexe peuvent
constituer une source potentielle de biofilms lectroactifs. Une thse effectue au Laboratoire
de Gnie Chimique (LGC) sest intresse au dveloppement de biofilms lectroactifs dans
divers environnements naturels (tels que le terreau et leau provenant de la mangrove
guyanaise) partir de la flore indigne, dvaluer llectroactivit disolats issus des biofilms
ainsi forms et de caractriser les mcanismes de transfert dlectrons entre les bactries et le
matriau (Parot, 2007, thse de doctorat).
En 2002, une quipe de chercheurs amricains ont publi leurs travaux sur les PACMs et en
particulier sur les phnomnes se produisant lanode (Tender et al., 2002), conjointement
des chercheurs europens ont dpos un brevet dmontrant quun acier inoxydable recouvert
par un biofilm marin possdait des proprits proches de celle du platine, quant la rduction
cathodique de loxygne (Bergel et Fron, Brevet 2002, extension internationale en 2003).
27
28
Figure 8 : Schma dune PACM utilisant un mcanisme de transfert direct. Les bactries
oxydent le substrat (glucose) en dioxyde de carbone via des voies classiques du mtabolisme
tel que le cycle dacide tricarboxylique (Lovley, 2006).
Le contact direct entre la cellule bactrienne et llectrode suppose que seules les bactries de
la premire couche soient lectroactives (Lovley, 2006). Rcemment, il sest avr que mme
les bactries une certaine distance de llectrode peuvent transfrer des lectrons la surface
de lanode grce des pili conducteurs qui forment des nano-fils conducteurs (Reguera et al.,
2005). Les pili sont connects aux cytochromes au travers desquels le transfert dlectrons
vers lextrieur seffectue. En effet, il a t montr que Geobacter sulfurreducens et
Shewanella oneidensis sont capables de rduire des oxydes de fer grce aux pili (Gorby et al.,
2006 ; Logan et al., 2006 ; Shrder, 2007). Nanmoins, les pilis existent galement chez des
bactries non mtallo-rductrices telles que Synechocystis PCC6803 et Pelotomaculum
thermopropionicum rvlant ainsi que les nano-fils conducteurs constituent une stratgie
commune de transfert lectronique (Gorby et al., 2006).
Actuellement, de nombreuses recherches sintressent la comprhension des mcanismes de
transfert direct, notamment chez G. sulfurreducens puisque cette espce produit les densits
de courant les plus leves par rapport nimporte quelle autre culture microbienne quelle
soit pure ou mixte (Richter et al., 2008). La comprhension de ces mcanismes dchange
dlectrons entre les bactries adhres et llectrode sest faite peu peu, grce des tudes
prcdentes ralises sur les mcanismes de transfert lectronique lors de la rduction
doxydes de mtaux comme les oxydes de fer ou de manganse (Lovley et al., 1987; Myers et
al., 1988; Lovley et al., 1996). En effet, ces oxydes tant insolubles, ils ne peuvent pntrer
dans la cellule, le transfert lectronique, de la mme faon quen prsence dune lectrode, est
donc extracellulaire. galement, les travaux raliss en biormdiation ont montr que G.
sulfurreducens peut rduire des mtaux toxiques comme U(VI), Tc(VII), Co(III) et V(V)
(Anderson et al., 2002 ; 2003 ; Holmes et al., 2002 ; Caccavo et al., 1994 ; Finneran et al.,
2002 ; Lloyd et al., 2001 ; Ortiz-Bernard et al., 2004 ; Butler et al., 2006). Dans ces cas de
transfert lectronique, limplication de cytochromes membranaires de type c et de pili
conducteurs a t prouve (Holmes et al. 2006). A noter que le gnome de G. sulfurreducens
renferme 111 cytochromes de types c ce qui constitue le nombre le plus lev de cytochromes
qui soit report dans un micro-organisme de squence connue (Ding et al., 2006). Les
cytochromes extra-membranaires S, OmcS, et dans une moindre mesure OmcE, sont
indispensables pour le transfert lectronique (Kim et al., 2008 a). Par contre, OmcB (export
par la protine rductrice doxyde G oxpG travers la membrane externe) est essentiel pour
29
Il est gnralement admis que le dpt de sulfure de fer induits par lactivit de
bactries sulfato-rductrices (BSR) et thiosulfato-rductrices (TRB) joue un rle cl dans la
corrosion anarobie des aciers. Malgr cette unanimit, les manipulations de laboratoire
peinent reproduire la corrosion des aciers faiblement allis observe en milieux industriel et
naturel ; bien plus, elles nexpliquent pas quel est llment qui dclenche la corrosion,
puisque les BSR, prsentes dans pratiquement tous les biofilms marins pais, ninduisent pas
systmatiquement de corrosion. Certaines tudes ont dmontres que les enzymes
hydrognases prsentes dans les BSR seraient indispensables, dautres le rcusent. Toutefois,
il nest pas encore possible de reproduire en laboratoire par un systme enzymatique simple
les phnomnes observs en milieu naturel en conditions anarobies, comme cela est fait
couramment en conditions arobies (Marconnet, 2007, thse de doctorat; Landoulsi, 2008
thse de doctorat).
Le premier objectif de ce travail de thse est didentifier leffet possible ou non
dhydrognases sur les processus de corrosion anarobie. Comme dvelopp dans le
paragraphe I.3, lexistence de diverses ractions cathodiques catalyses par des hydrognases
adsorbes sur diffrents matriaux a t dmontre. Toutefois, notre connaissance, il na pas
encore t reproduit de processus de corrosion catalyse par une hydrognase. Pour aller dans
ce sens, la partie de ltude consacre leffet de lhydrognase a utilis un acier doux, plus
sensible la corrosion que les aciers inoxydables utiliss au laboratoire pour les tudes
prcdentes. Les aciers doux sont en outre les plus concerns par les problmes de corrosion
anarobie au niveau industriel. Les travaux raliss prcdemment au laboratoire avaient mis
en uvre une hydrognase de Ralstonia eutropha, assez spcifique car NAD-dpendante.
Pour cette tude lhydrognase de Clostridium acetobutylicum a t utilise, qui prsente un
mcanisme catalytique plus simple et une activit intrinsque plus leve.
Bien que de nombreuses tudes aient dmontr lefficacit du transfert lectronique direct
dans le domaine des piles combustible, ce mcanisme na t voqu notre connaissance
quune seule fois dans le domaine de la biocorrosion. Dinh et al., (2004) ont suggr par des
mesures indirectes que deux isolats bactriens anarobies peuvent utiliser le fer comme
unique donneur dlectrons : un isolat Desulfobacterium-like qui rduit le sulfate et un isolat
30
31
Chapitre II
Matriels et mthodes
32
II.1.1.1. Nomenclature
Quatre types diffrents daciers ont t utiliss comme lectrodes de travail au cours
de cette thse : 1145 ; 403 ; 304L et 316L.
Plusieurs normes existent pour dsigner les aciers : AFNOR (Association Franaise de
Normalisation), AISI (American Iron and Steel Institute)
Dans la norme AFNOR, les symboles sont bass sur la composition chimique de lacier. Par
exemple, un acier au carbone faiblement alli est reprsent par les lettres XC suivi de la
composition en carbone. Ainsi lacier XC45 correspond un acier au carbone (XC) contenant
0,45% de carbone.
Dans la norme AISI, la dnomination des aciers est compose de chiffres. Le mme acier dans
la norme AISI, se nommera AISI 1145, le premier chiffre signifie riche en carbone, le second,
riche en sulfure et phosphore et les deux derniers chiffres correspondent au taux de carbone.
Pour les aciers inoxydables, lajout de la lettre L signifie low pour faible teneur en
carbone.
Le Tableau 1 reprsente les nomenclatures les plus courantes et les domaines dapplications
des quatre types daciers utiliss lors de cette thse.
AISI
AFNOR
Amricaine
Franaise
1145
403
304L
XC45
Z6C13
Z3CN18 09
Classification
Les qualits de l'inox
des nuances
Les domaines
d'utilisation
Au carbone
Faible rsistance la
corrosion
Industrie ptrolire,
usage gnral
Ferritique
Ductile, rsistant la
corrosion dans un
milieu neutre ou
faiblement chlorur
Industrie Chimique
Austnitique
33
Ni
0,1
9,68
10,69
C
0,46
0,08
0,02
0,03
Mn
0,65
1
1,43
1,41
Cu
0,11
0,35
0,33
Si
0,31
1
0,35
0,33
S
0,032
0,03
0,03
0,02
P
0,01
0,04
0,03
0,04
Mo
0,02
0,40
2,10
Cr
0,1
11,5/13,5
18,26
17,09
Les coupons dacier (hauteur = 1 cm et diamtre = 2 cm) sont enrobs dans une rsine tanche
(Resipoly Chrysor). La connexion lectrique a t assure par des tiges en titane galement
enduites de rsine.
Afin dobtenir des tats de surface identiques et des manipulations reproductibles, tous
les chantillons daciers utiliss ont t polis sur des disques abrasifs SiC de diffrentes
granulomtrie (P120, P180, P400, P800, P1200, P800/2400, et P1200/4000 (Lam Plan)) puis
rincs leau distille et bien schs avec un mouchoir en papier. Cette mthode mcanique
de prtraitement de surface a t favorise lissue dune autre mthode qui consiste
immerger les aciers durant 40 minutes dans un mlange dacide fluorhydrique (4%) et dacide
nitrique (20%) pour des raisons pratiques et par crainte que la rsine ne se dissolve dans
lacide favorisant ainsi la corrosion caverneuse et aussi pour viter la dposition de
pollutions issues de la rsine dcompose.
34
II.1.3. Racteurs
Hydrogenase
(hase)
Electrodes
Connections
lectriques
Membrane
de dialyse
35
Electrode de
rfrence (ECS)
Contre lectrode
Electrode de travail
1145
Les expriences avec lespce Geobacter ont t conduites dans des racteurs de 0,5 L
(Figure 3) ou de 2 L (Figure 4) contenant une quatre lectrodes de travail, une lectrode de
rfrence (Ag/AgCl) et une contre-lectrode (grille en platine). Le racteur a t clos
hermtiquement par une bague sertir en acier. Un flux de gaz N2+CO2 (80/20 v./v.) a t
maintenu en entre grce une canule en verre place en bas du racteur.
Bulleur
N2+CO2
Electrode de travail
Contre lectrode en platine
Electrode de rfrence Ag/AgCl
36
II.2. Milieux
37
II.3. Mthodes
Une des techniques lectrochimiques les plus simples permettant de suivre lvolution
dun matriau immerg dans un milieu, consiste mesurer la diffrence de potentiel entre le
matriau lui-mme et une lectrode de rfrence. La magnitude et le signe du potentiel de
corrosion dpendent de la composition du matriau, de la temprature et de lhydrodynamique
de llectrolyte (S.C Dexter et al., 1991). Les expriences lectrochimiques ont t ralises
laide de multi-potentiostats (modle VMP1, VMP2 ou VSP, Bio-Logic S.A., France) pilots
par le logiciel ECLab, version 9.20. De plus, un dispositif appel N-STAT (Bio-Logic S.A.) a
permis de suivre individuellement le potentiel de plusieurs lectrodes se trouvant dans un
mme racteur, dans les mmes conditions de culture.
38
39
Les biofilms dvelopps sur les lectrodes ont t marqus lacridine orange (0,03 %
en masse) pendant 10 min lobscurit. Lacridine orange marque la totalit des bactries
adhres la surface de llectrode. Les bactries colores par lacridine (Sigma : A6014)
sont excites (excitation = 490 nm) et mettent aux longueurs dondes suivantes (mission = 530
nm (vert) pour lADN; mission = 630 nm pour lARN (rouge)). Les chantillons ont ensuite
t rincs doucement leau distille puis schs lair.
Deux types de microscopes ont t utiliss pour acqurir les images en pifluorescence :
- Un systme confocal laser SP2 : un microscope confocal Leica tte de balayage AOTF,
comprenant 6 canaux TCS SP2 disponible au ple de biotechnologies vgtales, (CastanetTolosan-France IFR 40) avec un objectif 40x immersion eau (APO, O.N. 0.8). Un laser
Argon mettant 488 nm a t utilis pour lexcitation des colorants. Les images ont t
traites avec le logiciel LCS Light (Leica).
- Un systme Optigrid pour images 3D : un microscope Carl Zeiss Axiotech 100, quip
dune lampe mercure HBO 50/ac et dun filtre Zeiss 09 (excitation AP 450-490, rflexion pi
510, filtre LP 520) pour l'pifluorescence avec les objectifs 10x et 50x. L'acquisition est
ralise avec une camra numrique monochrome (volution VF). Les images sont ensuite
traites avec le logiciel Image-Pro Plus.
Ce microscope possde un logiciel intgr permettant lestimation du taux de recouvrement
bactriens sur les lectrodes.
Pour lobtention des images 3D : une grille horizontale place dans le trajet du systme
optique de microscope coupl un systme dacquisition et de traitement des images
(Systme OptiGrid), se dplace en direction z permettant lobtention dimages diffrents
plans focaux avec une grande rsolution. Le Systme Optigrid construit limage composite en
3D partir de toutes les images obtenues avec les diffrents plans focaux.
40
A-
B-
C-
Figure 5 : Microscopies balayage (A), confocal (B) et avec systme Optigrid pour
reconstruction dimages 3D (C), dun chantillon dacier 1145 aprs 24 h dimmersion dans
un milieu phosphate 100 mM, pH 7.2. La couche de vivianite forme est htrogne, poreuse
et paisse.
A-
B-
Figure 6 : Estimation du taux de recouvrement dun acier 304L immerg durant 10 jours
dans un milieu anarobie Geobacter (25 mM fumarate, 5 mM actate) en prsence de 5%
41
ABFigure 7: Visualisation par AFM dun chantillon dacier 304L aprs 20 jours dimmersion
dans un milieu anarobie Geobacter (0 mM actate, 25 mM fumarate) en absence de
42
ABFigure 8: Visualisation par AFM dun chantillon dacier 304L aprs 20 jours dimmersion
dans un milieu anarobie Geobacter (0 mM actate, 25 mM fumarate) en prsence de 5%
bactries (v./v.) et suivis par une courbe de piqration montrant une grosse piqre (8.A).
Reprsentation topographique de la piqre (8.B).
De plus, lAFM permet bien de distinguer ce qui est en-dessus de la surface de ce qui est endessous. En effet, la figure (9.A) reprsente des bactries, la figure (9.B) correspond un
zoom sur une des bactries. La reprsentation topographique (Fig. 9.C) prouve quil sagit
bien dune bactrie en-dessus de la surface (longueur L 0,11 nm).
A-
B-
43
CFigure 9: Visualisation par AFM dun chantillon dacier 304L aprs 20 jours dimmersion
dans un milieu anarobie Geobacter (10 mM actate, 0 mM fumarate) en prsence de 5%
bactries (v./v.) montrant plusieurs bactries. Zoom sur une bactrie (9.B). Reprsentation
topographique dune bactrie (9.C).
L-MDH
Oxaloactate + NADH + H+
(3)
Le dosage est bas sur la formation de NADH mesure par laugmentation de labsorbance
340 nm qui est corrle indirectement la concentration dacide actique consomm.
44
Lanalyse par torche plasma ou ICP- Spectroscopie (Inductively coupled plasma) est
une mthode physique danalyse permettant de doser la quasi-totalit des lments. Le dosage
du soufre et du fer totaux a t effectu, par une torche plasma JY-Ultima , pour les
expriences en prsence de lhydrognase afin dobserver si linjection de lhydrognase
augmentait la teneur de fer et de souffre dans le milieu puisque lenzyme renferme des centres
fer-soufre et pour valuer si lhydrognase augmentait la vitesse de dissolution du fer de
llectrode. Les chantillons sont prpars par une mthode appele minralisation par voie
humide ou dissolution acide qui consiste injecter lacide nitrique dans le plasma sous
forme darosol afin de dissoudre les particules solides de fer et de soufre et de permettre le
dosage de la totalit des ions.
45
Chapitre III
Rle de la [Fe]-hydrognase
de Clostridium acetobutylicum
dans la corrosion anarobie de
lacier au carbone
46
Les [Fe] hydrognases sont connues pour avoir une activit spcifique de production
de dihydrogne 100 fois suprieures celle des [Ni-Fe] hydrognases, cest pourquoi, une
[Fe] hydrognase a t choisie pour cette tude suspectant quelle pourrait engendrer plus de
corrosion que les [Ni-Fe] hydrognases prcdemment tudies au laboratoire.
Le travail effectu dans ce chapitre est prsent sous forme d'articles qui sont dj accepts ou
soumis pour tre publis. La mise au point et le paramtrage des mthodes utilises sont
dtaills dans la section travail prliminaire, ensuite les articles sont exposs accompagns
dun rsum des rsultats essentiels et des rsultats complmentaires.
Plusieurs types dtudes lectrochimiques, microscopiques et analytiques ont t conduits
pour tudier le rle de la [Fe]-hydrognase de Clostridium acetobutylicum sur la corrosion
anarobie de lacier au carbone 1145.
Des tudes lectrochimiques ont t menes en suivant lvolution du potentiel libre de
corrosion Eoc, en traant les courbes de Tafel afin dvaluer les potentiels de corrosion Ecorr
ainsi que les rsistances de polarisation et les courants de corrosion pour les aciers au carbone.
