Cours Automatique I

Sami HAFSI

1ère GEM, 1ère IND

Maitre-Assistant à Issat Kairouan.

2020-2021
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'#+#* <

Y (p) 1 1/b
F (p) = = = =343>
X(p) ap + b 1 + ab p

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%"!$+!#+> +/1$* &'$."2'$ +* "#!$%&*#" +/1$ %:%";(* +1 ,#*(2*# '#+#* <
K
F (p) = 1+τ p
=34B>
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F (s)
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4 F'1# 1$
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∞ ,'1# t = 0
x(t) = =⇒ X(p) = 1 =34N>
0 ,'1# t 6= 0
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K K 1 K −t
Y (p) = X(p) = 1
L−1
=⇒ y(t) = e τ =34O>
1 + τp τ p+ τ
τ

! "!$9*$"* G -/'#292$* +* .*""* #),'$%* ! ,'1# .'*J.2*$" +2#*."*1# < y′ (0) = − τK2 =-. %)'*) /) -.
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35
 !"#$%&' () *+,%-.', /0 1&'.$'& 2&/&'

Impulse Response
réponse impulsionnelle de G(s) = 2 / (1+0.5p)
2

1.8

1.6

1.4

1.2
Amplitude

amplitude

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
temps
Time (sec.)

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/0+"1./,--$11$ (

Réponse impulsionnelle en fonction de τ

From: U(1)
1

0.9

0.8

0.7

0.6
y(t) / K

To: Y(1)

0.5
τ = 1,2,3,5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

temps t

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?- #$08#@"$ 2,-< @"$ τ /-="$-<$ 18 #8+/2/5* 2" .4.560$ :1$ 5$0+. @"$ 1$ .4.560$ 0$5 +,"#
#$9$-/# A 13*585 /-/5/81 8+#6. "-$ /0+"1./,-; 08/. -$ 0,2/ $ +8. 13811"#$ !*-*#81$ 2$ 18 <,"#B$& 78
98#/85/,- 2$ K -$ >8/5 @"$ 2*+18<$# 1$ +,/-5 2$ 2*+8#5 2$ <$55$ <,"#B$ 2$ #*+,-.$& C8# .,"</ 2$
<18#5*D <$55$ <,"#B$ $.5 -,#081/.*$ +8# #8++,#5 A K &

%%
 !"! #$%&'()( *)+%&,)--)(

!"! #$%&'() *'+*,*)--)

! "#$%&'( )&*)+)(,,( *-.& '/'012( ('0 '! "#$%&'( 3 .&( (&0"#( (& #+4(,%& 5(&0"#( +%&'0!&0( *(
6!,(." A78 -(&0"#( *. '/'012( ('0 *%&+ *#9&)( $!" ,-#:.!0)%& ;8<8
(
A $%." t ≥ 0 A
x(t) = =⇒ X(p) = 5;8<7
0 $%." t < 0 p

(' #:.!0)%&' ;8= (0 ;8< $("2(00(&0 *-#+")"( ,-(>$"('')%& *( ,! "#$%&'( )&*)+)(,,( ?

à !
K A 1 1 ³ ´
5;8@7
L−1 t
Y (p) = × = AK − 1 =⇒ y(t) = AK 1 − e− τ
1 + τp p p p+ τ

!"#$%&! '()( A-!$"1' ,( 04#%"12( *( ,! 6!,(." 9&!,(B %& ! ? t→∞

*+" y(t) =*+"
p→0
pY (s) = AK 8 !
"#$%&'( !00()&0 *%&+ .& "#C)2( 9&!, '0!D,(8 ( +%(E+)(&0 *)"(+0(." *( ,! 0!&C(&0( 3 ,-%")C)&( ('0
τ 8
*%&&# $!" ? y′ (0) = AK ■

,-./+0+1/ '(' 20!"34 5! $-31/4!6( .' /%%)--) !"# $%$&'()* +) &)(,$ -")
!"#$ %! &'#()$!
()& +. /0,1#$) 2# 232)++) " $%$&'() ,1"/ #) ,+"$ $1/&2/ !"# 2#&)/4.++) ) ±5% ."&1"/ ) $. /0,1#$)
5#.+) 6+)$ .#7+18$.91#$ "&2+2$)#& 31"/.(()#& "#) /0:0/)#3) ; ±2%)< =# 31#$2 '/) .+1/$ -") +) !"#$%
&% $'(%() )$& 1>&)#" ." >1"& !"# &)(,$ 07.+ ." &)(,$ ) /0,1#$) " $%$&'() 6+. $1/&2) )$& .+1/$
?-".$280-"24.+)#&)@ ." 7.2# $&.&2-") K × .(,+2&" ) ) +!)#&/0)A< B!041+"&21# ) +. $1/&2) C"$-"!."
&)(,$ ) /0,1#$) 31//)$,1# .+1/$ ." !"#$% ) '(*#)+# %< D)&&) 05#2&21# )$& 4.+.>+) -")+-") $12&
+!1/ /) " $%$&'() 31#$2 0/0< ■
,+- .!)% $#(% /% )%$&* .% !&+(*% .0-( *1*)2$% .- & %$#% + . %3 #/ *-4) .% ) +-5% tr 6&+-
)%$&* .% !&+(*%7 )%/ 8-% 9 y(tr ) = 0.95AK : ;0%*) < .# % 9
³ tr
´ tr
y(tr ) = AK 1 − e− τ = 0.95AK =⇒ e− τ = 0.05

%) .+(= 9 tr = −τ ln 0.05 ≃ 3τ :

!"#$%$&# '() *+,,+-, .%/%$0-+1( E2 +) $%$&'() )$& $&.>+)* 1# .,,)++) !! "! #$%$&'" 6."$$2
)//)"/ ) ,1$2&21#A* +. 2F0/)#3) -") +!1# /)+'4) $"/ "#) /0,1#$) 2# 232)++)* )#&/) +!)#&/0) )& +. $1/&2)
!"# $%$&'() +1/$-") t → ∞< ■
,+- -( *1*)2$% .- & %$#% + . %3 +( &%-) ='/=-/% /0% %- *)')#8-% =+$$% *-#) 9

2$3 ǫ(t) =t→∞

t→∞
2$3 [x(t) − y(t)] =2$3
p→0
p [X(p) − Y (p)]

=2$3 p [X(p) − Y (p)] =2$3 A [1 − G(p)]

p→0 p→0

= A(1 − K)

>0% %- *)')#8-% (0%*) .+(= (-//% 8-% &+- /%* *1*)2$%* .- & %$#% + . % .+() /% "'#( *)')#8-%
K %*) -(#)'# %: ?( /0%@& #$% %( &+- =%()'"% 6%( .#5#*'() &' A: A//% %*) '/+ * $#4!5+#4/#%+ .%
/0'$&/#)-.% A .% /0%() !% B B B

6+3/,0-+ '('( C >' )'("%()% < /0+ #"#(% =+-&% /0'@% D+ #E+()'/ y = AK &+- t = τ:
C >' !&+(*% #(.#=#%//% %*) /' .! #5!% .% /' !&+(*% #$&-/*#+((%//%:

FG
 !"#$%&' () *+,%-.', /0 1&'.$'& 2&/&'

!"#$%&'()*+¡ *+ &# ,-%./0+

¢ '/*'1'+&&+ %.), t = τ +0( 2
y(τ ) = AK 1 − e−1 ≃ 0.632AK 3
■

4.), )/ 050(6$+ *) %,+$'+, .,*,+7 &# 1./0(#/(+ *+ (+$%0 +0( *./1 &+ (+$%0 #) 8.)( *)9)+& &#
,-%./0+ '/*'1'+&&+ #((+'/( 63, 2% *+ 0./ ,-:'$+ ;/#&3

réponse indicielle de G(s) = 1 / (1+2p)

1

0.95 95 % du régime permanent

0.9

0.85

0.8

0.75

0.7

0.65
63 % du régime permanent
0.6
Amplitude

0.55

0.5

0.45

0.4

0.35

0.3

0.25

0.2

0.15

0.1

0.05
t=τ tr = 3 τ
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Time (sec.)