Ces mthodes sont dtailles dans la section III.3.1.
Des observations en microscopies balayage et pifluorescence avec systme Optigrid pour
construire des images en trois dimensions ont t ralises la suite des expriences
lectrochimiques afin de visualiser les surfaces des lectrodes. Une technique de nettoyage
(c.f. section III.3.2) a t mise au point afin de dbarrasser llectrode des produits de
corrosion pour identifier la prsence ou non de corrosion localise sous les dpts.
Des essais analytiques de mesures ioniques par la torche plasma ont t conduits la suite
des expriences lectrochimiques afin danalyser la teneur de la solution en fer et en soufre.
L'influence de diffrents paramtres a t galement tudie tels que la composition de la
solution tampon, linfluence de la dsoxygnation, les tats de lenzyme (dsactive par
loxygne ou dnature par chauffage 100C).
Les hydrognases ont t dcouvertes par Stephenson et al., en 1931 dans les bactries
du colon de divers organismes : mthanogniques, actogniques, les bactries rductrices de
sulfate ou de nitrate, les archaea anarobiques, les rhizobia, les protozoaires, les champignons
et les algues anarobies. Les hydrognases sont gnralement classes en trois catgories
suivant la composition de leur centre actif : les [NiFe] qui incluent la famille des [NiFeSe]
hydrognases, les [Fe] hydrognases et les hydrognases sans mtaux de transitions (Evans et
al., 2003 ; Mertens et al., 2004).
Les [NiFe] sont majoritairement des htrodimres. Elles sont gnralement
impliques dans la consommation dhydrogne. Elles possdent deux sous-units et
. La sous-unit possde latome de nickel, plusieurs centres [4Fe-4S] et un centre
[3Fe-4S]. La sous-unit est trs riche en cystine et possde de nombreux centres
fer-soufre dont un [4Fe-4S] proche du centre actif.
47
Les hydrognases appeles sans mtaux de transitions bien que des tudes rcentes
viennent de dmontrer que ces hydrognases renferment du fer et cobalt (Pardo et al.,
2006 ; Lyon et al., 2004).
Les [Fe] hydrognases sont le plus souvent des monomres qui incluent la fois le
centre catalytique et le site de transfert lectronique. Elles sont trs sensibles
loxygne mais sont 10 100 fois plus actives que les [Ni-Fe] hydrognases, elles sont
souvent utilises dans la production dhydrogne.
48
La mesure des rsistances de polarisation Rp par les logiciels disponibles sur les
mulptipotentiostats du laboratoire (VMP, VSP1, VSP2) peut paratre extrmement simple
toutefois la dcouverte de certains bugs nous a conduits approfondir les bases de la mthode
de mesure.
Les mesures de Rp donnent une mesure instantane de la vitesse de corrosion. Rp est linverse
de la pente de la courbe de polarisation au voisinage du potentiel de corrosion.
En tout point de la courbe de polarisation, le courant global est la somme des courants
anodiques (ia) et cathodique (ic) des ractions partielles (Fig. 4). Lquation complte suivant
le modle de Butler-Volmer en absence de transfert de matire scrit :
RT
(1)
49
aF
RT
et c =
(2)
(3)
c F
RT
a et c sont appeles constantes de Tafel et dfinies comme linverse des pentes des courbes
anodiques et cathodiques partielles sur la reprsentation dite de Tafel de la courbe de
polarisation (log i = f (E)) dans des rgions un peu loignes de Ecorr (Fig. 2).
Au voisinage de Ecorr, le courant global is peut tre linaris en substituant dans lquation (1),
la fonction exponentielle exp x (x 0) par x, la formule de Stern-Geary scrit alors:
50
c F
F
is = ia + ic = icorr a ( E Ecorr )
( E Ecorr )
RT
RT
(4)
is = icorr (E - Ecorr) (1 / a + 1 / c)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
Deux mthodes sont proposes dans le logiciel du multipotentiostat pour dterminer les
rsistances de polarisation (Rp), les densits de courants et les potentiels de corrosion (Ecorr et
icorr). La premire mthode sest avre trs spcifique pour certains types de mtaux et sa
mise en place lgrement fastidieuse. La deuxime mthode a t privilgie pour la suite de
nos expriences avec lhydrognase.
-1re mthode : Elle consiste tracer la courbe de polarisation au voisinage du potentiel de
circuit ouvert en imposant deux potentiels du ct anodique (e1 et e2) et deux potentiels du
ct cathodique (e3 et e4) (Fig. 3.A) ce qui dfinit deux droites anodique et cathodique dont
les pentes correspondent aux rsistances de polarisation anodique (Rp anodique Eq. 9), et
cathodique (Rp cathodique Eq. 10)
Rp anodique = (e2 e1) / (i2 i1)
(9)
(10)
La mesure de Rp se fait en gnral avec 400 500 points de mesure au total avec :
e1= Eoc+10 mV et e2 = Eoc+20 mV, e3 = Eoc-10 mV et e4 = Eoc-20 mV
Les courants correspondants (Fig 3.B) sont i1, i2, i3 et i4 qui sont les moyennes des courants
obtenus sur les paliers de potentiels respectifs.
Le logiciel propose une valuation du courant de corrosion icorr par lintermdiaire de
lquation (Eq.11) mise au point par le fournisseur en collaboration avec un industriel pour le
cas particulier de laluminium bross.
icorr =
i1i3
i2i4 4i1i3
(11)
Comme les matriaux utiliss au cours de ce travail de thse sont diffrents, nous restons
mfiants quant lutilisation de cette quation pour dterminer icorr.
51
A-
BFigure 3 : Dtermination de Rp par le trac des paliers pour E = f(t) (A) et I = f(t) (B) pour
un acier inoxydable 304 L immerg dans un milieu Geobacter anarobie.
Cette mthode a t utilise uniquement pour la dtermination des Rp dans les expriences
avec Geobacter sulfurreducens (Fig. 3 A, B).
-2me mthode : Dans cette mthode, Rp, est dtermine par linverse de la pente
correspondant la partie linaire de la courbe i = f (E) au voisinage de Ecorr daprs lquation
de Stern-Geary.
La dtermination de Rp est base sur un balayage de potentiel avec une vitesse dE/dt = 0,2
mV/s de Einitial = -10 mV par rapport Eoc EL = +20 mV par rapport Einitial par exemple.
52
Figure 4 : Evaluation de Ecorr, icorr, a et c par le trac de log i = f (E) pour un acier 1145
immerg durant 24h dans une solution anarobie de 10 mM phosphate pH 7,2 en prsence
dhydrognase.
53
Figure 5: Evaluation de Rp par le trac de I = f (E) pour un acier 1145 immerg durant 24h
dans une solution anarobie de phosphate, pH 7,2. La droite est obtenue par linarisation de
la courbe de Tafel au voisinage de Ecorr.
54
Afin dliminer les dpts pour valuer la prsence de corrosion par piqres, les
chantillons ont t nettoys. Le nettoyage des coupons daciers a t ralis aux ultrasons,
temprature ambiante, durant 30 secondes, dans une solution de nettoyage renfermant 50% en
volume dacide chlorhydrique (HCl) (36%) et 5 g/L dhexamthylnettramine (C6H12N4) qui
est un inhibiteur de corrosion. Les lectrodes ont t ensuite rinces en les immergeant dans
un bcher contenant de leau distille, aux ultrasons, temprature ambiante et schs. Les
figures (6.A) et (6.B) reprsentent un acier 1145 immerg durant 24h dans un milieu
phosphate 100 mM, pH 8. Lensemble des htrognits visibles sur la figure (6.A) a disparu
aprs nettoyage (Fig. 6.C) confirmant que ce sont des dpts. Toutefois certains profils de
corrosion comme sur la figure (6.B) peuvent subsister (coin infrieur gauche de la figure 6.C)
indiquant quelques attaques peu importantes.
A-
B-
C-
Figure 6 : Microscopie dun acier 1145, immerg durant 24h, dans un milieu phosphate 100
mM, pH 8, en absence doxygne. A et B avant nettoyage. C aprs nettoyage. (Grossissement
x 100).
Les figures 7 A, B et C reprsentent respectivement les photos obtenues par microscopies
balayage, confocal et pifluorescence avec systme Optigrid pour obtenir des
reprsentations en 3D, dun chantillon dacier 1145 aprs 24 h dimmersion dans un milieu
phosphate 100 mM, pH 7,2. Une couche htrogne est observe dans la figure 7.A. La figure
(7.B) confirme bien que la couche est htrogne.
A-
B-
C-
Figure 7 : Microscopies balayage (A), confocal (B) et avec systme Optigrid pour
reconstruction dimages 3D (C), dun chantillon dacier 1145 aprs 24 h dimmersion dans
un milieu phosphate 100 mM, pH 7,2. La couche de vivianite forme est htrogne, poreuse
et paisse.
55
A-
B-
2 H+
H2
2H+
MV+ ou NAD+/H+
MV2+ ou NADH
hydrognase
56
(12)
(13)
Ce qui fait apparatre les espces phosphates comme de remarquables catalyseurs homognes
de la rduction du proton. La limite cintique est ainsi leve par le rle catalytique des espces
phosphates et dans ce cas la consommation de lhydrogne form peut avoir un effet
dacclration sur la vitesse globale du processus cathodique, suivant le schma 10.
2e-
2H2PO42HPO42- + H2
2H+
MV+ ou NAD+/H+
MV2+ ou NADH
: Hydrognase
Afin de saffranchir des mcanismes qui peuvent tre voqus en prsence dun accepteur
final dlectrons en solution, les manipulations ont t conduites en absence daccepteur final.
57
2 H+
H2
: Hydrognase
Toutes les manipulations dcrites et discutes dans les 3 publications prsentes dans les
paragraphes III.5 III.7 ont t ralises dans ces conditions. Toutefois, dans le but de vrifier
si la prsence dun accepteur final dlectrons couple la prsence despces phosphates
augmenterait encore la corrosion induite par lhydrognase de C. acetobutylicum suivant le
schma de la figure 10, des expriences supplmentaires ont t ralises avec de la
ferrdoxine (Fd) oxyde en solution. Ces expriences nont pas fait lobjet de publication et
sont dcrites dans le paragraphe III.8.
58
59
60
61
Laboratoire de Gnie Chimique (LGC) CNRS-INPT, 5 rue Paulin Talabot BP 1301, 31106
Toulouse, France
b
Laboratoire dIngnierie des Systmes Biologiques et des Procds (LISBP) CNRS-INSA,
135 Avenue de Rangueil, 31077 Toulouse, France
Abstract
1. Introduction
Corrosion costs 4% of the GNP of industrialized countries out of which 10% are due
to biocorrosion [1]. It is now commonly agreed that sulfate-reducing bacteria and thiosulfate
reducing bacteria (SRB/TRB) are the main causes of anaerobic Microbially Influenced
Corrosion (MIC) [2-6]. Many mechanisms have been proposed to explain anaerobic MIC by
SRB and TRB: precipitation of iron sulphide, which next catalyses proton reduction into
molecular hydrogen and acts as a cathode in a galvanic couple with metallic iron; anodic
depolarization resulting from the local acidification at the anode [7]; possible production of
corrosive phosphides containing metabolite PH3 that enhances the dissolution of metal under
anaerobic conditions [8]; metal ion complexation by extra cellular polymer substances [9];
diminution of the pH and metabolism of reducing thiosulfate to sulphide [10].
62
HASE
Mn+ + ne-
HASE
2H+ + 2e-
They are divided into 3 groups according to the composition of their active site: [NiFe], [Fe]
and transition metal free hydrogenases [17-18]. The [NiFe] and [Fe] hydrogenases constitute
the vast majority and both contain a binuclear metal active site. The [NiFe] hydrogenases
have a minimum of two subunits: the catalytic site that contains the active site, and the
electron transferring subunit that contains one or more iron-sulfur centres. The [Fe]hydrogenases may be constituted by only one subunit, which may include the catalytic and
electron transferring domains [19]. [Fe]-hydrogenases are known to have 100 times more H2
production specific activity than [NiFe]-hydrogenases [20], therefore a [Fe]-hydrogenase
from Clostridium was chosen here, suspecting that it might be more effective in MIC than the
[NiFe]-hydrogenase studied previously. The aim of this work was to determine the possible
influence of this enzyme on anaerobic MIC of mild steel. In the first phase of the study, two
short-circuited mild steel electrodes were exposed to the same phosphate solution and
hydrogenase was retained on the surface of only one electrode thanks to a dialysis membrane.
It was expected that the galvanic current between both electrodes gives a measure of the
electrochemical disturbance induced by the presence of hydrogenase on the surface of one
electrode only. In the second phase, experiments were conducted with a single electrode in
order to avoid any disturbance due to the deoxygenating phase. The influence of the buffer
solutions phosphate and Tris-HCl and possible mechanisms were discussed. The surface
deposits on the electrodes were examined and the influence of the buffer was also
investigated.
63
64
Two identical XC45 mild steel electrodes were set up in the galvanic cell and coupled
through a picoamperemeter. Both compartments A and B were filled with 100 mM phosphate
solution pH 8.0, and oxygen was removed by a continuous nitrogen flow in compartment B.
The potential recorded as a function of time (Figure 2.A) always showed an abrupt decrease
by 500 mV that occurred at different times. The galvanic current (Figure 2.B) firstly
fluctuated between positive values (maximum +2.2 A cm-) and decreased in most of the
time to negative values after 15 hours (minimum value -1.36 A cm- after 24 hours). The
positive values indicated that electrons flowed in the external electrical circuit from electrode
B to A, which means that electrode A acted as a cathode. At the end of the experiences, both
electrodes appeared visually similar: they were covered by a light gray non conductive film
that turned into bluish-green with exposure to air. SEM pictures indicated that this deposit
was uniform on the whole surface (Figure 3), and by EDX analysis, we assumed that it was
vivianite (Fe3(PO4)2, 8H2O). Previous studies carried out in phosphate buffer solutions have
also observed such a deposit, which is known to protect against corrosion [22].
Fig. 2. Evolutions of the potential (A) and the galvanic current (B) as a function of time
obtained with two XC45 coupled electrodes in a 100 mM phosphate solution pH 8.0, under
deoxygenation but without hydrogenase addition.
65
Fig. 3. SEM analysis and EDX results for (A and A) XC45 electrode after polishing and (B
and B) XC45 electrode after 24 h immersion in 100mM phosphate solution pH 8.0, under
deoxygenation but without hydrogenase addition.
A series of five experiments was conducted by injecting 23 U mL-1 hydrogenase from
Clostridium acetobutylicum in the compartment A. Hydrogenase was introduced at 1 hour,
before the potential decreased (Figure 4). In two cases, the galvanic current got positive
values in the same range as in the absence of hydrogenase. This behaviour was similar to that
observed in the absence of the enzyme. On the contrary, in three other cases the current
decreased toward more negative value than in the absence of hydrogenase: a minimum value
around -5.7 A cm-2 was obtained. After 24 hours, both electrodes were covered by a
vivianite deposit, which was thicker on the coupon from compartment A. Actually, the
thickness of the vivianite deposit was roughly evaluated by polishing the coupons, and it was
significantly harder and longer to polish the electrodes from compartment A than the
electrodes from compartment B.
66
Fig. 5. Evolutions of the potential (A) and the galvanic current (B) as a function of time
obtained with two XC45 electrodes in a 100mM phosphate solution pH 8.0 in the presence of
23UmL1. Hydrogenase was injected at 15 min, after the potential decreased.
(A)
(A)
67
(B )
Fig. 6. Pictures of the XC45 carbon steel electrodes from the experiment reported in Fig. 5:
100mM phosphate solution pH 8.0, hydrogenase 23UmL1 in compartment A, injected at 15
min, after the potential decreased. (A) Electrode from compartment A. (A) Same electrode
after polishing with SiC papers. (B) Electrode from compartment B, without enzyme.
In order to avoid the bad controlled potential drop, which was certainly due to the
deoxygenating phase, experiments were performed with only one coupon in a classic
electrochemical cell in phosphate buffer 10 mM pH 8.0 instead of 100 mM in order to slow
down the deposition of vivianite which protects from corrosion. Evolution of the free
potential with respect to a SCE reference was recorded as a function of time (Figure 7). When
the nitrogen flow was put on only after 20 hours (experiment 1), the free potential fluctuated
in a large range and started to decrease definitively after 21 hours until it reached -0.76 V
versus SCE at 24 hours. When a strong nitrogen flow was put on just at the beginning of the
experiment (experiments 2 and 3), the potential dropped down in a few minutes to the lowest
value. It remained stable around -0.77V versus SCE in experiment 3. In experiment 2 the
nitrogen flow was stopped after 2 hours, and the free potential increased continuously back to
the initial value around -0.27 V versus SCE. When the nitrogen flow was put on, 30 minutes
before submerging the working electrode (experiments 4 and 5), the potential got to its lowest
value since the beginning and remained stable nearby -0.76 V versus ECS. It fluctuated a little
whenever any change in the bubbling occurred.
Fig. 7. Free potential as a function of time for XC45 carbon steel electrodes in 10mM
phosphate solution pH 8.0, with deoxygenating at different times.