;:),+ <3=2 >-%./0+ '/*'1'+&&+ *")/ 050(6$+ *) %,+$'+, .,*,+

?+ &# $@$+ A#B./ 9)+ %.), &# ,-%./0+ '$%)&0'.//+&&+7 ./ %+)( 0+ ,+/*,+ 1.$%(+ *+ &"'/C)+/1+
*+ τ +( *+ K 0), &# ,-%./0+ '/*'1'+&&+ +/ 1./0)&(#/( &+0 ;:),+0 <3D +( <3E 2

Réponse indicielle en fonction de τ

From: U(1)
1

0.9

0.8

0.7

0.6
To: Y(1)
y(t)

0.5 τ = 1,2,3,5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

temps t

;:),+ <3D2 >-%./0+ '/*'1'+&&+ *")/ 050(6$+ *) %,+$'+, .,*,+ +/ A./1('./ *+ τ

F/ ,+$#,9)+ *./1 9)+ τ '/C)+/1+ &# ,#%'*'(- *) 050(6$+ G&+ (+$%0 9)+ $+( &+ 050(6$+ %.),
%#,H+/', I ,+J.'/*,+ &"+/(,-+K $#'0 /+ $.*';+ %#0 &"#&&),+ :-/-,#&+ *+ &# 1.),8+3

<D
 !"! #$%&'()( *)+%&,)--)(

Réponse indicielle en fonction de K

From: U(1)
3

2.5

K = 1,2,3
To: Y(1)
y(t)

1.5

0.5

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

temps t

!"#$ %&'( )*+,-.$ /-0/1/$22$ 03"- .4.567$ 0" +#$7/$# ,#0#$ $- 8,-15/,- 0$ K

9: ;:#/:5/,- 0$ K -$ 8:/5 <"$ 5#:-.2:5$# ;$#5/1:2$7$-5 2: 1,"#=$ 7:/. -$ 7,0/ $ +:. 2: #:+/0/5*
0" .4.567$ >5$7+. 0$ #*+,-.$. /0$-5/<"$.?&

!"!" #$%&'() * +') ,-.%)

@- ./!-:2 03$-5#*$ $- #:7+$ $.5 0* -/ +:# (
(
At +,"# t ≥ 0 A
x(t) = =⇒ X(s) = 2 >%&A?
0 +,"# t < 0 p

9$. *<":5/,-. %&B $5 %&A +$#7$55$-5 03*1#/#$ 23$C+#$../,- 0$ 2: #*+,-.$ 03"- .4.567$ 0" +#$7/$#
,#0#$ D "-$ #:7+$ (
à !
K A 1 τ τ
Y (p) = × 2 = AK 2
− + 1
1 + τp p p p p+ τ

³ t
´
L−1
=⇒ y(t) = AK t − τ + τ e− τ >%&E?

!"#$%$&# '() *+,,+-, .+ %,/0#/1+2( .' /%%)--) !! "! # $!%&'%( 0/1((2 ),,)1, 3) 42*)(()56
-/ 327$,)'8) 91) -:&' ,)-;4) )'*,) -:)'*,$) )* -/ (&,*2) 3:1' (<(*;+)6 -&,(91) t → ∞6 %&1, 1') )'*,$)
)' ,/+%)! =)**) 3$>'2*2&' )(* 4/-/?-) 91)-91) (&2* -:&,3,) 31 (<(*;+) 8&'(23$,$! ■
F:-. 2$ 1:. 03"- .4.567$ 0" +#$7/$# ,#0#$G ,- : (
3$4 ǫ(t) =t→∞
t→∞
3$4 [x(t) − y(t)]
= 3$4 At(1 − K) + τ − τ e
h −t
i
τ
t→∞
= 3$4 [At(1 − K) + τ ]
t→∞
(
./ K = 1 23$##$"# 0$ 5#:H-:!$ $.5 *!:2$ D τ
+:# 1,-.*<"$-5 (
./ K =
6 1 23$##$"# 0$ 5#:H-:!$ $.5 /- -/$

%'
 !"#$%&' () *+,%-.', /0 1&'.$'& 2&/&'

Réponse à une rampe

10

8
entrée u(t) = t →
7

← sortie
6

τ
amplitude

4 erreur de traînage = τ
3

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
temps

!"#$ %&'( )*+,-.$ /0"- .1.234$ /" +#$45$# ,#/#$ 6 "-$ #74+$ 8"7-/ 9:;

!" #$% &$'()*+,)-' .-% %/%(01-% .+ &'-1)-' 2'.'- 3454'$,)%4

dx(t) dy(t)
<,- *8"725,- /5=*#$-25$>>$ ?7"2 ( k0 x(t) + k1 = + by(t)
dt dt
<7 @,-A25,- /$ 2#7-.@$#2 $.2 /,--*$ +7# (

Y (p) k0 +k1 p
F (p) = X(p) = 1+τ p

B- -,2$ >7 +#*.$-A$ /0"- C*#, D.,>"25,- /" -"4*#72$"#E& F> 1 7 7>,#. 4,/5 A725,- /$ >7 #*+,-.$
5-/5A5$>>$& G- $=$2H .5 ,- AI$#AI$ >7 #*+,-.$ D7?$A J&F& -">>$.EH ,- .07+$#K,52 8"$ >7 #*+,-.$ 5-/5A5$>>$
/*L"2$ 6 k1 /τ &

!6 #$% &$'()*+,)-' .-% %/%(01-% )5(43'$(-+'%

J$ 21+$ /$ .1.234$ $.2 2#3. @#*8"$-2 $- +#7258"$. ( 7..$#?5..$4$-2 /$ +,.525,- /0"- 4,2$"#H
4,/3>$ /0"-$ A"?$H $2A&&&
dy(t)
<,- *8"725,- /5=*#$-25$>>$ ?7"2 ( Kx(t) = τ
dt
<7 @,-A25,- /$ 2#7-.@$#2 $.2 /,--*$ +7# (

Y (p) K 1
F (p) = X(p) = τ × p

B- -,2$ >7 +#*.$-A$ /0"- +M>$ 6 >0,#5!5-$&

!"!# $%&'()* +,&-.)+'((*..*

K K L−1 K
Y (p) = X(p) = × 1 =⇒ y(t) = = A,-.27-2$H +7. /$ #$2,"# 6 C*#, D%&;NE
τp τp τ

%'
 !"! #$% &$'()*+,)-' .-% %/%(01-% $2-* '-($'.

!"! #$%&'() *'+*,*)--)

K K 1 L−1 K
Y (p) = X(p) = × =⇒ y(t) = t !"##$
τp τp p τ

%&'( )* )&( +& ,-./'(* 0'10)0*++* !"#$%# *++* ),/23 0'1-4'05*'3$" 6& '/30/' 1* 7&0' (3&3089*
':& .&( 1* (*'( 0)0 )&, '/9( ':&;/'( .&( 1* ,-705* .*,5&'*'3"

!" #$% &$'()*+,)-' .-% %/%(01-% $2-* '-($'.