These experiments confirmed that the potential was directly controlled by the deoxygenating
process. It can be suspected that in the previous experiments traces of oxygen remained in
compartment A, and the differences observed in the times of the potential decrease
corresponded to the time that was required to deoxygenate completely this compartment
68
69
Fig. 8. Free potential as a function of time for XC45 carbon steel electrode in 100mM
phosphate solution pH 7.2, with or without addition of hydrogenase. Fluctuations of 10mV
that appear on the graph each 4 h are due to polarization resistance measurements.
After 24 hours, the electrodes in the presence of hydrogenase showed significant general
corrosion in addition to a thick vivianite deposit. After removing the vivianite deposit by
polishing, pits of heterogeneous corrosion were also observed. Electrodes in the absence of
hydrogenase were only covered by a vivianite layer (Figure 9).
(A)
(B)
Fig. 9. SEM pictures of XC45 carbon steel electrodes after 24 h in 100mM phosphate solution
pH 7.2: (A) with 2.5UmL1 hydrogenase; (B) without hydrogenase.
For enzymatic H2 production, the C. acetobutylicum hydrogenase is generally implemented in
100 mM Tris HCl buffer pH 8.0, with 150 mM NaCl, 2 mM sodium dithionite and 2,5 mM
desthiobiotine. Preliminary experiments showed that this medium was highly corrosive
because of the presence of NaCl and the compounds added to stabilize the enzyme
(destiobiotine) and to protect it from oxygen (dithionite). These compounds were
consequently removed, taking great care to avoid any contact of the enzyme with oxygen, and
using only enzyme samples freshly prepared. Experiments were done in the classical
electrochemical cell using 50 mM of Tris HCl pH 6.3. This pH value is generally used to
favour H2 production. When 4.2 U mL-1 hydrogenase was added, the potential increased fast
following the injection, up to 70 mV (Figure 10). After 24 hours, general corrosion showing a
reddish deposit was clearly present on the coupons in contact with hydrogenase (Figure 11).
70
Fig. 10. Free potential as a function of time for XC45 carbon steel electrode in TrisHCl
50mM, pH 6.3, with or without hydrogenase added.
(A)
(B)
Fig. 11. Pictures of XC45 carbon steel electrodes after 24 h in TrisHCl 50mM, pH 6.3: (A)
with 4.2UmL1 hydrogenase; (B) without hydrogenase.
Corrosion of carbon steels induced by the presence of hydrogenase has already been reported
by different authors. Most previous experiments have been implemented in phosphate
solutions, and phosphate species have been demonstrated to be directly involved in corrosion
enhancement through direct deprotonation on the steels surfaces as in scheme A of Figure 12
[24]. The cathodic deprotonation reaction produces dihydrogen in a reversible way [7] and the
hydrogenase enhances corrosion by consuming the dihydrogen produced. For this scheme be
effective, the presence of a final electron acceptor (e.g. an organic dye [13] or NAD+ [24]) is
required. On the contrary, there was no such final electron acceptor in the experiments
reported here, and this scheme cannot be evoked. Moreover, the last series showed strong
corrosion in the absence of phosphate species. As a conclusion, the presence of phosphate
species was not required here for corrosion to occur, on the contrary its presence made the
process more complex because of the deposit of protective compounds like vivianite. The sole
mechanism that can explain the corrosion observed here is the catalysis by adsorbed
hydrogenase of the direct reduction of proton or solvent, as schematized in Figure 12.B. This
mechanism has already been demonstrated by electrochemical measures and it has been
suspected to be able to enhance corrosion of steels but, to our knowledge, this was here the
first time that it was proved to be able to provoke actual corrosion.
No such clear demonstration has been obtained yet with the NAD-dependent [NiFe]hydrogenase from R. eutropha. C. acetobutylicum [Fe]-hydrogenase and R. eutropha [NiFe]hydrogenase share some resemblances in the H2-activating bi-nucleic centers as shown by
infrared spectroscopy [25], and the amino acid sequences encoding the binding sites of at
least two [4Fe-4S] clusters are alike. Nevertheless, C. acetobutylicum [Fe]-hydrogenase has
71
(A)
(B)
Fig. 12. Possible cathode reactions catalysed by hydrogenase that may enhance corrosion.
4. Conclusion
Two mechanisms have been suggested in the literature to explain the involvement of
hydrogenase in corrosion of steels. One is based on the cathodic deprotonation of phosphate
species, which is reversible and can so be accelerated by the hydrogenase-catalysed
consumption of the dihydrogen produced. The other assumed the direct catalysis of
proton/solvent reduction by adsorbed hydrogenase. Here the [Fe]-hydrogenase from
Clostridium was revealed highly efficient according to the second mechanism. To our
knowledge, it was the first clear demonstration that a free hydrogenase can enhance corrosion
in the absence of phosphate species and in the absence of any final electron acceptor, it means
in conditions similar to the real conditions that can be encountered inside natural biofilms.
As a conclusion, this study established the efficiency of hydrogenase in enhancing corrosion
through the direct catalysis of proton/water reduction, and it suggests that the intrinsic activity
of hydrogenases may be a key parameter with the view to assess biocorrosion risks.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by grants from CNRS-DRI. It was a part of network ERG+
Surfaces of materials in living environments (SMILE). We would like to thank Luc
Etcheverry (LGC) for his technical support and Marie-Line De Solan (LGC) for SEM
facilities.
72
73
74
75
76
(3)
Two different kinds of mechanisms have been suggested in the literature to explain the effect
of free hydrogenases on the corrosion of steels. One is based on an intimate relation between
hydrogenase and phosphate species, the other assumes direct catalysis of proton/water
reduction by the adsorbed enzyme. The synergetic effect of hydrogenase and phosphate
species on corrosion was first pointed out by Bryant and Laishley [15], who observed that
hydrogenase increased the corrosion rate of mild steel when used in a phosphate solution.
These authors proposed a direct reaction between steel and phosphate ions:
77
78
Mild steel 1145 coupons were immersed in phosphate buffer 10 mM, pH 7.2 for 24 hours.
The electrochemical cell was hermetically closed and great care was taken to bring the steel
coupon into contact with the solution only after it had been strictly deoxygenated (see the
79
Fig. 1. Open circuit potential versus time for 1145 carbon steel electrode in 10 mM phosphate
solution pH 7.2, with or without addition of hydrogenase. Fluctuations of +/-10 mV that
appeared on the graph every four hours were due to polarisation resistance measurements.
80
(A)
(C)
(B)
(D)
Fig. 2. Photos of 1145 carbon steel after 24 hours immersion in anaerobic 10 mM phosphate
solution pH 7.2 in the absence of hydrogenase (A) and in the presence of 30 L hydrogenase
(B), 50 L hydrogenase (C) and 80 L hydrogenase (D).
Elements
Atomic %
Fe
57+9
O
31+5
P
3+1
C
-
K
0.5+1
Cl
2+1
Mn
-
Na
-
Table 1. EDX analysis of 1145 carbon steel surface after 24 hours' immersion in anaerobic 10
mM phosphate solution, pH 7.2, in the absence of hydrogenase.
As shown in figure 1, addition of hydrogenase caused a fast increase in potential. Most of the
potential ennoblement occurred during the first hour after injection of the enzyme. Full
potential ennoblement values (E) were measured by subtracting the value of the free
potential just before the hydrogenase injecton (t = 15 minutes) from the value at t = 7.50 h
(before the polarisation resistance measurement). E depended on the amount of hydrogenase
injected and increased from 8 mV for 30 L hydrogenase to 63 mV for 80 L (Table 2). The
thickness and the aspect of the deposits obtained after 24 hours were also clearly dependent
on the amount of hydrogenase. With 30 L hydrogenase, the coupon was covered with a
bluish mineral that indicated a marked presence of vivianite (Fe3(PO4)2, 8H2O). A few pits
that turned red when exposed to air also indicated the presence of slight local corrosion
(Figure 2.B). Addition of 50 L hydrogenase ennobled the free potential up to 43 mV and the
electrode was covered by a thick grey deposit (figure 2.C). 80 L hydrogenase led to a green
deposit that was unstable and turned red in contact with air, corresponding to a large
production of iron hydroxides Fe(OH)2 and Fe(OH)3 (Figure 3.D) [33].
SEM micrography of the electrode surface in the absence of hydrogenase shows a grey
surface with the presence of crystals (Figure 3).
81
Fig. 3. SEM micrograph for 1145 carbon steel after 24 hours' immersion in an anaerobic 10
mM phosphate solution pH 7.2, in the absence of hydrogenase.
Hydrogenase amount
0L
30L
50L
80L
30L-oxygenated
30L-heated
(mV)
1
8
48
63
7
26
Table 2: Potential ennoblement and visual aspect of the surface of 1145 carbon steel coupons
at the end of the experiments (time = 24 hours) in anaerobic 10 mM phosphate solution pH
7.2, with or without hydrogenase.
82
(A)
(B)
Fig. 4. SEM micrographs of 1145 carbon steel surface after 24 hours' immersion in anaerobic
10 mM phosphate solution pH 7.2 containing 80 L hydrogenase.
Elements
Atomic %
Fe
61+17
O
16+10
P
-
C
22+21
K
-
Cl
1+1
Mn
-
Na
-
Table 3. EDX analysis of 1145 carbon steel surface after 24 hours' immersion in anaerobic 10
mM phosphate solution pH 7.2 containing 80 L hydrogenase.
Similar experiments were performed with hydrogenase that was previously deactivated by
exposure to air for 2h30min or denatured by heating the aliquot at 100C for 30 minutes until
it boiled (Figure 5).
Fig. 5. Variation of the open circuit potential versus time for 1145 carbon steel coupons in 10
mM phosphate solution pH 7.2, with hydrogenase (in different states) or without
hydrogenase. Fluctuations of +/-10 mV that appear every four hours were due to polarisation
resistance measurements.
83
Fig.6. Photo and SEM micrograph of 1145 carbon steel surface after 24 hours' immersion in
anaerobic 10 mM phosphate solution pH 7.2 in the presence of 30 L hydrogenase
deactivated by air.
Addition of 30 L hydrogenase denatured by heating increased the free potential by 26 mV.
At the end of the experiment, the mild steel electrode surface was covered by a thick nonconductive deposit with cracks spreading all over the layer (Figure 7).
Fig. 7. Photo and SEM micrograph of 1145 carbon steel surface after 24 hours' immersion in
anaerobic 10 mM phosphate solution pH 7.2 in the presence of 30 L heated hydrogenase.
The surface was analysed at two different positions: on the upper side of the deposit (figure 8
spot A) and in the fissure (Figure 8 spot B).
84
Fig. 8. SEM micrograph of 1145 carbon steel surface after 24 hours' immersion in anaerobic
10 mM phosphate solution pH 7.2 in the presence of 30 L heated hydrogenase. The markers
indicate the positions where the EDX analyses were performed.
Elements
Fe
Cl
Mn
Na
Atomic %
(position A)
Atomic %
(position B)
45
40
0.5
0.5
83
14
Table 4. EDX analysis of the deposit obtained on 1145 carbon steel after 24 hours' immersion
in anaerobic 10 mM phosphate solution pH 7.2 in the presence of 30 L heated hydrogenase
at positions A and B defined in Figure 8.
EDX analysis indicated that the amount of iron on the top of the layer Fe (45 %) was around
half that in the crack Fe (83 %). Phosphorous was present in the deposit (6 %) whereas it was
not detected in the fissure. These data suggest that the deposit was made up of corrosion
products mixed with vivianite, while only iron and iron hydroxides/oxides were present inside
the cracks. The formation of a heterogeneous protective layer concentrated the corrosion in
the fissure.
Every four hours, a potential scan was performed at 0.2 mV s-1 around the open circuit
potential, in the range [Eoc - 10, Eoc + 10] mV. The complete Tafel equation for the anodic and
cathodic reactions is:
RT
RT
where a and c are the anodic and cathodic transfer coefficients, respectively, icorr is the
corrosion current density and Ecorr the corrosion potential [34].
Away from Ecorr, only the anodic or the cathodic contribution to the global current remains.
Thus equation (1) can be simplified to:
At the anodic side: is = icorr exp [(E-Ecorr) / a]
At the cathodic side: is = - icorr exp [- (E-Ecorr) / c]
F
F
with Tafel constant : a = a and c = c
RT
RT
(8)
(9)
85
Figure 9: Example of evaluation of Ecorr, icorr, a et c by plotting log i = f (E) for 1145
carbon steel during immersion in anaerobic 10 mM phosphate solution pH 7.2 in the presence
of 30 L of hydrogenase.
In the vicinity of Ecorr, the global current is could be linearised. Substituting the exponential
function exp[x] (x0) with x, the Stern-Geary formula results in:
c F
F
is = ia + ic = icorr a ( E Ecorr )
( E Ecorr )
RT
RT
(10)
is = icorr (E - Ecorr) (1 / a + 1 / c)
(11)
(12)
With B = (a c) / 2.303 (a + c)
(13)
Software based on this Stern-Geary model was used to determine the polarisation resistances
Rp (Table 6) from the experimental current-potential measurements (Figure 10).
86
Figure 10: Example of evaluation of Rp by plotting I = f (E) for 1145 carbon steel during
immersion in anaerobic 10 mM phosphate solution pH 7.2 in the presence of 30 L of
hydrogenase.
Hydrogenase amount
Without hydrogenase
(average
of
7
experiments)
With 30 L hydrogenase
0h
1.9+0.6
2h
4h
8h
12 h
16 h
1.6+0.3 1.6+0.5 1.6+0.5 1.5+0.3 1.6+0.4
20 h
1.6+0.4
0.3
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4
With 50 L hydrogenase
With 80 L hydrogenase
With 30 L heated
hydrogenase
1.0
0.6
3.2
0.7
0.5
1.9
0.4
0.5
1.0
0.6
0.4
0.8
0.7
0.4
0.6
With 30 L oxygenated
hydrogenase
0.6
0.6
0.5
0.5
0.4
Table 5. Corrosion current density (A.cm-) for 1145 carbon steel during immersion in
anaerobic 10 mM phosphate solution pH 7.2, with or without hydrogenase.
Seven control experiments performed without hydrogenase showed identical icorr values,
which remained stable. In particular, no significant modification of icorr values was observed
after 2h of immersion. An icorr value around 1.6 A.cm- (average value from seven
experiments) can consequently be taken as a good assessment of the stable corrosion current
density that corresponded to the clean mild-steel coupons in the 10 mM phosphate solution
pH 7.2 used here. For the further experiments performed with hydrogenase, Tafel plots were
recorded starting from t = 4 hours. No measurements were made earlier in order to avoid any
possible disturbance of the surface state of the coupons. In the presence of the hydrogenase,
icorr values remained almost constant in all cases, except for the heated hydrogenase. These
87
Hydrogenase
amount
0L
30L
50L
80L
30Loxygenated
30L-heated
Rp
at 4h
(cm)
1496
6792
2487
3721
4125
Rp
at 8h
(cm)
1753
6092
2975
6026
4451
c at 4h
(mV/decade)
c at 8h
(mV/decade)
a at 4h
(mV/decade)
a at 8h
(mV/decade)
12
9
10
9
10
3
13
10
10
15
10
9
15
9
12
9
13
16
11
12
900
1144
19
10
12
88
89
Conclusion
Hydrogenase from Clostridium acetobutylicum confirmed its high efficiency in enhancing
corrosion of mild steel. Using less concentrated phosphate solution than in the previous,
preliminary work allowed a graduated effect of hydrogenase to be pointed out, which
increased with its concentration in solution. The corrosive properties proved not to be linked
to the catalytic activity of the protein but it can be assumed that the catalysis of the cathodic
proton reduction was controlled by the presence of iron-sulphur clusters that had to be in the
suitable oxidation state. Specific iron clusters still embedded in the protein shell, or released
from the protein and adsorbed on the metal surface through amino acid residues or some
90
References
91
[28] L. Girbal, G. Von Abendroth, M. Winkler, P.M.C. Benton, I. Meynial-Salles, C Croux, J.W.
Peters, T. Happe, P. Soucaille, Applied Environmental Microbiology 71 (2005) 2777.
92
A soumettre
93
Les rsultats prsents ci-dessous constituent une bauche darticle 3. Ils ont permis
une meilleure comprhension du rle de lhydrognase de C. acetobutylicum sur la corrosion
anarobie de lacier doux 1145 grce des mesures lectrochimiques (mesure du potentiel de
circuit ouvert Eoc, des rsistances de polarisation, des densits de courants) et microscopiques
(analyse par microscopies balayage couple une analyse EDX, confocale et
pifluorescence avec systme Optigrid pour reconstruction dimages 3D) effectues dans
deux milieux diffrents : un milieu phosphate 100 mM pH 7,2 et un milieu Tris HCl 50 mM
pH 6,3. Lenzyme a t tudie sous tous ses tats : active, dsactive par loxygne ou
dnature par chauffage.
Les rsultats ont permis de montrer que :
Quel que soit le milieu, linjection de lenzyme induit un anoblissement de Eoc qui
augmente avec laugmentation de la quantit denzyme injecte. Eoc reste constant en
absence denzyme.
Dans le milieu phosphate 100 mM pH 7,2 :
Linjection de lenzyme induit la formation dun dpt pais (environ 80 m), trs
htrogne. Le nettoyage des produits de corrosion et lobservation par microscopies
permet didentifier que les htrognits sont dans la couche de vivianite et quil ne
sagit pas de piqres. Les mesures de Rp donnent une information sur la composition
du dpt.
94
95
Experimental section
96
Results
97
Fig. 1. Free potential as a function of time for 1145 carbon steel electrode in an anaerobic 100
mM phosphate buffer pH 7.2, with or without addition of hydrogenase (hase). Fluctuations of
+/-10 mV that appear on the graph every four hours are due to polarization resistance
measurements.
Every four hours Tafel plots were recorded at potential scan rate of 0.2 mV s-1 around the
open circuit potential, in the range [Eoc - 10, Eoc + 10] mV (Fig. 2). Six control experiments
performed without hydrogenase showed identical Rp and icorr values, which slowly increased
in a similar way. No significant modification was observed between the values measured at
time 2 h (Rp = 519 cm2 and icorr = 4.6 A.cm-2 average values) after immersing the coupon
into the deoxygenated solution and the values measured at times t = 4 h (Rp = 622 cm2 and
icorr = 4.4 A.cm-2) and t = 8 h (Rp = 827 cm2 and icorr = 3.6 A.cm-2) (average values from
six experiments). For the further experiments performed with hydrogenase, Tafel plots were
not recorded at time t = 0 h and 2 h before hydrogenase injection, in order to avoid any
possible disturbance of the initial surface state of the coupons before injecting hydrogenase or
in the hours following the injection. Tafel plots were recorded every 4 hours starting from t =
4 h. In the presence of hydrogenase, two cases were observed: in case a, Rp values were very
close to the values obtained in the absence of the enzyme: at times t = 4 h (Rp = 550 cm2
and icorr = 4.4 A.cm-2) and at t = 8 h (Rp = 482 cm2 and icorr = 5.0 A.cm-2) whereas in the
case b, Rp values were three fold higher: at times t = 4 h (Rp = 1523 cm2 and icorr = 1.6
A.cm-2) and at t = 8 h (Rp = 1504 cm2 and icorr = 1.6 A.cm-2).
98
Fig. 2. Polarisation resistance Rp measurements as a function of time for 1145 carbon steel
electrode in an anaerobic 100 mM phosphate buffer pH 7.2, with or without addition of
hydrogenase (hase).
Pictures of the electrodes at the end of the experiments showed that in the absence of
hydrogenase, the surfaces of the carbon steel electrodes were covered by a uniform grey
deposit (Fig. 2.A). In the presence of the enzyme, the deposits were thicker and the surfaces
were heterogeneous. In case a, a bluish grey deposit with obvious signs of local attack was
observed (Fig. 2.B) whereas in case b, the colour of the deposit was different and multicoloured (yellow, orange, turquoise, pink) (Fig. 2.C).
A-
B-
C-
Fig. 3. Photos of the electrodes after 24h immersion in an anaerobic 100 mM phosphate
buffer pH 7.2 (A) in the absence of hydrogenase and in its presence (B, C).
SEM analysis of the electrodes A and B of Fig. 3. showed that in the presence of
hydrogenase, the electrode was covered by a very heterogeneous deposit (Fig. 4B) compared
to the deposit observed in the absence of the enzyme (Fig. 4A).
99
B-
A-
Fig. 4. SEM micrographs of the electrodes after 24h immersion in an anaerobic 100 mM
phosphate buffer pH 7.2 (A) in the absence of hydrogenase and in its presence (B).
Confocal laser microscopy of the electrode in the presence of hydrogenase (case a) showed a
heterogeneous surface (Fig. 5A), the 3D construction indicated the presence of holes that
were 80 m deep (Fig. 5B).
A-
B-
Fig. 5. Confocal laser microscopy of the surface of the electrode in the presence of 30 L of
hydrogenase (case a) after 24h immersion in an anaerobic 100 mM phosphate buffer pH 7.2.
2D (A) and 3D construction (B).
A-
B-
Fig. 6. Epifluorescence microscopy of the same sample oberved in Fig. 5. after cleaning. 2D
(Fig. 6.A) and 3D images (Fig. 6.B).
100
Cleaning the surface of the electrode removed the corrosion deposits, cavities were not
anymore observed on the surface, indicating that the holes observed in Fig.4 were
heterogeneities in the deposit rather than signs of localized corrosion of the steel. This finding
explains why in case a, Rp values were similar to Rp values obtained in the absence of the
enzyme (Fig. 6).
Further investigation by EDX analysis of the composition of the layers in the presence (case
a) or absence of hydrogenase indicated a similarity in their compositions. The layers
contained mainly iron, oxygen and to a lesser extend phosphorous (table 1). These findings
are consistent with the fact that Rp values are similar in the absence of the enzyme and in its
presence (case a).
Atomic % / Elements Fe
absence of hydrogenase 42 + 14
30 L of hydrogenase
44 + 13
P
6+3
5+2
Na
5
O
51 + 12
45 + 6
K
0.6
Cl
0.49
3 + 0.7
Table 1. EDX analysis of the deposits (atomic %) on the electrodes surfaces in the absence of
hydrogenase or in its presence (case a).
Many studies have dealt with the formation of protective layers on carbon steels in the
presence of aerobic phosphate solutions [Martini et al., 2004; Felhsi et al., 2002]. In fact, the
presence of phosphate is known to form a vivianite deposit (Fe3(PO4)2, 8H2O), which forms a
uniform grayish film that tends to change to bluish on exposure to air [McGowan et al.,
2006], and it has already been demonstrated that [NiFe]-hydrogenase from Ralstonia
eutropha catalyses the deposition of vivianite on mild steel in the presence of a final electron
acceptor (oxidized form of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide) [Da Silva et al., 2004]. Here
we showed that [Fe]-hydrogenase from Clostidium acetobutilicum catalyses both the
deposition of corrosion products and vivianite on the steel surface in the absence of any final
electron acceptor: thick deposits of around 80 m height were observed in the presence of the
enzyme. The cathodic reaction involved here cannot be other than the reduction of the proton
(or water) since no other electron acceptor was present in the medium. It must be concluded
that this reaction was catalyzed directly by the adsorbed enzyme, according to the mechanism
that has been demonstrated in our previous work with less concentrated phosphate solutions
[Mehanna et al., previous paper, to submit].
Rp gives a direct information on the quality of the deposit: in case a), Rp values remained
similar to the values obtained in the absence of the enzyme even if the 3D confocal laser
microscopy showed a much thicker corrosion deposit, because the deep holes present in the
deposit decreased its protective effect. In case b), Rp values were three fold higher, indicating
a more protective layer, as confirmed by the aspect of the deposit, which looked much more
uniform. The differences regarding the values of Rp and the aspects of the deposits observed
between cases (a) and (b) in the presence of the same amount of hydrogenase (30 L), can be
attributed to the occurrence of several simultaneous, antagonist phenomena: on one hand, the
catalysis of proton reduction by adsorbed hydrogenase that accelerated corrosion resulting in
the production of iron ions, and on the other, the formation of vivianite and corrosion
products, which form a deposit tending to diminish the corrosion process. By this way,
vivianite and corrosion products may have different effect on the corrosion process. The
random balance between these antagonist phenomena can explain the difference observed.
101
Fig. 7. Free potential as a function of time for 1145 carbon steel electrode in anaerobic 50
mM Tris HCl solution pH 6.3, with or without addition of hydrogenase. Fluctuations of +/-10
mV that appear on the graph every four hours were due to polarization resistance
measurements.
Six control experiments were performed by injecting 30 L of Tris HCl at time 15 minutes.
The Eoc remained stable for all the duration of the experiments or decreased slightly. When 30
L of hydrogenase was injected at time 15 minutes, the free potential increased slowly up to
12 mV at time 10 h. Addition of 50 L hydrogenase ennobled the free potential up to 66 mV
in the first trial and 51 mV in the second one.
Hydrogenase aliquots were either deactivated by exposure to air during 3 h, or denatured by
heat until boiling. Addition of 30 L of air-deactivated hydrogenase ennobled Eoc very fast by
24 mV, while the injection of the heat-denatured enzyme increased Eoc by 40 mV. The
potential ennoblement depended on the amount of enzyme injected as well as on the state of
the enzyme. The most important potential ennoblement was observed when the enzyme was
heated. Heating the enzyme until it boiled resulted in exploding its structure, exposing the FeS clusters to the external surrounding or even releasing the clusters. Actually, [Fe]hydrogenases contain numerous Fe-S clusters that provide an electron-transfer pathway
102
Fig. 8. Polarisation resistance (Rp) measurements as a function of time for 1145 carbon steel
electrode in an anaerobic 50 mM TrisHCl buffer pH 6.3, with or without addition of
hydrogenase (hase).
103
A-
B-
C-
Fig. 9. Photo and SEM micrograph for 1145 after 24 hours immersion in an anaerobic 50 mM
Tris HCl solution pH 6.3, in the absence of hydrogenase (A), and in the presence of 30 L (B)
or 50 L (C) of hydrogenase.
SEM micrography of the electrode surface in the absence of the enzyme showed a film-like
deposit (Fig. 10 A) while in the presence of 50 L of hydrogenase, cracks were observed all
over the surface of the electrode (Fig. 10 B). The corrosion layer was mainly composed by
iron (57%, atomic percentage) and oxygen (37%). Traces of Cl, K and Mn were also found
(table 2).
A-
B-
Fig. 10. SEM micrographs of the electrodes after 24 hours immersion in an anaerobic 50 mM
Tris HCl solution pH 6.3, in the absence of hydrogenase (A) and in the presence of 50 L of
hydrogenase (B).
With the air-denatured hydrogenase, the surface of the electrode was still reflective, the reflect
of the camera lens being visible on the electrode surface, and some locale red stains of iron
oxide were noted once the electrode was in contact with air while removing it from the
electrochemical reactor (Fig.11 A). Previous work performed in an anaerobic 10 mM
phosphate buffer pH 7.2 [Mehanna et al., to submit] in the presence of 30 L deactivated
hydrogenase gave the same finding regarding the mirror-like appearance of the surface which
still reflected the camera lens. SEM micrography of the corroded zones (Fig. 11 A) depicted
104
A-
A-
Fig. 11. Photo and SEM micrograph of the 1145 carbon steel electrode in the presence of 30
L air-deactivated hydrogenase after 24 hours immersion in an anaerobic 50 mM Tris HCl
solution pH 6.3.
From table 2, it can be noted that in the presence of 50 L of hydrogenase, in contrast to all
the other cases, oxygen was present indicating the presence of iron oxides/hydroxides. Indeed
reddish deposit were observed visible on the photos of Fig. 9.C. Carbon was absent, while it
was found on the clean electrodes before the experiments, it was also detected in the cases of
the control experiments performed in absence of hydrogenase, and in the presence 30 L airdeactivated hydrogenase. These findings were consistent with the non corroded surface
observed in the absence of the enzyme (Fig. 9.A) and a mirror-like surface in the presence of
the deactivated enzyme (Fig. 11.A).
Atomic % / Elements
Polished steel before the experiments
Absence of hydrogenase
50 L hydrogenase
30 L air-deactivated hydrogenase
Fe
84
66
57
91
Mn
0.6
0.2
0.2
0.5
C
15
34
9
O
37
-
K
0.6
-
Cl
5
-
Table 2. EDX analysis for 1145 after 24 hours immersion in an 50 mM Tris HCl solution pH
6.3, in the absence or presence of hydrogenase.
ICP-Spectroscopy measurements of total iron and sulphur in the solutions at the end of the
experiments (table 4) showed that the lowest iron amount was detected in the solution where
the deactivated hydrogenase was injected, indicating that the electrode surface was the least
altered and confirming the results above. The highest amount of iron was detected in the
solution in the presence of the active hydrogenase, this is in accordance with the results
obtained above showing a corroded surface with reddish deposits.
105
Fe (M)
0.50
1.71
0.09
S (M)
0.03
0.07
0.05
Surface analyses and Rp measurement confirmed the behaviour observed on Eoc variations.
The enzyme can be assumed to act by its iron-sulphur clusters, rather than via its traditional
activity that absolutely requires the integrity of the protein structure. In some extend, the
effect of hydrogenase may thus be compared to the well-known MIC mechanism that is based
on the catalysis of proton reduction by iron sulphide deposits on steel surface.
Hydrogenase from C. acetobutylicum contains 20 Fe atoms out of which six are contained in
the active site, twelve in the [4Fe-4S] type clusters and two in the [2Fe-2S] type clusters
[Demuez et al., 2007]. The concentration of C. acetobutilicum [Fe]-hydrogenase in the initial
aliquots was 0.33.10-6 M. When 30 L of the aliquot were injected into the 0.05 L
electrochemical cell, the final concentration in the cell was 0.20.10-9 M. Then, the overall
amount of Fe contained into the electrochemical cell was [Fe] = 20 x 0.20 x 10-9 = 3.96 x 10-9
M. In addition, clostridial [Fe]-hydrogenases contain 18 atoms of S: four in the active site,
twelve in the 4Fe4S clusters, and two in 2Fe2S. Then, the total concentration of sulphur in the
electrochemical cell was [S] = 18 x 0.20 x 10-9 = 3.56 x 10-9 M.
These concentrations are very low, it must be concluded that the specific iron-clusters
contained in the enzyme are highly efficient to catalyse proton reduction, certainly much more
than the raw iron sulphide deposits produced by SRB. Actually this conclusion is consistent
with the function of these clusters inside the protein that contributes to the efficiency of the
reversible proton reduction / hydrogen oxidation reaction, resulting in an extremely high
protein specific activity of the order of 0.2 mole of hydrogen oxidized per minute, per
milligram protein. Suitable adsorption of these clusters on the coupon surface should also be
an important factor of efficiency. The presence of amino acids, even after unwinding or
denaturing them by heating, certainly promotes effective adsorption. The remarkable
protective effect of the deactivated protein by oxygen at the final concentration of 0.20 x 10-9
M also proved the efficiency of the protein adsorption.
Conclusion
106
References
[1] L. Girbal, G. Von Abendroth, M. Winkler, P.M.C. Benton, I. Meynial-Salles, C Croux, J.W.
Peters, T. Happe, P. Soucaille, Applied Environmental Microbiology 71 (2005) 2777.
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
E.M.A. Martini, S.T. Amaral, I.L. Mller, Corrosion Science 46 (2004) 2907.
Felhsi, J. Telegdi, G. Plinks, E. Klmn, Electrochimica Acta 47 (2002) 2335.
G. McGowan, J. Prangnell, Geoarchaeology-an International Journal 21 (2006) 93.
S.Da Silva, R. Bassguy, A. Bergel, Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry 561 (2004)
93.
[6] M.W. Adam, Biol. Chem. 259 (1984) 7045.
[7] J.C. Fontecilla-Camps, A. Volbeda, C. Cavazza, Y. Nicolet, Chemical Reviews 107
(2007) 4273.
[8] J.W. Peters, W.N. Lanzilotta, B.J. Lenon, L.C. Seefeldt, Science 282 (1998) 1853.
[9] M. Demuez, L. Cournac, O. Guerrini, P. Soucaille, L. Girbal, FEMS Microbiology
Letters 275 (2007) 113.
[10] M. Mehanna, R. Bassguy, M.L. Dlia, A. Bergel. To submit to Corrosion Science.
107
2H2PO42HPO42- + H2
2H+
Fd oxyde [Fe4S4]3+
Fd rduite [Fe4S4]+
Hydrognase
La ferrdoxine a t choisie comme accepteur terminal dlectrons car elle est couramment
utilise avec lhydrognase de C. acetobutylicum
pour faciliter la consommation
dhydrogne.
Une premire srie dexpriences a t conduite dans une solution de phosphate 100 mM pH
7,2 puis observant que cette concentration de phosphate favorisait un dpt important de
vivianite et de ce fait, masquait peut-tre leffet de lenzyme, une deuxime srie dexprience
a t conduite dans une solution de phosphate 10 mM pH 7,2.
108
Fig.13 : Evolution du potentiel en circuit ouvert de lacier au carbone 1145 durant son
immersion dans une solution anarobie de 100 mM phosphate, pH 7,2, en prsence ou en
absence de ferrdoxine et dhydrognase. Les fluctuations de +10 mV qui apparaissent sur
les courbes t = 4 h sont dues aux mesures des rsistances de polarisation.
A-
B-
Figure 14 : Images MEB de la surface des aciers au carbone 1145 aprs 24 heures
dimmersion dans une solution anarobie de phosphate 100 mM, pH 7,2 en absence
dhydrognase, (A) en absence de ferrdoxine, (B) en prsence de 0,3 M de ferrdoxine.
109
A-
A-
B-
B-
Figure 15 : Images MEB de la surface des aciers au carbone 1145 aprs 24 heures
dimmersion dans une solution anarobie de phosphate 100 mM, pH 7,2 en prsence de 30
L dhydrognase (A, A), de 30 L dhydrognase et 0,3 M de ferrdoxine (B, B).
110
% atomique
Fe
Mn
Na
Cl
Surface polie
84
15
0,6
42+14
51+12
6+3
0,5
65+25
15+16
16+27
3+3
0,7+0,7 0,3+0,3
45+6
5+2
12+12
30+24
5+4
0,5+0,6 0,3+0,3
avant
lexprience
Absence
dhydrognase
0,3 M Fd
30
L 44+13
0,6
hydrognase
0,3 M Fd + 30 52+30
M
hydrognase
Tableau 1 : Analyse EDX de la composition de la surface dun acier au carbone 1145 aprs
24 heures dimmersion dans une solution anarobie de phosphate 100 mM, pH 7,2 en
absence ou en prsence dhydrognase et de ferrdoxine.