6*( ,*3&,1( .*9;*'3 <3,* 1* 10=-,*'3*( '&39,*( >
? ,*3&,1 .@A(089* > 0+ *(3 1B &9C -+-5*'3( .@A(089*( 890 )/5./(*'3 +* .,/)*((9( > 0+ .,/;0*'3
.&, *C*5.+* 19 )@*50' & .&,)/9,0, ./9, +* 3,&'(./,3 1* +:0'D/,5&30/'E 19 .&,)/9,( 1*( F901*(
*'3,* +* ./0'3 1:0'3,/19)30/' *3 +* )&.3*9,"
? +* ,*3&,1 1* 5*(9,* .,/;0*'3 19 3*5.( 89* 5*3 +* )&.3*9, ./9, 1-+0;,*, +& 5*(9,*" %&'( +*
)&( 1*( 1-G03(E .,*((0/'(E *3)"""+& 5*(9,* (* 1-.+&)* H +& ;03*((* .,/)@* 19 (/' *3 +* ,*3&,1
*(3 89&(05*'3 '-7+07*&G+*" %&'( +* )&( 1*( 3*5.-,&39,*(E .IE JK%E +& 5*(9,* (* 1-.+&)* H +&
;03*((* 1*( F901*( )/'19)3*9,( *3 +* ,*3&,1 *(3 .+9( 05./,3&'3"""
6& D/,5* 1* +& D/')30/' 1* 3,&'(D*,3 *(3 9' .,*50*, /,1,* D&0(&'3 &..&,&23,* 9' 3*,5* *C./'*'30*+
&9 1-'/50'&3*9, >

Ke−T p
F (p) = !"#!$
1 + τp

L' *=*3E *' (* G&(&'3 (9, +* 3@-/,M5* 19 ,*3&,1 ;/0, ,*+&30/' #"#N$E /' *' 1-1903 +& D/')30/'
3*5./,*++* f (t − T ) 890 *(3 G0*' +& D/')30/' ,*3&,1-* 1:9'* ;&+*9, T "
!"#$%" &'(' 3 ()('- .4-5-1&,-6 78 &-+( *78%($(-' ,4-9-( .4+8 '-($'. .- 2.5 % %+' ,$ ':&78%- )8;
.)*)-,,- .4+8 %/%(01- .- <78*()78 .- ('$8%<-'( F (p) = 1+2p =*- >+) &7+''$)( ),,+%('-' ,- <$)( >+478
e−2.5p

$,,+1- ,- '$.)$(-+'6 ,$ &)0*- 8- *?$+9- &$% )11:.)$(-1-8( !!!@ A

réponse indicielle du premier ordre avec retard : F(p) = e−2.5t/(p+2)
0.5

0.45

0.4

0.35

0.3
y(t)

0.25

0.2

0.15

0.1

0.05

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
t

479,* !"O> P-./'(* 0'10)0*++* 1:9' (A(3M5* 19 .,*50*, /,1,* ,*3&,1-

!O
 !"#$%&' (
!"#$%&" '( )&(*+$%& ,-'-&

!""#$%&
!" #$%$&'()*$+ ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ,-
!, .*/01 01+ 23(1+ 04/% +5+*671 0/ 01/8)671 9&0&1 ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ,:
! ;$29%+1+ *1729&1((1+ ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ,:
!< =5+*671+ 049&0&1 +/2$&)1/& ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! >

!" #$%$&'()*$+
! "#$%&'(! %!()!' *+,'-*&!( .! "/)%/('!)!0' *!1 121'3)!1 .&0,$&(!1 &04$(&$0'1 *- *!-5&3)!
/(*(!6 7$( *,80&'&/09 "!1 121'3)!1 /:,&11!0' ; -0! ,<-$'&/0 *&=,(!0'&!..! *- *!-5&3)! /(*(! ;
"/!>"&!0'1 "/01'$0'1 ?
d2 y(t) dy(t)
x(t) = a
dt2
+b
dt
+ cy(t) @A6BC

/D x(t) !' y(t) (!%(,1!0'!0' (!1%!"'&4!)!0' .+!0'(,! !' .$ 1/('&! *- 121'3)!6

E$ '($01F/(),! *! E$%.$"! *! .+,<-$'&/0 A6B9 /D .!1 "/0*&'&/01 &0&'&$.!1 1/0' "/01&*,(,!1 0-..!19
%!()!' *+/:'!0&( F$"&.!)!0' .$ F/()! G,0,($.! *! .$ F/0"'&/0 *! '($01F!(' *!1 121'3)!1 *- %(!)&!(
/(*(! ?

Y (p) 1 Kω02
G(p) =
X(p)
= 2
ap + bp + c
= 2
p + 2ζω0 p + ω02
@A6HC

I J !1' $%%!., !"# $%!%"&'( *- 121'3)!6

I ω0 !1' .$ )'*$!%"+# ),+),( #+# !-+,%"( *- 121'3)! @!..! 1+!5%(&)! !0 ($*&$01 %$( 1!"/0*!C6
I ζ !1' .! .!/%(', 01!-+,%"$$(-(#% *- 121'3)!6
!1 '(/&1 G($0*!-(1 1->1!0' ; "$($"',(&1!( '/-' 121'3)! *- *!-5&3)! /(*(! ? "! 1/0' $($ ,!#0(',$
/!,!/%2,"$%"&'($6

HK
 !"! #$%&' &'( )*+'( &,%- (.($/0' &% &'%12/0' 34&4'

!" #$%&' &'( )*+'( &,%- (.($/0' &% &'%12/0' 34&4'

!" #$%!" &'()! *+),-.+) &! -/0)"*!/- G(p) "+)- %!" 10%!(/" &! 2p3 4(. 0))(%!)- %! &5)+6.)0-!(/
&! G(p)7 8! "+)- &+), %!" /0,.)!" &! !"#$%&'() *%+%*&"+',&'#$- 4(. "(.- 9

p2 + 2ζω0 p + ω02 = 0 :;7;<

! &.",/.6.)0)- /5&(.- 0""+,.5 = ,!--! 54(0-.+) !"- 9 ∆ = (ζ 2 − 1)ω02 7 >!%+) 4(! ζ "!/0 "(#5/.!(/
+( .)*5/.!(/ = 1? %'54(0-.+) ;7; 0&6!--/0 &!" "+%(-.+)" /5!%%!" +( ,+6#%!@!" ,+)A(B(5!"7
10%!(/ &! ζ ζ>1 ζ=1 ζ<1
p p
#$%!" p1−2 −ζω0 ± ω0 ζ 2 − 1 = −1
τ1−2 −ω0 = −1τ0 −ζω0 ± ω0 1 − ζ 2
-/0)"*!/- 9 F (p) = K
(1+pτ1 )(1+pτ2 )
K
F (p) = (1+pτ 0)
2 F (p) =
Kω02
p2 +2ζω0 p+ω02

C) 1+.- &+), 4(! %!" #$%!" "+)- &! )0-(/!" &.D5/!)-!" "!%+) %0 10%!(/ &! ζ 7 !" /5#+)"!" -!6#+E
/!%%!" 1+)- &+), "'5-(&.!/ !) *+),-.+) &! %0 10%!(/ &! ζ 7

! 56)3-('( $'0)34'++'(
F% !"- .)-5/!""0)- &! ,+))0G-/! !- &! /!,+))0G-/! %!" /5#+)"!" &!" "H"-I6!" &( &!(@.I6! +/&/!
0(@ ".B)0(@ -!6#+/!%" ,%0"".4(!" 9 .6#(%".+)? 5,J!%+)? /06#!7 8!%0 #!/6!--/0 !) #0/-.,(%.!/ ()!
,+6#0/0."+) 01!, %!" ".B)0(@ /5#+)"!" &( "H"-I6! #JH".4(! "(/ %!4(!% +) -/010.%%!7

! !" #$%&'() *+%,-(*&'')--)

0 /5#+)"! .6#(%".+))!%%! &'() "H"-I6! !"- %0 "+/-.! &! ,! "H"-I6! "(.-! = ()! "+%%.,.-0-.+) !)
.6#(%".+) &! K./0, 9
(
∞ #+(/ t = 0
x(t) = =⇒ X(p) = 1 :;7L<
0 #+(/ t 6= 0

././0/0 ζ>1
K0)" ,! ,0" +) #!(- 5,/./! %0 -/0)"*+/65! &! 0#%0,! &! %0 /5#+)"! .6#(%".+))!%%! ,+66! "(.- 9

Y (p) = F (p)X(p) = F (p)

K
=
(1 + pτ1 )(1 + pτ2 )
· ¸
K τ1 τ2
= −
τ1 − τ2 1 + τ1 p 1 + τ2 p
+( M.!) !),+/!? &0)" %! &+60.)! -!6#+/!% 9

h i
K − τt − τt
y(t) = τ1 −τ2 e 1 −e 2

!"#$

%&'()*+, -.&&. -*'/0. (. /12*+,. )32'4,)*++.44. 5

67
 !"#$%&' () *+,%-.', /0 1'02$-.' 3&/&'

τ1 > τ2 !"#$ y(t) ≥ 0 ∀t%

y(0) = 0

!" y(t) = 0
t→∞
h t t i
1 − τ1 1 − τ2
y ′ (t) = τ1K
−τ2 − τ1 e + τ2 e
!"#$ &' $"()*+ ,"--.!+ (# /'01/(/ 2 ·
³ ´ ³ ´ τ2 ³ ´ τ1 ¸
τ2 τ1 −τ2 τ −τ
tmax = τ1 −τ2 ln τ2 +3 y(tmax ) = τ1 −τ2
τ1 τ2 τ1 K
τ1 − ττ12 1 2
4# ,+(3 5"1) &6'&&()+ !+ $+33+ )7,"#-+ 1/,(&-1"##+&&+ -() &' 89()+ :%;%

#$#$%$& ζ=1
<'#- $+ $'- &' 3)'#-=")/7+ !+ >',&'$+ !+ &' -")31+ !6(# -?-3./+ !( !+(01./+ ")!)+ -"(/1- @
(#+ +#3)7+ +# 1/,(&-1"# +-3 !"##7+ ,') &67A('31"# -(15'#3+ 2

K Kω02
Y (p) = =
(1 + pτ1 )2 (p + ω0 )2

!"#$ 2

y(t) = Kω02 te−ω0 t

B+33+ $"()*+ ' &' /C/+ '&&()+ A(+ !'#- &+ $'- "D ζ > 1E $"//+ &+ /"#3)+ &' 89()+ :%;% >+ /'01/(/
+-3 '&")- '33+1#3 ,"() 2 tmax = ω10 +3 -"# '/,&13(!+ +-3 2 y(tmax ) = Kω
e %
0

#$#$%$# ζ<1
<'#- $+ $'- &' 3)'#-=")/7+ !+ >',&'$+ !+ &' -")31+ !6(# -?-3./+ !( !+(01./+ ")!)+ -"(/1- @
(#+ +#3)7+ +# 1/,(&-1"# +-3 !"##7+ ,') &67A('31"# -(15'#3+ 2

Kω02
Y (p) =
p2 + 2ζω0 p + ω02
Kω02
=
(p + ζω0 )2 + ω02 (1 − ζ 2 )
p
Kω0 ω0 1 − ζ 2
=p ×
1 − ζ 2 (p + ζω0 )2 + ω02 (1 − ζ 2 )

!"#$ 2

p
y(t) = √Kω0 2 e−ζω0 t sin(ω0 1 − ζ 2 t)
1−ζ
F:%GH
p
4# ,+(3 )+/')A(+) A(+ &+p -19#'& :%G +-3 "-$1&&'#3 F@ $'(-+ !+ sin(ω0 1 − ζ 2 t)H +3 '/")31 F@ $'(-+
!+ e−ζω0 t H% 4# #"3+ ωP = ω0 1 − ζ 2 &' '( )*+!,- '.,'./ *",.+!/ !( -?-3./+% >' ,7)1"!+ !+ $+-

:I
 ! ! "#$%&'(' )(*$%+(,,('

!"#$% %!&'(()*'%+! "!* TP = 2π

ωP ,

· -+" µ .*#$"
√ $"¶() /%+&*'%+
¸ 0,1 2%+*3" 4#5"((" %!!6$" $"! "7*3"2)! )#7 %'+*! $5)8!&'!!"! 9 t =
1−ζ 2
arctan ζ + kπ √1
2
,
ω0 1−ζ

0.6

zeta=0.5
0.5

zeta=0.7
0.4

0.3 zeta=1

0.2 zeta=1.5
zeta=2

0.1 zeta=3

-0.1
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
temps en secondes

:;#3" 0,<9 =. %+!" '2 #(!'%++"((" "+ /%+&*'%+ $" ζ %#3 ω0 :7.

>) ?)3')*'%+ $" ζ 3%?%4#" $"! 2)7'2) !#3 ("! 3. %+!"! '2 #(!'%++"(("! $" (#! "+ (#! .("?.!,

! !" #$%&'() *'+*,*)--)

@( !5);'* $5.*#$'"3 () 3. %+!" $# !A!*62" B #+" "+*3." "+ .&C"(%+ $5)2 ('*#$" A, D+ "#* $%+&
.&3'3" () *3)+!/%32." $" >) ()&" $" () !%3*'" 9

AKω02
Y (p) =
p(p2 + 2ζω0 p + ω02 )
!"#$%&! '()( E y(0+) =p→∞*+" pY (p) = 0
E y(∞) =*+" pY (p) = AK
p→0
E F"+*" $" () *)+;"+*" "+ 0 $" y(t) +#((" #'!4#" 9 *+" dy
t→0 dt
= *+" p [pY (p) − y(0+ )] = 0
p→∞
■

'('(,() ζ>1
G)+! &" &)!H %+ %8*'"+* )3 *3)+!/%32)*'%+ $" >) ()&" '+?"3!" $" Y (p) 9
h ³ ´i
1 − t − t
y(t) = AK 1 − τ1 −τ2 τ1 e τ1 − τ2 e τ2
I0,JK
-+" .*#$" (#! %#!!." $" () /%+&*'%+ 2%+*3" (5"7'!*"+&" $5#+ %'+* $5'+L"7'%+ (%3!4#" (" *"2 !
) %#3 ?)("#3 9
µ ¶
τ 1 τ2 τ1
ti = ln
τ1 − τ 2 τ2

0<
 !"#$%&' () *+,%-.', /0 1'02$-.' 3&/&'

! "#$% &#'(&)$#& )$# *( &+",!-# .'"$*-.,!!#**# /$ -0-%1'# 2,&&#-",!/ 3 *( /+&.4+# /# -(

&+",!-# .!/.2.#**#5
! !"!" ζ=1

AKω02
Y (p) =
p(p + ω0 )2
6# -.7!(* %#'",&#* /# -,&%.# #-% /,!!+# "(& 8
(4#2
h ¡ ¢ t
i
t
y(t) = AK 1 − 1 + T e− T T = 1/ω0