Les analyses EDX prsentes dans le tableau 1 montrent des carts types importants qui
rvlent des htrognits sur les surfaces analyses. En effet, sur chaque lectrode, trois
zones de compositions diffrentes peuvent globalement tre distingues comme le montre
lexemple de la figure (16) :
Une zone A grise compose 100 % de fer,
Une zone B de dpts blanchtres compose majoritairement de fer et de carbone
Une zone C de cristaux forme majoritairement par de loxygne et du fer
Les rsultats prsents dans le tableau de la figure 16 sont les moyennes de trois mesures
effectues dans chacune des zones correspondantes.
111
% atomique
Zone A
Fe
100
C
-
O
-
P
-
Mn
Zone B
66
32
1,4
1,1
Zone C
35
57
8,0
Lanalyse par ICP-Spectroscopie (ou torche plasma) des teneurs en fer et en soufre la fin
de lexprience (Tableau 2) dmontre quen prsence de 30 L dhydrognase, les taux de
soufre sont plus levs quen absence dhydrognase peut-tre parce que lenzyme contient
des centres fer-soufre ; toutefois comme la concentration du S contenue dans la cellule
Metrohm en injectant 30 L est faible (36 x 10-10 M), cette hypothse semble peu probable.
En absence de ferrdoxine, plus de fer est dtect en prsence de lenzyme suggrant que
lenzyme catalyse la dissolution du fer de llectrode en acier au carbone. En prsence de
ferrdoxine, la teneur en fer est la mme en prsence ou en absence denzyme et suprieure
aux valeurs obtenues prcdemment.
Injection
Total Fe (M)
Total S (M)
Absence dhydrognase
0,05
0,03
0,3 M Fd
0,09
0,03
30 L hydrognase
0,08
0,04
0,3 M Fd + 30 M hydrognase
0,09
0,04
Les mesures des densits de courants (icorr) et des rsistances de polarisations (Rp) sont
reprsentes dans le tableau ci-dessous. Dans le cas des expriences tmoins en absence
dhydrognase, les Rp et les icorr ont t galement mesures partir de t = 0 h toutes les deux
heures et sont restes stables tout au long de lexprience ( t = 2 h, Rp = 519 cm2 et icorr =
4,6 A.cm-2, valeurs moyennes de six expriences). Dans le cas des expriences en prsence
de ferrdoxine et/ou dhydrognase, les mesures ont t effectues toutes les quatre heures en
commenant partir de 4 h afin dviter de perturber ltat de surface de llectrode dacier.
Les expriences tmoins ont t rptes six fois et sont reproductibles pour les valeurs de Rp
112
Absence dhydrognase
(valeurs moyennes de six expriences)
0,3 M Fd
30 L hydrognase
0,3 M Fd + 30 M hydrognase
icorr at 4 h
(A.cm-)
622
icorr at 8 h
(A.cm-)
827
Rp at 4 h
(cm)
4.4
Rp at 8 h
(cm)
3.6
550
723
7.1
3.7
550
907
482
754
4.4
2.8
5.0
3.5
113
Fig.17. Evolution du potentiel en circuit ouvert de lacier au carbone 1145 durant son
immersion dans une solution anarobie de 10 mM phosphate, pH 7,2, en prsence ou en
absence de ferrdoxine et dhydrognase. Les fluctuations de + 10 mV qui apparaissent sur
les courbes toutes les quatre heures sont dues aux mesures des rsistances de polarisation.
E (mV)
8
12
2
114
A-
B-
Figure 18: Photo et image MEB dun acier au carbone 1145 aprs 24 heures dimmersion
dans une solution anarobie de phosphate 10 mM, pH 7,2 en prsence de 0,3 M de
ferrdoxine.
A-
B-
Figure 19 : Photo et image MEB dun acier au carbone 1145 aprs 24 heures dimmersion
dans une solution anarobie de phosphate 10 mM, pH 7,2 en prsence de 0,3 M de
ferrdoxine et de 30 L dhydrognase, 8 mars.
A-
B-
Figure 20 : Photo et image MEB dun acier au carbone 1145 aprs 24 heures dimmersion
dans une solution anarobie de phosphate 10 mM, pH 7,2 en prsence de 0,3 M de
ferrdoxine et 30 L dhydrognase, 24 mai.
115
Fe
Cl
Absence de
ferredoxine et
dhydrognase
0,3 M Fd
58 + 9
31 + 5
3+1
0,5 + 1
2+1 -
59 + 38
33 + 33
4+4
3+3
0,3 M Fd + 30 L 23 + 13
hydrognase, 8 mars
0,3 M Fd + 30 L 36 + 25
hydrognase, 24 mai
68 + 13
8+2
0,2 + 0.3 1 + 1 -
54 + 23
8+4
Na
2+3 -
Tableau 5 : Analyses EDX dun acier au carbone 1145 aprs 24 heures dimmersion dans
une solution anarobie de phosphate 10 mM, pH 7,2 en prsence ou en prsence de 0,3 M
de ferrdoxine et 30 L dhydrognase.
Les carts types importants obtenus lors des analyses EDX indiquent que les surfaces
observes sont htrognes. Globalement, sur chaque lectrode, trois zones de compositions
diffrentes peuvent globalement tre distingues comme le montre lexemple de la figure
(21) :
Une zone A grise compose 100 % de fer,
Une zone B de dpts blanchtres compose essentiellement de fer et en moindre
mesure du carbone
Une zone C de cristaux forme majoritairement par de loxygne et en moindre
mesure du fer et du phosphate
Les rsultats prsents dans le tableau de la figure 21 sont les moyennes de trois mesures
effectues dans chacune des zones correspondantes.
% atomique
Zone A
Fe
100
C
-
O
-
P
-
Mn
Zone B
79
21
Zone C
26
65
9.0
116
Absence dhydrognase
(valeurs moyennes de sept expriences)
0,3 M Fd
30 L hydrognase
0,3 M Fd + 30 L hydrognase,
8 mars
0,3 M Fd + 30 L hydrognase,
24 mai
icorr at 4 h
(A.cm-2)
1,6
icorr at 8 h
(A.cm-2)
1,6
Rp at 4 h
(cm2)
1496
Rp at 8 h
(cm2)
1753
4,7
3,2
611
764
0,3
1,3
0,4
0,8
6792
1994
6092
3138
3,8
4,2
635
596
Quand lhydrognase est ajoute en prsence de ferrdoxine, deux cas sont observs: dans le
premier (hydrognase active), la rsistance de polarisation augmente de 1994 3138 cm2 et
la densit de courant diminue de 1,3 0,8 A.cm-2, llectrode tait couverte dun dpt pais
gris bleut (Fig. 19) alors que dans le deuxime cas (hydrognase peu active), llectrode tait
couverte dun dpt htrogne gris (Fig. 20). Lexamination des Rp et icorr pour ce dernier
cas (24 mai) montre des valeurs de Rp proches des valeurs obtenues en prsence de
ferrdoxine seule et trois fois infrieures aux valeurs obtenues dans le premier cas (8 mars).
Les deux lectrodes taient non conductrices toutefois moins de fer et plus doxygne ont t
dtects par lanalyse EDX de la surface de la premire lectrode (23% Fe, 68% O, 8 mars)
par rapport aux teneurs obtenues pour la deuxime lectrode (36% Fe, 56% O, 24 mai)
(tableau 6). Lanalyse par ICP-Spectroscopie des teneurs en fer et en soufre la fin de
lexprience appuie ces rsultats : plus de fer est dtect dans la solution de lexprience du 8
mars (1,4 M) par rapport la teneur en fer dtecte dans lexprience du 24 mai (0,08 M)
(Tableau 7) indiquant que la dissolution du fer se poursuit dans les craquelures de la surface
de llectrode du 8 mars (Fig. 19.B).
0,3 M Fd
0,3 M Fd + 30 L hydrognase, 8 mars
0,3 M Fd + 30 L hydrognase, 24 mai
Fe (M)
0,08
0,14
0,08
S (M)
0,03
0,07
0,04
118
119
Chapitre IV
Influence de
Geobacter sulfurreducens
sur la corrosion de
trois types daciers
120
Les espces de la famille des Geobacteracea sont les espces prdominantes qui
colonisent naturellement les lectrodes pour la production dnergie partir de sdiments
riches en substances organiques (Bond et al. 2002 ; Tender et al. 2002 ; Holmes et al. 2004 b)
ou de dchets animaux (Gregory et al., 2005).
La bactrie Geobacter sulfurreducens fut isole en 1994 la surface de sdiments prlevs
dans un foss souill dhydrocarbures. Cette bactrie a pour dimensions 2x3x0,5 m3 (Figure
1). Cest une bactrie appartenant au groupe des proteobacteria gram ngatives, non
fermentaire, non-motile et anarobie facultative.
122
123
124
Cet article prsente les rsultats obtenus en utilisant lacier inoxydable 304L comme
lectrode de travail dans un milieu dficitaire en actate (5 mM au lieu de 10 mM) et
contenant du fumarate (25 mM). Le fait de diminuer la concentration en donneur dlectrons
(actate) a pour but de forcer les bactries chercher une source supplmentaire dlectrons
la surface de llectrode.
Les rsultats obtenus ont permis de dmontrer :
Linjection des bactries induit un brusque anoblissement du potentiel en circuit
ouvert Eoc de 443 mV en moyenne en quelques heures, ce qui constitue une
augmentation drastique des risques de corrosion.
En absence de bactries, les valeurs du potentiel de corrosion Ecorr observes en traant
les courbes de Tafel sont plus ngatives que les valeurs du potentiel en circuit ouvert
Eoc. La rduction des protons constitue dans ce cas lunique raction cathodique. La
concentration de protons tant faible (6,3 10-8 M pH 7.2), la moindre consommation
de protons induite par le balayage de potentiel lors du trac de Tafel diminue le
courant cathodique et dplace Ecorr vers les valeurs ngatives.
En prsence de bactries, lcart entre les valeurs de Eoc et de Ecorr (dtermin par les
courbes de Tafel) est rduit indiquant que la rduction du proton ne constitue plus
lunique raction cathodique limitante : les cellules bactriennes en contact direct avec
le matriau induisent une raction cathodique supplmentaire. Cette nouvelle raction
cathodique qui sajoute la rduction des protons, augmente significativement les
risques de corrosion.
Aucun changement notable nest observable sur les parties anodiques des courbes de
Tafel aprs linjection des bactries confirmant que laugmentation brusque du
potentiel suite linjection de G. sulfurreducens est due la modification de la
raction cathodique.
La courbe de Tafel trace la fin de lexprience en prsence des bactries montre une
vague doxydation de lactate.
La prsence des bactries dcale les potentiels de piqre vers les valeurs positives. G.
sulfurreducens joue alors un rle protecteur en fournissant au matriau des lectrons
issus de loxydation de lactate.
Lors du trac des courbes de piqration, les piqres formes en prsence des bactries
sont plus nombreuses et plus larges car la propagation des piqres est plus importante.
Lanalyse des courbes de repassivation conforte ce rsultat en effet, les piqres se
repassivent plus difficilement (hysteresis leve) en prsence des bactries.
Lanalyse de surface par microscopie pifluorescence aprs coloration lacridine
orange, montre une troite relation entre lagencement du biofilm bactrien et les
zones de corrosion localise : un biofilm dense est observable autour des piqres alors
que dans les zones loin des piqres, les bactries sont disposes alatoirement. Deux
hypothses peuvent expliquer ces observations : soit les bactries colonisent
prfrentiellement les zones de dfauts structuraux du matriau o auront lieu les
piqres prfrentiellement, soit la prsence dun biofilm bactrien dense cre une zone
cathodique acclrant la corrosion localise.
125
126
Tableau 1 : Variations de Ecorr et de Eoc en fonction du pH pour lacier 304 L immerg dans
un milieu anarobie strile ATCC.
127
Figure 3 : Mcanismes I et II dcrits dans le texte. Notons que uniquement les cellules
bactriennes qui adhrent en premier la surface assurent le transfert direct avec
llectrode. Les cellules bactriennes qui se dveloppent ensuite lors de la croissance du
biofilm, transfrent les lectrons aux cellules bactriennes qui sont dj tablies en premier
la surface et qui jouent alors le rle de portails lectrochimiques .
128
Abstract
It has recently been discovered that many microbial species have the capacity to connect their
metabolism to solid electrodes, directly exchanging electrons with them through membranebound redox compounds, nevertheless such a direct electron transfer pathway has been
evoked rarely in the domain of microbial corrosion. Here was evidenced for the first time that
the bacterium Geobacter sulfurreducens is able to increase the free potential of 304L stainless
steel up to 443 mV in only a few hours, which represents a drastic increase in the corrosion
risk. In contrast, when the bacterial cells form a locally well-established biofilm, pitting
potentials were delayed towards positive values. The microscopy pictures confirmed an
intimate correlation between the zones where pitting occurred and the local settlement of
cells. Geobacter species must now be considered as key players in the mechanisms of
corrosion.
1. Introduction
(1)
(2)
which form iron sulphide deposits that catalyses the proton/water cathodic reduction on the
material surface [2]. Actually, the mechanisms of anaerobic biocorrosion are more complex
than this raw scheme and remain difficult to decipher. The consumption of hydrogen by SRBs
cannot have a direct effect on the corrosion rate,, because reaction 2 can be decomposed first
into the Volmer reaction:
M + H2O + e- M-Hads + OH-
(3)
129
(4)
or Heyrovsky reaction:
M-Hads + H2O + e- M + H2 + OH-
(5)
And both Tafel and Heyrovsky reactions are rate-limiting on iron alloy surfaces.
Consumption of the hydrogen produced cannot enhance them. Nevertheless, SRBs certainly
take advantage of the hydrogen produced by the corrosion process (reaction 1), using it as
electron donor, which promotes the production of sulphides. Moreover, the enzyme
hydrogenase produced by SRBs can adsorb on steel surfaces and catalyse proton reduction
[3,4], and the presence of phosphate buffer in laboratory experiments can introduce a
supplementary cathodic reaction [5]. Finally, although SRBs are the predominant subject of
academic works, recent studies have demonstrated that biocorrosion can also occur beneath
biofilms where SRBs are not predominant [6]. New pathways still need to be deciphered.
In recent years, more and more bacteria have been shown to be able to oxidise organic
matter and to transfer the electrons produced directly to solid electrodes [7,8]. Such bacteria
can completely oxidise organic electron donors (e.g. acetates, sugars) to carbon dioxide by
using a solid electrode as electron acceptor [9]. Bacteria implement different strategies to
achieve direct electron transfer: direct contact with the electrode surface established through
membrane-bound redox compounds [10] (e.g. c-type cytochromes) or cell-to-cell networking
through conductive nanowires [11]. Some bacteria can also produce soluble electron carriers
[12]. One of the most studied bacteria, Geobacter sulfurreducens, is also able to implement
cathodic reactions, extracting the electrons required for its metabolism directly from the
surface of a cathode [13,14]. Up to now, the implication of direct electron transfer between
material surfaces and microorganisms has been evoked only once in the framework of
biocorrosion, with Desulfobacterium-like and Methanobacterium-like isolates extracted from
natural biofilms [15].
The purpose of this work was to check the possible relevance of this newly discovered
mechanism in biocorrosion by monitoring the electrochemical behaviour of 304L stainless
steel in the presence of Geobacter sulfurreducens cells.
2. Experimental
Geobacter sulfurreducens strain PCA (ATCC 51573) purchased from DSMZ was
grown in the standard medium [14] that contained 10mM sodium acetate (electron donor) and
25mM sodium fumarate (electron acceptor). The bacteria were incubated for five days at
30C. Electrochemical experiments were carried out in electrochemical reactors under
continuous N2/CO2 (80/20) bubbling, at 30C for optimum bacteria growth. The reactors were
filled with 0.5L solution identical to the culture medium but with less acetate (5mM). The
bacteria (5% vol/vol. i.e. 142 000 CFU.mL-1) were injected into the reactors after 24 hours.
Working electrodes were 2cm diameter cylinders made of 304L stainless steel and embedded
in resin. Connections were made through titanium wire protected with resin. Coupons were
polished using P120-P800 grit SiC papers and cleaned with ethanol followed by thorough
rinsing in distilled water. Electrochemical measurements were performed using a
multipotentiostat (VMP-Bio-Logic) with Ag/AgCl reference electrode and a platinum grid as
counter electrode. Tafel plots were recorded before inoculation (around 21h), two days after
130
Cells were first cultured in bulk solution according to the standard procedure, with 10
mM acetate as electron donor and 25 mM fumarate as electron acceptor. The culture was then
used to inoculate electrochemical cells which contained the 304L coupons in the culture
medium, but with 5mM acetate instead of 10mM. The concentration of the electron donor was
lowered in the aim of forcing the microbial cells to search for a supplementary electron source
on the steel surface. The experiment, repeated seven times, gave reproducible results (Fig. 1).
Figure 1 Variation of open circuit potential versus time in the absence and presence of G.
sulfurreducens. Fluctuations in potential that appeared around 21 h, 71 h and 237 h were due
to Tafel plot recording.