9:#-% *# 2(- /# *:(',&%.--#'#!% 2&.%.)$# #% *:(**$&# /# *( &+",!-# #-% -#!-.;*#'#!% (!(*,7$# ($

2(- "&+2+/#!%5 6# ",.!% /:.!<#=.,! -# -.%$# ($ ",.!% /:(;-2.--# ti = T 5
! !"! ζ<1

AKω02
Y (p) =
p(p2 + 2ζω0 p + ω02 )
! %&,$4# 8
· ¸
y(t) = AK 1 − √ 1 2
e−ζω0 t sin(ωp t + θ)
1−ζ

(4#2 ωp = ω0 #% θ = arcsin
p ³p ´
1 − ζ2 1 − ζ2

># !,$4#($? !,$- ,;%#!,!- /#- ,-2.**(%.,!- (',&%.#- /# "$*-(%.,! ωp5 @* #-% (*,&- ",--.;*# /#
/+%#&'.!#& *:('"*.%$/# /#- /+"(--#'#!%- -$22#--.A-5 6# '(=.'$' /# *( A,!2%.,! #-% ,;%#!$ *,&-)$#
*( /+&.4+# /# y(t) "(& &("",&% ($ %#'"- #-% !$**#5 B,.% 8
" #
dy ζω0 −ζω0 t 1 −ζω0 t
= AK p e sin(ωp t + θ) − p e ωp cos(ωp t + θ)
dt 1 − ζ2 1 − ζ2

9#%%# /+&.4+# -:(!!$*# ",$& 8

p
ζ sin(ωp t + θ) = 1 − ζ 2 cos(ωp t + θ)
p
1 − ζ2
tan(ωp t + θ) =
ζ
Ãp !
1 − ζ2
ωp t + θ = arctan + kπ
ζ
à Ãp ! !
1 − ζ2 1
tmax = arctan + kπ − θ p
ζ ω0 1 − ζ 2

CD
 ! ! "#$%&'(' )(*$%+(,,('

à Ãp ! !
1 − ζ2 p 1
tmax = arctan + kπ − arcsin( 1 − ζ 2 ) p
ζ ω0 1 − ζ2
kπ
tmax = p
ω0 1 − ζ 2
!"#$%&'()* )( $+*#&*+ ),$"--*#*.' *-' )/.0 1
" #
1 − √ ζπ
ymax = y(tmax ) = AK 1 − p e sin(π + θ)1−ζ 2
1 − ζ2
" #
1 − √ ζπ 2 p
= AK 1 − p e 1−ζ sin(θ) "2*0 θ = arcsin( 1 − ζ 2 )
1 − ζ2
· ¸
− √kζπ
= AK 1 + (−1)k+1 e 1−ζ 2

3"+ 0/.-,4(*.' %* $+*#&*+ ),$"--*#*.' *-' )/.., $"+ 1

− √ ζπ
D1 = ymax − y(∞) = e 1−ζ 2

-/&' *. $/(+0*.'"5* 1 3"+ 0/.-,4(*.' %* $+*#&*+ ),$"--*#*.' *-' )/.., $"+ 1

− √ ζπ
D1 % = 100 × e 1−ζ 2

!"#$%&! '()( 6 3"+ *7'*.-&/. /. ),'*+#&.* %*- k ),$"--*#*.'- -(00*--&8- )* %" #".&9+*
-(&2".'* 1
Dk = (D1 )k
6 " )(+,* *.'+* : ),$"--*#*.'- -(00*--&8- *-' 0/.-'".'*; <%%* *-' "$$*%,* $-*()/=$,+&/)* *' *-'
./',* TP ;
■
>&?,+*.'*- +,$/.-*- &.)&0&*%%*-@ *. 8/.0'&/. )( 8"0'*(+ )!"#/+'&--*#*.' -/.' )/..,*- $"+ %"
A5(+* B;:;
1.6
zeta=0.2

1.4

1.2

zeta=1
0.8

0.6
zeta=3
0.4

0.2

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
temps en secondes

A5(+* B;:1 C,$/.-* &.)&0&*%%* *. 8/.0'&/. )* ζ

BB
 !"#$%&' () *+,%-.', /0 1'02$-.' 3&/&'

! !"!# $%%&'() *() '+,-.)() /.*/0/(%%()

ζ !"! #$"%&#%'()& !**(")

6ζ
ζ>1 !+$"%,-%'(). /012. *)3# &% ζ 4"!3-. tr = ω t
0

"%#%'(). /012. tr = 0.75T0

t
ζ=1
Tp

t
ζ<1 +&)(-,5+$"%,-%'(). ζ = 0.7 ⇒ D = 4%, tr = 0.45T0 67%3%7!*8

! !"!1 2,+0/3045/-.) )&' %( '+6/7( 5'4.)/5-/'(

9":& &,(;)3#. *)& !"! #$"%&#%'()& -) +)"<,"7!3 )& &,3# &+$ %=$)& )3 #)"7) -) "$+,3&) #"!3&%#,%")
> (3) )3#"$) )3 $ ?)*,3 <! %*) > 4$3$")"@ A3 4$3$"!*. *! "$+,3&) 6%3-% %)**) +,(" 3,#") $#(-)8 #"!3&%5
#,%") *!%&&) !++!"!B#") -)& ,& %**!#%,3& !7,"#%)& !;!3# -C!##)%3-") (3 "$4%7) +)"7!3)3# 6;,%" =4(")
D@D8@

=4(") D@DE F!"! #$"%&#%'()& 9"!3&%#,%")&

G* )&# !*,"& +,&&%H*) 6)# %3#$")&&!3#8-) &+$ %=)" &(" *! "$+,3&) %3-% %)**) *)& !"! #$"%&#%'()& &(%5
;!3#)& E

DI
 ! ! "#$%&'(' )(*$%+(,,('

!" !"#$%& '()%$" # Tp = ω2πp = ω √2π1−ζ 2

0

!$ *"+ ! $" +%,*'" $% &$'( )* +,&$ -,.$ /0 # tm = π−arccos

√ ζ
ω0 1−ζ 2
!$ *"+ ! $" )- $% &$'( )* 1$"2 -,.$ /0 # tp = √π 2
ω0 1−ζ
!$ *"+ ! $" (' %,!" )* &$--!,%3 -,.$ /0 # tr ≈ ζω3 0
!$ $' .!!"+",* +./)+.0 $% 4 )* 56$+&755- /0 # D1 % = 100 ∗ y(max)−y(∞)
y(∞)

1212324 5,6#",-" $" ω0

85%&,9:+5%& ζ ;<:= 5% 1$>- +$."+?>$+ !@,%A>$%'$ 9$ !" 6"+,"-,5% 9$ ω0 &>+ !" +:15%&$ ,%9,',$!!$
)65,+ ;3>+$ B(C0(

réponse indicielle pour ω de 0.5 à 5 pour amortissement critique

0
From: U(1)
1.4

1.2
amplitude de la sortie pour une entrée échelon unitaire

0.8
To: Y(1)

0.6

ω0
0.4

0.2

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

temps

;3>+$ B(C# D:15%&$ ,%9,',$!!$ $% E5%'-,5% 9$ ω0 15>+ ζ = 1

F% +$."+?>$+" ?>$ !@">3.$%-"-,5% 9$ ω0 1+565?>$ >%$ +"1,9,-: 9$ !" +:15%&$ ,%9,',$!!$ 9$ 1!>&
$% 1!>& :!$6:$(
F% 5G&$+6$ !$ .H.$ 17:%5.I%$ 15>+ !$& &J&-I.$& "1:+,59,?>$& &>+ !" ;3>+$ B(K #

réponse indicielle pour ω de 0.5 à 5 pour pseudo−amortissement

0
From: U(1)
1.4
amplitude de la sortie pour une entrée échelon unitaire

1.2

0.8
To: Y(1)

0.6 ω0

0.4

0.2

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

temps

;3>+$ B(K# D:15%&$ ,%9,',$!!$ $% E5%'-,5% 9$ ω0 15>+ ζ < 1

BK
 !"#$%&' () *+,%-.', /0 1'02$-.' 3&/&'

! !"!# $%&'( )% *+',-(%

! "!#$% &! '($)*%! + ±5% *,!%" $-% .-/01! + !2$'0#!' &-*% 1! /-% &!% %3%"4#!% &5 &!5204#!
)'&'!6 7* 5"010%! !* 8(*('-1 1, -$$')20#-"0)* 9'(8'!%%0)* 10*(-0'!: %50;-*"! &(&50"! &! 1- /)5'<! =6> ?

3 6ζ
tr ≃ $)5' ζ < 0.7 tr ≃ $)5' ζ > 1
ζω0 ω0

@85'! =6>? A!#$% &! '($)*%! '(&50" 9tr ω0 : !* .)*/"0)* &! ζ

! ! "#$%&'( ) *&( +,-$(

a
- "'-*%.)'#(! &! -$1-/! &5 %08*-1 &,!*"'(! !%" X(p) = B &,)C ?
p2

aKω02
Y (p) = F (p)X(p) =
p2 (p2 + 2ζω0 p + ω0 2 )

7* $!5" '!#-'D5!' D5! 1- '($)*%! y(t) + 5*! '-#$! 5*0"( 9-EF: !%" 1,0*"(8'-1! &! 1- '($)*%!
0*&0/0!11! 5*0"-0'!6
G-' 1! AH()'4#! &! 1- ;-1!5' @*-1!B )* )<"0!*" ? y(0+ ) = 0 !" dy(0 = 06
+)
dt
I)##! $)5' 1!% %3%"4#!% &5 $'!#0!' )'&'!B )* $!5" /-1/51!' 1,!''!5' &! "'-J*-8! &5 %3%"4#!
("5&0( 1)'%D5! K = 16 K* 5"010%-*" 1! AH()'4#! &! 1- ;-1!5' @*-1!B 1,!''!5' &! "'-J*-8! !%" ?
2ζ
x(+∞) − y(+∞) =./& p[X(p) − Y (p)] = a
p→0 ω0
,!''!5' &! "'-J*-8! !%" $')$)'"0)**!11! + 1- D5-*"0"( 2ζ/ω0 D50 L)5! 1! 'M1! D5! L)5-0" 1- /)*%"-*"!
&! "!#$% &-*% 1! /-% &,5* %3%"4#! &5 $'!#0!' )'&'!6 7* -$$!11! D5!1D5!.)0% !"#$%"$& '& $(%)"%*&
Ct 1,0*;!'%! &! /!""! D5-*"0"(B &! %)'"! D5! ?

x(+∞) − y(+∞) = a/Ct -;!/ Ct = ω0 /2ζ

N-*% 1! /-% )C K 6= 1B 1,!''!5' &! "'-J*-8! !%" 0*@*0! !" 1!% %08*-52 &,!*"'(! !" &! %)'"0! &0;!'8!*"6
G15%0!5'% '($)*%!% &5 %3%"4#! 9',0* )/1+*%-2( ζ : %)*" "'-O(!% %5' 1- @85'! =6P6

=>
 !"! #$%&'()% *+,-*-) %./0-1).-

20

18

16

14

12

10

6
zeta=0.1 zeta=5
4

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20

!"#$ %&'( )*+,-.$ /" .0.123$ 4 "-$ #53+$ +,"# ζ ∈ {0.1, 0.5, 1, 1.5, 2, 3, 5}

!" #$%&'()% *+,-*-) %./0-1).-

6,". 7$-,-. /$ 7,8# 9"$ :5 ;,#3$ /$ :5 #*+,-.$ /<"- .0.123$ :8-*58#$ $.1 /*1$#38-*$ +5# :<,#/#$
/" .0.123$= $1 +:". +5#18>":82#$3$-1 +5# :5 75:$"# $1 /,-> :5 +,.818,- ?ω0 $1 ζ /*1$#38-$-1 :5
.81"518,- /5-. :$ +:5- >,3+:$@$A /$ .$. +B:$.&

C- .0.123$ /<,#/#$ *:$7* >,3+,#1$ "- !#5-/ -,3D#$ /$ +5#5321#$. $1 *1"/8$# .$. #*+,-.$. 1$3E
+,#$::$. ?."#1,"1 .8 ,- :<$F$>1"$ /$ :5 3G3$ 35-82#$ 9"$ +#*>*/$33$-1A +$"1 .$ #$7$:$# ;5.18/8$"@&
H<,DI$>18; $.1 /$ +,"7,8# /*1$#38-$# :$ >,3+,#1$3$-1 /<"- .0.123$ $- ;,->18,- /$ .$. #*+,-.$. 1$3E
+,#$::$. 1,"1 $- >,-.8/*#5-1 "- -,3D#$ #$.1#$8-1 /$ +5#5321#$. ?"- .0.123$ #$:5187$3$-1 .83+:$A&

C- .0.123$ /<,#/#$ *:$7* >,3+,#1$ "- !#5-/ -,3D#$ /$ +B:$. ?#*$:. ," >,3+:$@$. >,-I"!"*.A
$1 1,". -$ +,..2/$-1 +5. :5 3G3$ 8-J"$->$ ."# :$. #*+,-.$. 1$3+,#$::$.& K"# :<$@$3+:$ >8 /$..,".
,- #$35#9"$ 9"<8: -<0 5 +:". /$ /8F*#$->$ $- #*!83$ +$#35-$-1& H$ #*.":151 38. $- *78/$->$ +5# >$1
$@$3+:$ +,..2/$ +:".8$"#. >,-.*9"$->$. (
L "- .0.123$ /<,#/#$ *:$7* +,..2/$= :5 +:"+5#1 /" 1$3+.= M ," N +B:$. /,38-5-1. $1 .$ O>,3+,#1$P
/,-> >,33$ "- .0.123$ /" +#$38$# ," /" /$"@823$ ,#/#$&
L ,- +$"1 .83+:8 $# :5 ;,->18,- /$ 1#5-.;$#1 /<"- .0.123$ /<,#/#$ *:$7* $- -$ >,-.$#75-1 9"$
:$ ?," :$.A +B:$?.A /,38-5-1?.A ?5++#,@83518,- +5# "- .0.123$ /" +#$38$# ," /" /$"@823$
,#/#$A&
L $- +#5189"$= "- +B:$ +$"1 G1#$ -*!:8!* /2. 9"<8: $.1 % 4 Q ;,8. ."+*#8$"# 5" +#*>*/$-1
&

%'
 !"#$%&' () *+,%-.', /0 1'02$-.' 3&/&'

!"#$%" & '()*+#" ,-./,/" 0

!"#$%&'!"# () #*#+,-) #.$/0"+ 1 H(p) = (1+p)(1+1 )(1+ ) 2 3( 4!##,%) 5 46()# '&)(# )" −17 −6 p p

)+ −22 )+ #0 '&4!"#) $"%$8$)(() ."$+0$') /0.+ 1

6 22

y(t) = 1 − 1.257"!$(−t) + 0.275"!$(−6t) − 0.017"!$(−22t)