The open circuit potential (Eoc) increased quickly during the three hours following injection of
the bacteria, up to Eoc=305+22 mV (average and standard deviation from 7 experiments). It
continued to increase slowly for the next twenty hours, up to Eoc=443+51 mV. In control
experiments, injection of the sterile culture medium did not cause any Eoc increase.
Tafel plots were recorded at various times by scanning the potential around Eoc. In the
absence of bacteria (Fig. 2A), the Ecorr values given by the Tafel plots were significantly more
negative than the Eoc values. In this case, the sole cathodic reaction consisted of the reduction
of protons (reaction 2), which had a very low concentration (6.310-8 M at pH 7.2). H+
depletion in the diffusion layer that was provoked by the potential scan logically decreased
the cathodic current and consequently shifted Ecorr towards negative potential values. In the
131
Figure 2 Tafel plots performed with a potential scan rate of 0.5mVs-1 from -100 mV / Eoc to +
200 mV / Eoc. A, without bacteria two days after injection of sterile medium. B, with G.
sulfurreducens two days after inoculation (142 000 CFU mL-1). C, from -100 mV / Eoc to +
350 mV / Eoc at t =237 h with G. sulfurreducens (142 000 CFU mL-1).
Pitting curves recorded at the end of the experiments indicated that the presence of
G.sulfurreducens shifted the pitting potential (Epit) from 840+80 mV vs. Ag/AgCl (without
bacteria) to 1009+20 mV vs. Ag/AgCl (Fig. 3). In the presence of bacteria, the abnormally
high anodic current, with regard to traditional pitting curves, that was recorded during the
scan in the positive direction was due to the biofilm-catalysed oxidation of acetate, as
observed on the Tafel plot (Fig. 2C). At high potential values, G.sulfurreducens had a clear
protective effect, due to the electrons provided to the material by the biofilm-catalysed
oxidation of acetate.
132
Figure 3 Polarisation curves (scan rate 0.5 mVs-1) towards positive potential and scan was
reversed when 0.1 mA was reached, performed at the end of the experiment (t = 240 h) in the
absence and presence of G. sulfurreducens.
SEM micrography showed that the pits were deeper in the presence of bacteria. This is
relevant with the higher hysteresis effect observed on the repassivation curves (Fig. 3). In the
presence of bacteria, pitting occurred at higher potential values and resulted in higher
propagation currents. The epifluorescence microscopy pictures recorded after the pitting
curves showed that deep pits formed predominantly in zones where the biofilm was dense
(Fig. 4A), while zones free from pits revealed only scattered microbial settlement (Fig. 4.B).
Two different hypotheses can explain this observation: i) bacteria preferentially colonise the
areas that are the most sensitive to further corrosion attacks, for instance because of local
surface defaults, or ii) the presence of a locally dense biofilm creates a cathodic area that
promotes corrosion in its vicinity. Whatever are the hypothesis, microbial settlement and
pitting zones, showed intimate local correlation.
B
Figure 4 Epifluoresence microscopy of 304L SS in the presence of G. sulfurreducens: A in
the vicinity of a pit, and B in a zone free from pits, (magnification 500x).
133
References
134
Effect of Geobacter sulfurreducens on the microbial corrosion of mild steel, ferritic steel
and stainless steels.
135
Figure 4 : Evolution du potentiel de circuit ouvert en fonction du temps dun acier au carbone
1145 en absence et en prsence de 5% et 0,5% v. / v. de G. sulfurreducens ; 1 mM acetate, 30
mM chlorure.
Lobservation des surfaces des lectrodes la fin de lexprience montre des signes de
corrosion gnralise sur toutes les lectrodes avec un dpt plus important de fer sur
llectrode en prsence des bactries (Figure 5).
136
Figure 5 : Photos des lectrodes dacier 1145 aprs six jours dimmersion dans un milieu
contenant 5% v. / v. de (A) milieu strile, (B) filtrat, G. sulfurreducens.
Lacier au carbone possde une faible rsistance la corrosion et en prsence de 30 mM de
chlorure et aprs vingt jours dexposition, des signes de corrosion gnralise ont t observs
dans ce milieu sur toutes les lectrodes. A la suite de cette exprience, il a t dcid de
diminuer la quantit de chlorure (4 mM au lieu de 30 mM) et le temps dexposition (deux
jours au lieu de vingt jours) pour les expriences conduites avec lacier au carbone pour
pouvoir mieux distinguer entre leffet des bactries et leffet du milieu sur la corrosion.
mme temps dexposition, les photos MEB montrent que les piqres sont regroupes
en prsence des bactries alors quelles sont disperses alatoirement en absence de
bactries.
Pour les aciers austnitiques, 304L et 316L, linjection des bactries dans un milieu
renfermant 1 mM dactate, induit un brusque anoblissement du potentiel en circuit
ouvert Eoc de 320 mV et de 220 mV respectivement.
Linjection de G. sulfurreducens induit un anoblissement du potentiel de circuit ouvert
Eoc sur les trois types daciers. Eoc augmente de plus de 300 mV durant les 3 heures
suivant linjection et laugmentation du potentiel se poursuit graduellement durant
cinq jours jusqu une valeur seuil ne dpassant pas 0,15 V vs. Ag/AgCl quelle que
soit la dure de lexprience ou le type dacier. G. sulfurreducens cre une raction
cathodique dans le cas de trois types diffrents daciers impliquant une augmentation
drastique des risques de corrosion.
Les valeurs de Eoc finales dpendent de la nature de lacier et sont classes dans le
mme ordre croissant de rsistance la corrosion des aciers correspondants.
Ce saut de potentiel suite linjection des bactries est observable pour les quatre
aciers tests. Notons cependant quavec les aciers austnitiques Eoc fluctue et se
stabilise plus lentement que dans le cas des aciers au carbone car pour les aciers
austnitiques, ltablissement de la couche passive est difficile matriser.
138
Abstract
The influence of Geobacter sulfurreducens was tested on the anaerobic corrosion of four
different steels: mild steel 1145, ferritic steel 403 and austenitic steels 304L and 316L.
Within a few hours, the presence of cells induced a free potential (Eoc) ennoblement
around +0.3 V on 1145 mild steel, 403 ferritic steel and 304L austenitic steels and slightly
less on 316L. The kinetics of Eoc ennoblement depended on the amount of bacteria in the
inoculum, but the final potential value depended essentially on the nature of the material.
This effect was due to the capacity of G. sulfurreducens to create a direct cathodic
reaction on steel surfaces, extracting the electrons directly from material. The presence of
bacterial cells modified the corrosion features of mild steel and ferritic steel, so that
corrosion attacks were gathered in determined zones of the surface. Local corrosion was
significantly enhanced on ferritic steel. Potential ennoblement was not sufficient to induce
corrosion on austenitic steels. In contrast G. sulfurreducens delayed the occurrence of
pitting on 304L steel because of its capability to oxidize acetate at high potential values.
The electrochemical behaviour of 304L steel was not affected by the concentration of
soluble electron donor (acetate, 1 to 10 mM) or the amount of planktonic cells; it was
directly linked to the biofilm coverage. After polarisation pitting curves had been
recorded, microscopic observations showed that pits propagated only in the surface zones
where cell settlement was the densest. The study evidenced that Geobacter sulfurreducens
can control the electrochemical behaviour of steels in complex ways that can lead to
severe corrosion. As Geobacteracea are ubiquitous species in sediments and soils they
should now be considered as possible crucial actors in the microbial corrosion of buried
equipment.
Keywords: Microbial corrosion; Geobacter sulfurreducens;
Electrochemically active biofilms; Direct electron transfer.
Stainless
steel;
1. Introduction
Corrosion costs 4% of the GDP of industrialised countries and 20% of this cost is
estimated to be due to the action of microorganisms [1,2]. While the implication of
sulphate reducing bacteria (SRB) in anaerobic corrosion is now well accepted [3-5], recent
studies have demonstrated that SRB are not the only cause of anaerobic corrosion and that
biocorrosion can occur beneath biofilms even when SRB are absent [6]. The electron
transfer pathways that lead to microbial corrosion are far from being fully deciphered.
In addition, some bacteria have recently been shown to be able to switch from natural
soluble electron acceptors such as oxygen or nitrite to solid anodes. The so-called
anodophilic bacteria naturally adhere to the anode surface and catalyze the oxidation of
139
140
2. Experimental
Ni
0.1
9.68
10.69
C
0.46
0.08
0.02
0.03
Mn
0.65
1
1.43
1.41
Cu
0.11
0.35
0.33
Si
0.31
1
0.35
0.33
S
0.032
0.03
0.03
0.02
P
0.01
0.04
0.03
0.04
Mo
0.02
0.40
2.10
Cr
0.1
11.5/13.5
18.26
17.09
141
142
143
Figure 1. Variation of the open circuit potential with time (first 30 hours) for 1145 mild steel
in the presence of G. sulfurreducens (5% and 0.5% v/v), 1mM acetate; control experiments
were carried out by injecting the culture medium only or the inoculum after filtration at
0.2m.
(A)
(B)
144
(C)
Figure 2. Microscopy picture of 1145 mild steel coupons at the end of 48 hours immersion,
with injection at 24 hours of 5% v/v of A) fresh culture medium, B) culture solution after
filtration, C) G. sulfurreducens culture solution (magnification x 100).
Figure 3. Variation of the open circuit potential with time (first 100 hours) for ferritic steel
403 in the absence and presence (5% v/v) of G. sulfurreducens; 1mM acetate.
At the end of the experiment (350 hours) the number of corroded zones was globally the
same in the presence of the bacteria or with the filtrate injected, but the size and the
distribution of these zones were different. The presence of G.sulfurreducens induced
145
Figure 4. SEM micrographs showing corrosion on ferritic steel after exposure in a medium
containing 5% v/v of (A) culture solution after filtration, (B) G. sulfurreducens.
146
Figure 5. Variation of the open circuit potential with time for 304L stainless steel in the
absence and presence of G. sulfurreducens (5% and 0.5% v/v); 1mM acetate.
Table 2
Potential ennoblement provoked by inoculation with 5% v/v G. sulfurreducens, 1 mM
acetate; E was measured 3 hours after inoculation (27h-24h). Final Eoc is the open
circuit potential value at t=48h for mild steel and at t=150h for ferritic steel and austenitic
steels. Mild steel was not left longer in the medium because of generalized corrosion.
Types of steel
E (V)
0.31; 0.33
0.35; 0.36
0.20+0.13
-0.29; -0.29
-0.29; -0.31
-0.02+0.02
0.22
0.00
147
Pathway-I
ee-
Red1
Ox2
Ox1
Red2
CO2
Pathway-II
Acetate
ee-
CO2
ee-
Acetate
148
Figure 7. Variation of Eoc of 304L stainless steel with time in the presence of 5% v/v G.
sulfurreducens in a medium containing different concentrations of acetate.
When the medium did not contain any acetate (0 mM), no potential ennoblement was
observed in the three hours following the injection of bacterial cells, but Eoc fluctuated
with no reproducible pattern. Actually, it was very difficult for the bacteria to grow in
these very stressful conditions. In fact a very low concentration of acetate was present due
to the amount that had not been consumed in the volume of the inoculum. This low
concentration was enough for the cells to survive, as confirmed by the measurement of
CFU at the end of the experiment (Table 3), but the stress induced required several days
acclimation, before an effect could be observed on the Eoc. With 1 mM acetate in the
medium, the potential ennoblement was slower than with higher concentrations
nevertheless, after 150 hours, Eoc values were similar whatever acetate concentration.
Even with 10 mM acetate, the potential increase was identical, indicating that it was not
absolutely necessary to diminish the concentration of electron donor and provoke an
imbalance in the redox state of the cells to promote a cathodic reaction. Absorbance and
pH were measured at the end of each experiment. Absorbance and pH increases were
directly related to planktonic bacterial growth in the reactors. With 1 mM acetate,
planktonic growth was not significantly higher than without acetate but it was sufficient to
stabilize the electrochemical results. Planktonic growth directly depended on the acetate
concentration, which confirmed a limitation related to the electron donor. In contrast,
149
Table 3
Comparison of the potential ennoblement of 304L stainless steel for 3 hours E (24h27h) and 126 hours E (24h-150h) after inoculation with 5% v/v G. sulfurreducens in a
medium containing different concentrations of acetate. The minimum and maximum E
values are given for the number of experiments indicated in brackets. Absorbance and pH
were measured at the end of the experiments (t = 500 h).
[actate]
(nb of experiments)
[CFU.mL-1]
pH
0 mM
(3)
1 mM
(7)
5 mM
(7)
10 mM
(1)
fluctuations
fluctuations
70 810
6.97
0.04 ; 0.37
0.29; 0.45
94 410
7.03
0.29; 0.34
0.39; 0.54
122 740
7.05
0.36
0.41
207 710
7.12
At the end of each experiment, pitting curves were recorded at 0.5 mV s-1. Fig. 8 presents
an example of the pitting curves obtained after 20 days immersion in the absence and in
the presence of bacteria with 1 mM acetate.
Figure 8. Pitting curves (scan rate 0.5 mV s-1) after 20 days immersion in a medium
inoculated with 5% v/v bacteria or in the absence of bacteria.
150
Epit control
(V vs Ag/AgCl)
1 mM
5 mM
10 mM
Erepassivation
Geobacter
(V vs Ag/AgCl)
0.49 [0.39; 0.60]
(3)
0.64 [0.62; 0.65]
(7)
0.60
(1)
Erepassivation
control
(V vs Ag/AgCl)
0.23 [0.17; 0.28]
(3)
0.35 [0.26; 0.47]
(5)
0.30
(1)
Pictures of the coupons after the pitting experiments showed a few small pits in the
absence of bacteria (Figures 9A and C) while more marked pits were observed on the
coupons immersed in the presence of bacteria (Figures 9B and D), especially in the
medium that contained 5 mM acetate. This difference may be explained by the higher
potential values at which pitting finally occurred in the presence of bacterial cells. The
presence of G. sulfurreducens delayed the pitting potential by more than 250 mV but, in
turn, when the passive layer was finally disrupted, pitting found higher energy available
for its propagation.
151
Figure 9. 304L stainless steel coupons after 500 hours immersion and after recording of the
pitting curve; (A) acetate 1 mM no bacteria; (B) acetate 1mM, 5% v/v G. sulfurreducens; (C)
acetate 5mM no bacteria; (D) acetate 5mM, 5% v/v G. sulfurreducens.
Observing the coupons by epifluorescence microscopy showed that pitting always occurred in
zones that exhibited dense biofilm coverage (Figure 10A), whereas the zones with only a few,
randomly distributed bacteria were free from significant pitting (Figure 10B).
(A)
(B)
Figure 10. Epifluorescence microscopy of the same 304L stainless steel electrode after 240
hours in the presence of 5% v/v G.sulfurreducens, in a medium containing 5mM acetate; (A)
dense biofilm in the vicinity of a pit; (B) few bacteria randomly distributed in the zones free
from pitting. (Magnification x 100).
152
Vicinity of a
pit
Away
pits
1 mM
5 mM
10 mM
61+19
64+17
60+29
16+7
16+7
16+3
from
SEM pictures showed large, deep pits and confirmed the presence of bacteria in their
close vicinity (Fig. 11), whereas no pits were observed far from the zone of dense biofilm
coverage. The presence of G.sulfurreducens biofilm delayed the occurrence of pitting but
pit propagation proved to be intimately linked to the densest bacterial coverage : the
significant pits were always observed in the vicinity or beneath the dense biofilm zones.
Pitting did not occur in the same range of potential values in the control experiments and
in the experiments performed in the presence of bacteria, it is consequently not possible to
choose formally between two different hypotheses to explain the link between biofilm and
pitting location:
i) either the biofilm really promotes pit propagation, in this case it would be directly
responsible for pitting propagation in its vicinity,
ii) or the biofilm only develops preferentially on the sites that are then the most
sensitive to pit propagation, in this case the bigger pits observed in the presence of
bacteria would only be due to the highest potential values that were reached, the biofilm
only detects the zones that are the most sensitive to further corrosion, because of surface
defects or inclusions for example.
153
(A)
(B)
(A)
Figure 11. SEM picture of the same 304L stainless steel electrode after 240 hours in the
presence of 5% v/v G.sulfurreducens in a medium containing 5mM acetate, showing a high
biofilm coverage in the vicinity of pits (A, A) while only scattered bacteria cells are observed
far from pits (B). Magnification 1000 x for pictures A, B and 1000 Kx for pictures A.
4. Conclusions
G. sulfurreducens cells adhering to the surface of the steels induced a free potential
ennoblement of the order of 0.35 V in only a few hours on 1145 mild steel and 403 ferritic
steel, and of 0.35 V on 304L and 316L austenitic steels. The kinetics of Eoc ennoblement
on the first hours following bacterial injection depended on the amount of bacteria in the
inoculum, but the final potential value depended mainly on the nature of the material. The
corrosion features of mild steel and ferritic steel were modified by the presence of bacteria
with corrosion attacks gathered into determined zones of the material surface. Local
corrosion was significantly enhanced on ferritic steel. Potential ennoblement was not
sufficient to induce corrosion on austenitic steels. In contrast, during the pitting
polarization test, the capability of the mature G.sulfurreducens biofilms to oxidize acetate
at high potential values modified the behaviour of the passive layer resulting in delaying
the occurrence of pitting and improving repassivation. Nevertheless, the propagation of
pits proved to be intimately linked to the local presence of dense biofilm on the steel
surface.