2 9. :.' )+ ; -)#.') <.) (=!" 0/0"8) %0"# () +)-4#7 8)# +)'-)# >#=&+)$?")"+@ ()# ."# 04',# ()#
0.+')#2 A" )B)+7 () +)'-) )" "!$(−22t) %&8'!C+ +',# '04$%)-)"+ )+ %)/$)"+ +',# /$+) "&?($?)0D()2
9. 8!"+'0$') ()# +)'-)# 8!'')#4!"%0"+ 0.E 46()# #$+.&# ()# 4(.# 4'!8F)# %) (=!'$?$") %. 4(0"
8!-4()E) 8!"#)'/)"+ 4(.# (!"?+)-4# ().' $"G.)"8) #.' (=0((.') %) (0 '&4!"#) +)-4!')(()2 H0"#
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!"# $% &$% '()
*+ ,!#-% .% $+ #/ !01% ./ %0. %11%023%$$%-%02 .%1 &$%1 .!-30+021) *%1 &$%1 $%1 $"1 /$!340/1
0% 5!"%02 6"% 1"# $+ ,!#-% ." ./7"2 ." #/43-% 2#+0132!3#% 8!--% $% -!02#% $+ 94"#% :); <!=
$>!0 + 2#+8/ $%1 #/ !01%1 30.383%$$%1 .%1 1?12@-%1 .>!#.#% ( A 1+p
1
B .>!#.#% C A (1+p)(1+
1
p %2 H(p) A
) 6

réponse indicielles (plein : ordre1, pointillés : ordre2, tirets : ordre3)

1

0.9

0.8

0.7

0.6
amplitude

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
temps

94"#% :);A D/ !01% 30.383%$$%1 %2 &$%1 .!-30+021

E% 6"3 %12 $"1 F3137$% 13 !0 2#+8% $>%##%"# %02#% $%1 : 1?12@-%1 A

erreurs sur réponse indicielle
0.16

0.14

0.12

0.1
amplitude

0.08

0.06

0.04

0.02

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
temps

94"#% :)GA H##%"#1 1"# $%1 #/ !01%1 30.383%$$%1 %2 &$%1 .!-30+021

:;
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!"#!$% &' (')*!)+,$-'%

!
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:&-$ !"#$%&'() ("#'"8$"( 8"$$" 850/*$*503 "%& *)'%*,-" ,-" $5-# %"# ';%"# /" %& :508$*50 /"
$(&0#:"($ #5*"0$ 1 '&($*" (."%%" 0.<&$*6"3 =&0# %" 8&# 5> %" )5/+%" /- #2#$+)" 850#*/.(. "#$ *0#$&?%"9
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<&-8@"F "$ /508 /" !"#$%$ &' %" #2#$+)"

'()*+)$!,
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Zone

de
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stabilité

:9"#+ ;7O= 4,)-.-,2 5") $1%") ". )./0-%-.(

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-#$&'K+#- =
S"/(p)
F (p) = 5;7T6
an pn + an−1 pn−1 + . . . + a1 p + a0

;<
 !"! #$%&'$( )( *+,&-./,$0%&1

!"# $%&' !( )%"* #+,!"-#% !"#$%&'() *%+%*&"+',&'#$- -" ,.,*/0% 1

an pn + an−1 pn−1 + . . . + a1 p + a0 = 0 23456

7%**% #+,!&"*8!( (9%,* )', *!":!"#, '8,+%4 ;( "*8&8,%#' %( <+(+#'& -9'"*#%, *%$=(8>"%, )!"# +*"-8%#
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¯
pn ¯¯ an an−2 an−4 ...
¯
pn−1 ¯¯an−1 an−3 an−5 ...
¯
pn−2 ¯ bn bn−1 bn−2 ...
¯
pn−3 ¯¯ cn cn−1 an−2 ...
¯
¯
¯
¯
0
p ¯ hn

09") :

an−1 an−2 − an an−3

bn =
an−1
an−1 an−4 − an an−5
bn−1 =
an−1

bn an−3 − an−1 bn−1

cn =
bn
bn an−5 − an−1 bn−2
cn−1 =
bn

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p4 +7p3 +17p2 +17p+6
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¯ ¯ ¯
3
p ¯
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7 ¯ ¯
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1
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(&# +!0/ &#,4'(5

!"#$%" & '(')*#" -.')+,%"

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p4 +2p3 +3p2 +4p+5
¯ ¯
p4 ¯¯ 1 ¯
¯ 3 5
3
¯ ¯
p ¯ ¯ 2 ¯
¯ 4 0
2 ¯ 2.3−1.4 ¯ 2.5−1.0
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¯ ¯
1 1.4−2.5
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¯ 0
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−6 = 5¯ 0

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!"#$%" & )"/#" .0% 1+.' %+ $/"#-*/" 23%3.."

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p5 +2p4 +2p3 +4p2 +p+1
¯ ¯
p5 ¯¯ 1 ¯¯ 2 1
¯ ¯
p4 ¯¯ 2 ¯¯ 4 1
¯ ¯
p3 ¯¯ ǫ ¯¯ 0.5 0
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¯ ¯
0
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/!'!00( ;"/" F -!&"#"1A5 8.& '!)& !0 !4#"(0# F c1 = 4ǫ−1
ǫ ≃ ǫ < 0 (# d1 =
−1 0.5c1 −ǫ
c1 ≃ 0.5 > 05
$!%& '(& #()*(& +( ', -)(*".)( /!'!00( 0( &!0# -,& +( *6*( &"70( +!0/ '( &3&#.*( (&# "0&#,4'(5
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-!&&.+( +(%9 -E'(& "0&#,4'(&5

GG
 !"! #$%& '%( )*+%(

!"#$%" & %'()" )*%%"

!"# G(p) = 1
p3 +2p2 +4p+8
¯ ¯
¯ ¯
p3 ¯1¯ 4
¯ ¯
p2 ¯¯2¯¯ 8
¯ ¯
p1 ¯¯0¯¯ 0
¯ ¯
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$%&'( #!%) *+) #+,-+) (.%'+ -/-+ *"0'+ )!'# '%*)1 2+*& 3+%# #,&(%",+ (+%4 356'!-7'+) ("869
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C!,-6+ A 3&,#", (+) 2!+D2"+'#) (+ *& *"0'+ 3,626(+'# *& *"0'+ %'"C!,-6-+'# '%**+ :

Z(p) = 2p2 + 8 = 2(p + 2)(p − 2)

E+) ,&2"'+) (+ 2+##+ 6B%&#"!' &%4"*"&",+ )!'# ,&2"'+) (+ *.6B%&#"!' 2&,&2#6,")#"B%+ (% )=)#7-+>
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!"#$%" & 43)5,'3) 6" ,/-)+7"/, 61$")6-)," 60*) $-/-#8,/"

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!"# G(p) = p3 +4p2K(p+10)
+(4+K)p+10K
¯ ¯
¯ ¯
p3 ¯ 1 ¯4 + K
¯ ¯
2
p ¯¯ 4 ¯ 10K
¯
1
¯ ¯
p ¯4 − 1, 5K ¯¯ 0
¯
¯ ¯
p0 ¯ 10K ¯ 0

E+ )=)#7-+ )+,& )#&@*+ )" 0 < K < 1,5 >

4
H&') *+ 2&) *"-"#+ !I K = 4
1,5 1 !' 2!')#,%"# *.6B%&#"!'
q q
&%4"*"&",+ : 4p2 + 1,5
40
= 4(p+ 10
1,5 )(p− 1,5 ) +# !' 2!')#&#+ B%+ *+ )=)#7-+ +)# -&,0"'&*+-+'#
10