It was demonstrated here that Geobacter sulfurreducens plays a major role in the control
of the electrochemical behaviour of different kinds of steels, with different mechanisms at
free corrosion potential and at more positive potential values. It modifies the corrosion
features for the less alloyed steels and changes the resistance to pitting and the pit
propagation rate for austenitic steels. As Geobacter sp. are ubiquitous species in
sediments and soils, with the capability for some species to survive in oxic zones, they
should now be considered as a serious source of microbial corrosion for buried equipment.
Their presence should now be sought in any field case dealing with microbial corrosion of
steels in sediments or soils.
154
This work was supported by a grant from CNRS-DRI (department ST2I). It was part of
CNRS work for the European network Surfaces of materials in living environments
(SMILE). We acknowledge, Dr. Damien Fron from CEA-Saclay (France) for numerous
helpful discussions, from the Laboratoire de Gnie Chimique, Luc Etcheverry for his
technical support, Dr. Benjamin Erable for his scientific help and Marie-Line de Solan for
SEM facilities.
References
1. J.H. Koch, M.P.H. Brongers, N.G. Thompson, Y.P. Virmani, J.H. Payer. Corrosion
Cost and Preventive Strategies in the United States, Federal Highway Administration,
Washington, D.C. Report no. FHWA-RD-01-156 (2002).
2. H.-C. Flemming. Biofouling and microbiologically influenced corrosion (MIC) an
economical and technical overview, in: E. Heitz, W. Sand, H.-C. Flemming (Eds.),
Microbial Deterioration of Materials, Springer, Heidelberg, 1996.
3. I.B. Beech, Corrosion of technical materials in the presence of biofilms-current
understanding and state-of-the art methods of study, Int. Biodeter. Biodegr. 53 (2004)
177-183.
4. R.A. King, J.D.A. Miller, Corrosion by sulphate-reducing bacteria, Nature. 233 (1971)
491-492.
5. H. Castaneda, X.D. Benetton, SRB-biofilm influence in active corrosion sites formed
at the steel-electrolyte interface when exposed to artificial seawater conditions, Corr.
Sci. 50 (2008) 1169-1183.
6. M.A. Lopez, F.J.Z. Diaz de la Serna, J. Jan-Roblero, J.M. Romero, C. HernandezRodriguez, Phylogenetic analysis of a biofilm bacterial population in a water pipeline
in the Gulf of Mexico, FEMS Microbiol. Ecol. 58 (2006), 145-154.
7. D.R. Lovley, Bug juice: harvesting electricity with microorganisms, Nature Rev.
Microbiol. 7 (2006) 497-508.
8. K. Rabaey, W. Verstraete, Microbial fuel cells: novel biotechnology for energy
generation, Trends Biotechnol. 23 (2005) 291-298.
9. B.E. Logan, J.M. Regan, Electricity-producing bacterial communities in microbial fuel
cells, Trends Microbiol. 14 (2006) 512-518.
10. D.R. Bond, D.R. Lovley, Electricity production by Geobacter sulfurreducens attached
to electrodes, Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 69 (2003) 1548-1555.
11. C. Dumas, R. Basseguy, A. Bergel, DSA to grow electrochemically active biofilms of
Geobacter sulfurreducens, Electrochim. Acta. 53 (2008) 3200-3209.
12. C. Dumas, R. Basseguy, A. Bergel, Electrochemical activity of Geobacter
sulfurreducens biofilms on stainless steel anodes, Electrochim. Acta. 53 (2008) 52355241.
13. Y-H.R. Ding, K.K. Hixson, C. S. Giometti, A. Stanley, A. Esteve-Nunez, T. Khare, S.
L. Tollaksen, W. Zhu, J. N. Adkins. M. S. Lipton, R. D. Smith, T. Mester, D. R.
Lovley, The proteome of dissimilatory metal-reducing microorganism Geobacter
sulfurreducens under various growth conditions, Biochim. Biophys. Acta. 1764 (2006)
1198-1206.
14. D. E. Holmes, S.K. Chaudhury, K.P. Nevin, T. Mehta, B.A. Methe, A. Liu, J. E.
Ward, T. L. Woodard, J. Webster, D. R. Lovley, Microarray and genetic analysis of
155
156
Figure 6 : Evolution du potentiel de circuit ouvert en fonction du temps dun acier inoxydable
316L en absence et en prsence de (5% v./v.) de G. sulfurreducens ; 30 mM chlorures.
157
Geobacter species enhances pit propagation on stainless steel in a medium lacking with
electron donor.
158
Larticle 3 prsente les rsultats obtenus en utilisant lacier inoxydable 304L comme
lectrode de travail en absence dactate (0 mM au lieu de 10 mM) et contenant du fumarate
(25 mM). Le fait de supprimer totalement le donneur dlectrons (actate) a pour objectif
dtudier si les bactries sont capables de survivre en utilisant directement les lectrons de
llectrode et de ce fait provoquer la corrosion de lacier. Les rsultats obtenus ont permis de
dmontrer :
Il ny a pas daugmentation significative de Eoc en absence des bactries et les valeurs
de Eoc pour les tmoins ne varient pas quelque soit la concentration dactate.
En absence dactate, les potentiels de piqres sont similaires en absence et en
prsence de bactries mais les courants de propagations sont plus importants en
prsence des bactries suggrant la prsence de piqres plus importantes.
Ltude de la morphologie des piqres par microscopies balayage et force
atomique confirme que dans un milieu ne contenant pas de donneur dlectrons
(actate), les piqres sont dix fois plus larges et plus profondes en prsence des
bactries quen leur absence.
Dans un milieu ne contenant pas dactate, le biofilm de G. sulfurreducens promeut la
propagation des piqres.
Lanalyse de surface par microscopie pifluorescence aprs coloration lacridine
orange, montre quen absence dactate, le signal fluorescent rouge est faible. LARN
mettant mission = 630 nm (rouge), ce signal rouge faible indique un faible
dveloppement bactrien. Par contre, en prsence dactate (10 mM), les bactries
fluorescent fortement dans le rouge indiquant une activit bactrienne importante
(rsultats prsents dans la section IV.6.2 ci-dessous). Ces rsultats sont confirms par
lestimation du nombre de cellules planctoniques, le nombre dunits formant colonies
(UFC/mL) qui est trois fois suprieur en prsence dactate quen son absence.
A la fin des expriences, les lectrodes ont t retires des racteurs lectrochimiques
et marques avec une solution dacridine orange (0,03%) durant 10 minutes lobscurit puis
immerges doucement dans leau distille pour liminer lexcs dacridine.
La microscopie confocale pifluorescence couple au marquage lacridine orange a permis
de distinguer les cellules actives (fluorescence rouge lie lARN) des cellules mortes ou
inactives (fluorescence verte lie lADN). La longueur donde dexcitation est excitation =
490 nm. LADN met mission = 530 nm (vert) et lARN met mission = 630 nm (rouge).
En prsence de 10 mM dactate, le signal fluorescent rouge est puissant indiquant un taux
lev dARN qui est corrl une importante activit viable du biofilm dans le milieu
complet (Figure 7.A).
Dans le milieu ne contenant pas dactate, le signal rouge fluorescent est faible indiquant une
faible activit viable pour le biofilm dans le milieu ne contenant pas dactate (Figure 7.B).
Labsence de donneur dlectrons dans le milieu est stressante pour les bactries qui se sont
dveloppes grce, uniquement, au faible taux dactate prsent dans linoculum. Ces
rsultats confortent le comptage du nombre de cellules planctoniques (units formant colonies
par millilitre, UFC/mL) qui a t valu la fin des expriences : en prsence de 10 mM
159
B
Figure 7 : Microscopie confocale pifluorescence des lectrodes dacier 304L aprs vingt
jours dimmersion dans un milieu contenant respectivement 10 mM (A) et 0 mM (B) dactate
en prsence de 5% v/v G.sulfurreducens.
160
Abstract
Geobacter sulfurreducens bacteria increased the open circuit potential of 304L stainless steel
by around 320mV in only a few hours after inoculation. This represents a significant increase
in the corrosion risk. In contrast, the oxidation of acetate, which is catalysed by wellestablished biofilms, shifted the pitting potential towards positive values. In acetate-lacking
media pitting occurred with and without bacteria in the same range of potential values, but the
presence of bacteria drastically promoted the propagation of pits. AFM showed pits more than
ten times broader and deeper due to the presence of bacteria. In the absence of acetate, the
masking effect due to acetate oxidation disappeared and the full corrosive effect of the biofilm
was revealed. This also fully explains why pitting was predominantly observed close to
surface areas where bacterial settlement was the densest.
Keywords: Microbial corrosion; Geobacter sulfurreducens; Stainless steel; Electrochemically
active biofilms; Direct electron transfer.
1. Introduction
The implication of sulphate reducing bacteria (SRB) in the anaerobic corrosion of steels is
well acknowledged [1]. Nevertheless, studies are starting to indicate that SRB may not be the
only cause of anaerobic corrosion [2]. Recently, it has been demonstrated that Geobacter
species can be involved in microbial corrosion, through direct electron exchange between
microbial cells and the material surface. Geobacter is a bacterial genus quite ubiquitous in
soils and sediments [3], it may consequently be a source of microbial corrosion for numerous
types of buried industrial equipment.
Some Geobacter species have been shown to be able to connect their metabolism directly to
solid electrodes [4-6]. Geobacter sulfurreducens can oxidize organic substrates (acetate,
benzoate, toluene) to carbon dioxide by transferring the electrons produced directly to
graphite [3] or metallic anodes [7] thanks to periplasmic and outer membrane c-type
cytochromes [8], On the other hand, G. sulfurreducens has also been shown to reduce nitrate
to nitrite or fumarate to succinate with a graphite [9] or stainless steel [10] cathode as electron
donor.
161
2. Experimental section
Working electrodes were 2-cm-diameter cylinders of 304L stainless steel embedded in resin
(Resipoly Chrysor). Electrical connections were made through titanium wire protected with
resin. Coupons were polished successively with SiC papers P120, P180, P400 and P800 (Lam
Plan) and rinsed with distilled water. Electrochemical tests were performed in 0.5L reactors
under N2/CO2 (80/20) flux with an Ag/AgCl reference electrode. Open circuit potentials were
monitored using a multipotentiostat (VMP-Bio-Logic) and pitting curves were recorded at
0.5mVs-1 with a platinum grid as counter electrode.
G.sulfurreducens strain PCA (ATCC 51573) purchased from DSMZ was grown at 30C for
five days in the standard medium as described elsewhere [12] with 10mM sodium acetate
(electron donor) and 25mM sodium fumarate (electron acceptor). The bacteria were incubated
in the growth medium for five days under anaerobic conditions at 30C. The number of
planktonic cells (cell forming units per millilitre, CFU mL-1) was evaluated through the
absorbance at 620nm [12]:
[CFU.mL-1] = OD620nm * 472 067
Epifluorescent microscopy was achieved with a Leica confocal microscope. Biofilms were
stained for 10 minutes with acridine orange (0.03%), then rinsed with distilled water and air
dried in the dark. SEM was performed with a LEO 435 VP-Carl Zeiss SMT and topographic
pictures were recorded with an atomic force microscope (AFM) (Veeco) in contact mode
using silicon nitride Si3N4 cantilevers (Park Scientific) with a scan rate of 0.5Hz.
Geobacter sulfurreducens was grown for five days in the ATCC culture medium, which
contained 10mM acetate as electron donor and 25mM fumarate as electron acceptor. This
culture was used to inoculate different electrochemical reactors (5% v/v or 10% v/v) that
contained one to four 304L stainless steel coupon(s). Inoculation was performed around 24h
after the immersion of the coupons. The solution in the electrochemical reactors was the same
as the culture medium but with different concentrations of acetate: 0, 1, 5 and 10mM. The
open circuit potential Eoc of each coupon started to increase as soon as the reactor was
inoculated, while control experiments run without bacteria showed no potential increase. The
162
with 5% bacteria
I / mA
1.2
0.8
without bacteria
0.4
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
E / V vs. Ag/AgCl
with 5% bacteria
0.3
I / mA
with 10 % bacteria
0.2
0.1
without bacteria
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
E / V vs. Ag/AgCl
Fig. 1. Pitting curves (scan rate 0.5mV s-1) after 20 days immersion in an anaerobic medium
inoculated with bacteria (5% or 10% v/v) or in the absence of bacteria. (A) acetate 10mM; (B)
acetate 0mM.
Table 1. Epit measured after 20 days in media inoculated with G. sulfurreducens (5% v/v) and
containing different concentrations of acetate. pH and concentration of planktonic cells were
measured at the end of the experiments. Epit values were determined when the current reached
163
[acetate]
0 mM
1 mM
5 mM
10 mM
pH
[CFU.mL-1]
6.97
70 810
7.03
94 413
7.05
122 737
7.12
207 709
Epit control
(V vs Ag/AgCl)
0.83
The presence or absence of acetate did not have a significant effect on the control experiments
performed without bacteria. The presence of bacteria significantly shifted Epit towards
positive values. The results were well reproducible with 5mM and 10mM acetate. They were
less regular with 1mM acetate, because it is more difficult for the bacteria to grow with so low
a concentration of electron donor, as shown by the lower concentration of planktonic cells
(Table 1). G. sulfurreducens forms biofilms that catalyse the oxidation of acetate on steel
surfaces and transfer the electrons produced directly to the material [7]. This external source
of electrons modified the behaviour of the passive layer and delayed the occurrence of pitting.
Nevertheless, when the passive layer finally disrupted at very high potential values, pitting
occurred at higher energy levels than in the control experiment and resulted in larger pits that
required more charge for repassivation.
Epifluorescent images exhibited a heterogeneous coverage of the material surface by the
biofilm (data not shown). Small surface areas were covered by dense biofilm, while large
areas supported only scattered bacteria. In most cases, pits were observed close to or beneath
biofilm settlement. With no acetate in the medium, Epit values in the presence or the absence
of bacteria were the same (Fig. 1.B). The absence of electron donor in the medium was
stressful for the cells, which developed only thanks to the small amount of acetate that
remained in the inoculum. Epifluorescent microscopy with acridine orange staining allowed
active cells (red fluorescence linked to ARN) to be distinguished from dead or inactive cells
(green fluorescence linked to DNA). The weakness of red fluorescence observed on biofilms
formed in acetate-free medium indicated a low living activity for these biofilms.
In acetate-free medium, the biofilm was no longer able to affect the Epit value and pitting
occurred in the same range of potentials with and without bacteria. Nevertheless, the
propagation currents were higher in the presence of bacteria, suggesting the presence of larger
pits. This was confirmed by macroscopic and microscopic images (Fig. 2).
164
Fig. 2. Pictures and SEM micrographs of coupons after 20 days' immersion in an anaerobic
medium in the absence of bacteria (first column: A, C, E, G) or inoculated with 5% v/v G.
sulfurreducens (second column: B, D, F, H).
(A, B, E, F): acetate 10mM. (C, D, G, H): acetate 0mM.
In the absence of bacteria, only one or two small corroded spots were visible and the pits
initiated were very small and difficult to identify, scattered over the electrode surface. In
contrast, several large corroded areas were visible in the presence of G. sulfurreducens and
SEM detected a number of wide, deep pits, most often in zones of dense microbial settlement.
AFM analysis of the surface topography (Fig. 3) showed only very small pits of 3m width
and 0.3m depth on average for control experiments in the absence of bacteria. In the
presence of 5% G. sulfurreducens, the pits were around 30m wide and their depth, greater
than 3m, could not be evaluated because the size of the tip. The presence of the cells resulted
in pits up to 10 times as wide and more than 10 times as deep. In the absence of acetate,
pitting beneath biofilms and in the control experiments occurred in the same range of
165
Fig. 3. AFM image and topographic representation of pits on a 304L SS from the experiments
reported in Fig. 1B (acetate 0 M): (A) and (A) in the absence of bacteria, showing small pits
(width w 3m, depth d 0.3m); (B) and (B) in the presence of 5% G. sulfurreducens,
showing a large pit (width w 31m, depth d > 3m); (C) and (C) in the presence of 10 %
G. sulfurreducens showing a large pit (width w 27 m, depth d > 3m).
4. Conclusion
The catalysis of acetate oxidation that occurs with well-established biofilm of Geobacter
sulfurreducens delays the occurrence of pitting. In the absence of acetate, biofilms were still
166
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by a grant from CNRS-DRI (department ST2I) and was part of the
CNRS European network SMILE. We are grateful to Dr. Damien Fron from
CEA/DEN/SCCME Saclay (France) for numerous helpful discussions. We thank Marie-Line
de Solan, Luc Etcheverry and Dr. Benjamin Erable, Laboratoire de Gnie Chimique,
Toulouse, for their efficient technical help.
References
167
168
Larticle 4 prsente les rsultats obtenus en utilisant lacier inoxydable 304L comme
lectrode de travail en prsence dactate (10 mM) mais en absence de fumarate (0 mM). Le
fait de supprimer totalement laccepteur dlectrons (fumarate) a pour objectif dtudier le
rle du fumarate dans le mcanisme de la corrosion influence par G. sulffurreducens.
Les rsultats obtenus ont permis de dmontrer :
En absence de fumarate, linjection des bactries induit galement un anoblissement
du potentiel. En absence de fumarate, les bactries ont du mal crotre, la croissance
bactrienne est ralentie ce qui nvite pas pour autant la raction cathodique et par
suite laugmentation de Eoc, puisque des changes lectroniques trs faibles sont
suffisants pour faire varier le Eoc dun matriau.
Linjection du milieu strile ou du filtrat, cest--dire de la suspension bactrienne
aprs filtration sur un filtre de 0,2 m, ninduit aucun anoblissement de Eoc prouvant
que ce sont bien les bactries qui sont responsables de laugmentation de Eoc et non un
mtabolite quelles relarguent dans le milieu. Ces observations confirment que ce sont
les bactries qui sont en contact direct avec la surface de lacier qui jouent un rle
prpondrant dans laugmentation de Eoc et que le mcanisme de corrosion mis en jeu
est bien un mcanisme de transfert direct dlectrons.
Dans un milieu complet (10 mM actate, 25 mM fumarate), le dveloppement
bactrien, bien quil dcale les potentiels de piqration vers les valeurs positives en
fournissant des lectrons par oxydation de lactate, entrane la propagation des
piqres, les courants de propagation sont levs et la corrosion localise est accentue
lors du trac des courbes de piqration.
En absence de fumarate, la prsence de G. sulfurreducens dcale le potentiel de piqre
vers les valeurs positives. Par contre, les courants de propagation observs sur les
courbes de piqration sont du mme ordre en prsence et en absence de bactries. Les
observations par microscopies balayage (cf. section IV.7.2, rsultats
supplmentaires) et force atomique de la topographie des aciers montrent des tats
de surface similaires en prsence et en absence de bactries, le biofilm perd sa capacit
acclrer la propagation des piqres. Dans ce cas, la catalyse de loxydation
dactate par le biofilm bactrien joue un rle important dans la protection de lacier
contre la corrosion en retardant la piqration de lacier et en amliorant les conditions
de repassivation.
En absence de fumarate, le biofilm perd sa capacit acclrer la propagation des
piqres et seul leffet protecteur d loxydation de lactate persiste. Par suite, G.
sulfurreducens pourrait tre envisage pour dvelopper des biofilms positifs pour la
protection contre la corrosion des aciers.
169
Abstract
1. Introduction
It has recently been discovered that many microbial genera and species have the capacity to
connect their metabolism to solid electrodes, directly exchanging electrons with them through
membrane-bound redox compounds [1,2]. One of the most widely studied of these bacteria,
Geobacter sulfurreducens, has been shown to be able to oxidize organic electron donors
(acetate, benzoate, toluene) to carbon dioxide using graphite [3,4] or stainless steel [5]
anodes as sole electron acceptor. Direct electron transfer to solid electrodes, without the need
for an external mediator, is achieved through periplasmic and outer membrane c-type
cytochromes (OmcS and OmcE) [6]. On the other hand, the ability of G.sulfurreducens to
reduce nitrate to nitrite or fumarate to succinate with graphite [7] or stainless steel [8] cathode
as sole electron donor has also been demonstrated.
The implication of direct electron transfer between material surfaces and micro-organisms
was first evoked in the framework of biocorrosion with Desulfobacterium-like and
Methanobacterium-like isolates extracted from natural biofilms [9]. Our previous work has
shown that G.sulfurreducens exerts two different effects on 304L stainless steel [10]. The
presence of G.sulfurreducens cells creates a cathodic reaction on the material, which leads to
a fast increase in its open circuit potential (Eoc), increasing the corrosion risk. In contrast, after
a few days, well-established biofilms shift the pitting potential (Epit) towards positive values,
170
2. Experimental section
G. sulfurreducens strain PCA (ATCC 51573) was purchased from DSMZ. Standard growth
medium was used as described elsewhere [8]. It contained 25mM sodium fumarate (electron
acceptor) and 10mM acetate (electron donor). The bacteria were incubated in the growth
medium under N2/CO2 (80/20) for five days, at 30C. Electrochemical experiments were
carried out in 0.5L reactors, with continuous N2/CO2 (80/20) bubbling, at 30C. The
electrochemical reactors were inoculated with 5% v/v bacterial culture at 142 000 CFU.mL-1
at time t = 24h. The electrochemical reactors contained the same components as the culture
medium but with different concentrations of fumarate.
Working electrodes were 2cm diameter cylinders made of 304L stainless steel embedded in
resin (Resipoly Chrysor). Coupons were polished successively using SiC papers with P120P800 grit (Lam Plan) and P120-P4000 for some coupons. They were then rinsed thoroughly
with distilled water. A platinum grid served as a counter electrode. All potentials were
expressed with respect to Ag/AgCl reference. Measurements of open circuit potentials (Eoc)
were made using a multipotentiostat (VMP-Bio-Logic) and polarization curves were obtained
potentiodynamically with a scan rate of 0.5mVs-1.
Topographic images were recorded with an atomic force microscope (AFM) (Veeco) in
contact mode using silicon nitride Si3N4 cantilevers (Park Scientific) with a scan rate of
0.5Hz.
3. Results and discussion
Geobacter sulfurreducens cells were grown in standard bulk conditions, i.e. in media
containing 10mM acetate as electron donor and 25mM fumarate as electron acceptor, both
components being essential for cell development. These cultures were then used to inoculate
the electrochemical rectors with 25mL (5% v/v) containing 142000 colony forming units
(CFU) per mL. Eoc was monitored for 304L coupons immersed in media that did not contain
fumarate (Fig. 1A, A) and in complete media (10mM acetate, 25mM fumarate) (Fig. 1.B).
Reactors were inoculated with bacterial cells 24 hours after immersion of the coupons.
Control experiments were performed using fresh medium without bacteria as the inoculum.
171
(A)
(A)
(B)
Fig. 1. Variation of Eoc of 304L stainless steel with time with 5% v/v G. sulfurreducens and
without bacteria:
(A) in fumarate-free medium after polishing with P120-P800 grit;
(A) in fumarate-free medium after polishing with P120-P4000 grit.
(B) in complete medium containing 25mM fumarate, after polishing at P120-P800 grit.
172
(A)
173
(B)
Fig. 2: Pitting curves (scan rate 0.5mVs-1) of 304L stainless steel after 20 days' immersion in
the presence of 5% v/v G. sulfurreducens and in the absence of bacteria in a medium
containing (A) 25mM fumarate; (B) 0mM fumarate.
In each case, the presence of G.sulfurreducens shifted the pitting potential by 0.2V or more
towards positive values. It is known that the biofilms of G.sulfurreducens that establish
themselves on electrode surfaces after a few days have the capacity to catalyze the oxidation
of acetate, transferring the electrons directly to the stainless steel anodes [5]. Here, this
oxidation constituted a source of electrons for the material that delayed the occurrence of
pitting. Pitting started at more positive potentials in the presence of well-established
G.sulfurreducens biofilm. In the presence of the bacteria, the pitting potentials had similar
values around 1.0 V vs. Ag/AgCl in both media: the one lacking fumarate and the one
containing 25mM fumarate.
However, in the presence of 25mM fumarate, very high propagation currents were observed,
which resulted in severe attack of the material. After the pitting curves had been recorded,
numerous severely corroded zones appeared, while only one or two weakly corroded spots
were visible in the control experiments carried out in the absence of bacteria (Fig. 3 A, B). It
has already been demonstrated that the biofilm-catalyzed oxidation of acetate has only a
masking effect and, actually, a well-developed biofilm severely increases pit propagation
[11]. This behaviour was confirmed here.
174
Fig. 3. Photographs of the samples that underwent the pitting polarization reported in Fig. 2 in
the absence of bacteria (first column: A, C) or inoculated with 5% v/v G. sulfurreducens
(second column: B, D).
(A, B): fumarate : 25mM. (C, D): fumarate 0mM.
The behaviour was markedly different in fumarate-lacking medium. The propagation currents
were of the same order of magnitude as in control experiments and repassivation occurred
more quickly (repassivation at 0.81V vs. Ag/AgCl instead of 0.34V without bacteria). On a
macroscopic scale, the material surface exhibited only one weakly corroded spot (Fig. 3 C,
D), while two similar spots were observed on the control coupon in the absence of bacteria.
AFM topography measurements confirmed that only small pits had formed in the presence of
bacteria (Fig 4 B,C), with sizes similar to those of the pits observed in the absence of bacteria
(Fig 4 A).
175
(B)
(C)
Fig. 4. AFM image and topographic representation of 304L surfaces from the experiments
reported in Fig. 2B with 0mM fumarate: A in the absence of bacteria (pit width 14m,
depth 1.6m); B and C in the presence of 5% v/v G.sulfurreducens (pit width 20m,
depth 3m in B; pit width 24m, depth 1m in C); some adherent bacterial cells are
visible in picture C.
In a medium lacking of electron acceptor (fumarate), G.sufurreducens cells were able to shift
the pitting potential toward positive values but the propagation currents were four times lower
than the one obtained in the complete medium. The protective effect of G.sufurreducens cells
was remarkable: pitting occurred at potential values significantly higher than in the absence of
cells and, in spite of the higher energy available, pit propagation was maintained at an order
of magnitude similar to that in the absence of bacteria. In a fumarate-lacking medium, the
biofilm was not able to develop properly as indicated by the number of planktonic cells which
was one fifteenth of the number obtained in a complete medium. In the quasi-absence of
fumarate in the medium, the biofilm was not well-developed and it lost its capacity to increase
pit propagation, as a consequence only the protective effect of acetate oxidation remained. It
can be concluded that the presence of G.sufurreducens cells delayed the occurrence of pitting
independently of the presence of fumarate in the medium, but with low concentration of
fumarate the biofilm did no longer augment pit propagation; in contrast the effect of acetate
oxidation protect the material.
4. Conclusion
It has recently been revealed that G.sulfurreducens cells are able to create a cathodic reaction
of stainless steel that results in free potential ennoblement. It was shown here that depleting
the medium in soluble electron acceptor did not avoid this cathodic reaction. Very low
electron exchange rates, of the order of magnitude of passive currents, are actually sufficient
to move the open circuit potential of a material. Here, lowering the concentration of fumarate
176
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by a grant from CNRS-DRI (department ST2I). It was part of CNRS
work for the European network Surfaces of materials in living environments (SMILE). We
are grateful to Dr. Damien Fron from CEA/DEN/SCCME Saclay (France) for helpful
discussions. We thank Luc Etcheverry and Dr. Benjamin Erable from the Laboratoire de
Gnie Chimique, Toulouse (France), for their technical and scientific support.
References
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
177
Dans le but de conforter les rsultats obtenus par AFM, les chantillons prcdemment
tests (immersion en circuit ouvert et courbes de piqration) ont t nettoys afin dliminer
le biofilm et les produits de corrosion pour permettre de mieux comparer les tats de surfaces
de lacier 304L.
A-
B-
Figure 8 : Microscopie 2D (A) et 3D (B) dun acier 304 L aprs une courbe de piqration
(vitesse de balayage : 0,2 mV/s) dans un milieu KCl, 30 mM. Les photos sont prises aprs
nettoyage.
178
Les photos MEB de lacier 304L aprs nettoyage pour les chantillons tests dans le
milieu (0 mM fumarate, 10 mM actate) en absence de bactries (A, B, C, D) et en prsence
de 5% v. / v. de G. sulfurreducens (A, B, C, D) sont reprsentes dans la figure 9.
A
Grossissement 70 x
B
Grossissement 1000 x
C
Grossissement 3,5 Kx
179
D
Grossissement 10,00 Kx
Figure 9 : Photos MEB de lacier 304L aprs nettoyage pour les chantillons tests dans le
milieu (0 mM fumarate, 10 mM actate) en absence de bactries (A, B, C, D) et en prsence
de 5% v. / v. de G. sulfurreducens (A, B, C, D).
Les images MEB confirment que les tats de surface sont similaires en absence et en prsence
de bactries que ce soit au niveau du nombre, de la taille ou de lagencement des piqres.
Dans un milieu ne contenant pas de fumarate, les images MEB ont permis de confirmer les
rsultats obtenus par AFM et ont galement montr de petites piqres, identiques en prsence
et en absence de bactries.
180
Suite ces travaux, deux effets antagonistes ont t mis en lumire : en prsence dune
quantit suffisante de donneur dlectrons (fumarate), ladhsion des bactries induit un
anoblissement important du potentiel en circuit ouvert en quelques heures augmentant ainsi la
vitesse de la raction cathodique et acclrant les vitesses de propagation des piqres. Le
mcanisme par lequel G. sulfurreducens augmente significativement le potentiel libre de
corrosion est un mcanisme de transfert direct. A notre connaissance, cest la premire fois o
la pertinence du mcanisme de transfert direct en biocorrosion est dmontre.
Par contre, potentiels levs, loxydation de lactate retarde lapparition des piqres.
Ce mcanisme complexe est contrl par les concentrations des espces de donneurs et
daccepteurs dlectrons prsentes en solution.
Linfluence directe de lespce Geobacter sulfurreducens dans la corrosion anarobie
des aciers a t mise en vidence. Dsormais, le rle cl de G. sulfurreducens dans la
biocorrosion anarobie doit tre imprativement pris en compte surtout lorsquil sagit
dquipements enfouis, la famille des Geobacteracea tant prdominante dans les sdiments
et les sols.
Par ailleurs, dans des conditions particulires dexcs de donneurs dlectrons et
surtout de dficit daccepteurs dlectrons, ladhsion de G. sulfurreducens peut retarder la
corrosion ce qui permet denvisager la possibilit dutiliser ces bactries pour tablir des
biofilms positifs afin de protger de la corrosion.
Les perspectives envisager seraient de tester les biofilms dans lesquelles le genre
Geobacter est prdominant, en milieux naturels, pour valuer leurs rles en corrosion.
181
Chapitre V
Conclusion gnrale
182
183
Les travaux raliss avec la souche bactrienne G. sulfurreducens ont mis en vidence,
outre linfluence du matriau, linfluence du milieu. Un anoblissement du potentiel en circuit
ouvert Eoc a t observe pour les quatre aciers tests aprs linoculation des bactries. Eoc
augmente de plus de 300 mV durant les 3 heures suivant linjection et laugmentation du
potentiel se poursuit graduellement durant cinq jours jusqu une valeur seuil ne dpassant
pas 0,15 V vs. Ag/AgCl quels que soient la dure de lexprience, le type dacier ou la nature
du milieu. La cintique daugmentation de Eoc sur les premires heures dpend de la quantit
de bactries injecte. Les valeurs de Eoc finales dpendent de la nature de lacier et sont
classes dans un ordre croissant identique celui des rsistances des aciers la corrosion.
Linjection de la suspension bactrienne aprs filtration ninduit aucune modification de Eoc,
indiquant que ce sont les cellules bactriennes qui sont responsables de lanoblissement de Eoc
et non un mtabolite secrt dans le milieu. Les mcanismes voqus dans la littrature pour
expliquer laugmentation de Eoc reposent sur la catalyse de la raction cathodique.
Effectivement, le trac des courbes de Tafel, en prsence des bactries, rvle une nouvelle
raction cathodique qui sajoute la rduction des protons ; aucun changement notable nest
observable sur les parties anodiques confirmant que laugmentation brusque du potentiel la
suite de linjection de G. sulfurreducens est due la modification de la raction cathodique.
En prsence dun donneur dlectrons en solution (actate), les bactries dcalent les
potentiels de piqres vers les valeurs positives. Les courbes de Tafel traces la fin de
lexprience en prsence des bactries montrent une vague doxydation de lactate catalyse
par G. sulfurreducens qui retarde la piqration en fournissant au matriau une nouvelle source
dlectrons. Par contre, les piqres formes en prsence des bactries, suite au trac des
courbes de piqration, sont plus nombreuses et plus larges car la propagation des piqres est
plus importante. Lanalyse des courbes de repassivation conforte ce rsultat, en effet les
piqres se repassivent plus difficilement (hysteresis leve) en prsence des bactries. Les
observations en microscopies balayage et force atomique ralises aprs le traage des
courbes de piqration rvlent des piqres dix fois plus larges et profondes quen absence de
bactries. Lanalyse de surface par microscopie pifluorescence aprs coloration lacridine
orange, montre une troite relation entre lagencement du biofilm bactrien et les zones de
184
Dans son ensemble, le travail ralis a permis de mettre en vidence, pour la premire
fois, la validit du mcanisme de transfert lectronique direct dans le domaine de la corrosion
anarobie des aciers. Cette dmarche innovante ouvre une nouvelle voie dans la
comprhension des mcanismes de la biocorrosion. A lissue de ce travail, il serait intressant
de tester linfluence de ces micro-organismes sur la corrosion en milieux naturels, notamment
lorsquil sagit dquipements profonds, la famille des Geobacteracea tant prdominante
dans les sdiments et les sols, et danalyser le rle de ces bactries dans les conditions
environnementales relles des biofilms puisque, comme nous lavons soulign dans
lintroduction du premier chapitre, la biocorrosion rsulte de la conjonction dfavorable de
trois facteurs : le milieu, le matriau et les micro-organismes. Fort heureusement dailleurs
185
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