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NO
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ωo
ϕ

Re
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−ωo √1−ζ2
p
2

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%*
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!""#$%&

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!" #$%&'()*%+'$

! "#$%$&'() *)!& %) &"$#' %'& !+#)#$+!& *' %) ,-"(' ./. &"$0)!#' 1

Signal d'erreur
+ ε(p) Correcteur Système Sortie
entrée
(consigne) C(p) G(p) Y(p)
-
X(p)

Mesure : M(p) Capteur

H(p)

,-"(' 2/.1 !"#$%!&'(')*& +,(%%)-.! /0.& (%%!#1)%%!2!&'

3) 0)%'"( ,!)%' *" &$-!)% *4'(('"( 5'!6+(' )77'%8' '(('"( '! (8-$9' 7'(9)!'!#: 7+"( *$;8('!#'&
'!#(8'& &' 0$&")%$&' &"( %'& (87+!&'& )"< '!#(8'& 6)!+!$="'& &"( %) ,-"(' 2/> 6$?*'&&+"& 1
@A
 !"! #$%&'()*%+'$

!"#$ %&'( !"#$%!"$&!'( )*" *++*#+" *( +,-!.* /*+.$(*(&

)*+$#,-./.0 ,1-.+$.1.+ ".$ $23#$00-/. ,1+4*,1+-5"$ 6$ 7$++$ $##$"#& 81 9/.7+-/. 6$ +#1.09$#+
6" 0:0+;,$ 6$ <1 !"#$ =&= $0+ 6/..* 31# (
C(p)G(p)
F (p) = >%&=?
1 + C(p)G(p)H(p)
8$ 0:0+;,$ 6$ <1 !"#$ =&= $0+ 3#*7-0 0- <$ 0-!.1< 6@$##$"# .-+ 31# 0@1.."<$# ( %!. ε(t) = 0&
t→∞

A. 3$"+ 71<7"<$# <1 +#1.09/#,*$ 6$ 813<17$ 6" 0-!.1< 6@$##$"# (

ε(p) = X(p) − M (p) =X(p) − H(p)Y (p)
· ¸
C(p)G(p)
= X(p) [1 − H(p)F (p)] =X(p) 1 − H(p)
1 + C(p)G(p)H(p)
X(p) X(p)
= =
1 + C(p)G(p)H(p) 1 + T (p)

/B T (p) $0+ <1 9/.7+-/. 6$ +#1.09$#+ $. C/"7<$ /"D$#+$ >01.0 3$#+$ 6$ !*.*#1<-+*0E /. 3$"+ -.+*!#$# <$
+$#,$ H(p) 61.0 G(p) $+ 0$ #1,$.$# 1" 074*,1 0+1.61#6 1D$7 #$+/"# ".-+1-#$&

8$ 71<7"< 3#*7*6$.+ ,/.+#$ 5"$ <$ 0-!.1< 6@$##$"# 6*3$.6 (

F 6" 0-!.1< 6@$.+#*$ 6" 0:0+;,$ ( X(p) 6/.7 6$ x(t)&
F 6$ <1 9/.7+-/. 6$ +#1.09$#+ 6" 0:0+;,$ $. C/"7<$ /"D$#+$ ( T (p)&
A. 6-0+-.!"$ $. !*.*#1< 6$"2 +:3$0 6@$##$"#0E 6/.+ <$0 7/.0*5"$.7$0 0/.+ 6$ .1+"#$0 6-G*#$.+$0 (
F <@$##$"# &+$("!&'!+* >,&&,)& (-$./+0), ? 5"- 6-031#1H+ 1D$7 <$ +$,30 $+ 5"$ <@/. #$+#/"D$#1 I
7415"$ D1#-1+-/. 6$ <1 7/.0-!.$&
F <@$##$"# *( +,-!.* /*+.$(*(& >,&&,)& 1%.%+0), ? ( %!. ε(t) =%!. pε(p)E 5"- 71#17+*#-0$ <1
t→∞ p→0
3#*7-0-/. 6" 0:0+;,$ 100$#D-&
0,1(!&!'( 234 56'#+"#!&*73 2$ .33,44, 3&'546/, (, !"#$"%&' 4, 7.+% (, 8.&.$%+& 0), 4. 1'&%+,
y(t) 1)+9, .) /+,): ;1.$1 <*.&%= 4>,$%&<, x(t)! ?')& *,4.@ '$ ('+% .11)&,& )$, ,&&,)& 1%.%+0), $)44,
;') /+$+/.4,= ,$ &<8+/, 3,&/.$,$%@ 1'+% ε(∞) = 0! ■

JK
 !"#$%&' () *&+,$-$./ '% 0"#$1$%+

!"#$%" & !"#$%" '" ()%(*% '+",,"*,-

!"#$%&'!"# () #*#+,-) %) (. /01') 234 #!1-$# %."# 1" 5')-$)' +)-5# 6 1") )"+'&) )" &78)(!"
1"$+&9 51$# 6 1") )"+'&) )" '.-5) 1"$+&3 :&+)'-$"!"# )"#1$+) ()# )'')1'# )" '&0$-) 5)'-.")"+3
x(t) + ε(t) 1 y(t)
K
p3+5p2+2p+1
-

). "/0,1" "/ 1(2"%3/ */401 & !" . X(p) = p1 9 )+ T (p) ;.1+ <
K
T (p) =
p3 + 5p2 + 2p + 1
%!"79 (. +'."#=!'-&) %) >.5(.7) %) (?)'')1' )#+ <
1
X(p) p p3 + 5p2 + 2p + 1
ε(p) = = =
1 + T (p) 1+ K
p3 +5p2 +2p+1
p(p3 + 5p2 + 2p + 1 + K)

%4# ε(t) =%4#

!'9 t→∞ p→0
pε(p) 9 %!"7 %4# ε(t) = 1+K
t→∞
1

@;)7 K = 0.59 !" 5)1+ 7!"#+.+)' A1) ε(∞) = 2/3 ≡ 66% #1' (. /01') 2343
Step Response
erreur statique
1.2

0.8

ε(∞)
Amplitude

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20

Time (sec.)

5. "/0,1" "/ ,)#$" */401 & !" . X(p) = p1 9 %!"7 (?)'')1' ;.1+ < 2

1
X(p) p2 p3 + 5p2 + 2p + 1
ε(p) = = =
1 + T (p) 1+ K
p3 +5p2 +2p+1
p2 (p3 + 5p2 + 2p + 1 + K)

%4# ε(t) =%4#

!'9 t→∞ p→0
pε(p) 9 %!"7 %4# ε(t) = ∞
t→∞
@;)7 K = 0.59 !" 5)1+ 7!"#+.+)' A1) ε(∞) = ∞ #1' (. /01') 2343
Linear Simulation Results
erreur traînage
12

10

8
entrée ↓
Amplitude

6
ε(∞)

2 ↑ sortie

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12

Time (sec.)

2B
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%( '" 67!)-,7! %( -."!&6(.- (! :7$)'( 7$#(.-( T (p) +". ε(p) = 1+T (p) 0 ;". )7!&92$(!- &, '37! 9).,- '"
X(p)

67!)-,7! %( -."!&6(.- (! :7$)'( 7$#(.-( &7$& '" 67.5( 89!9."'( &$,#"!-( <
µ ¶
1 + b1 p + b2 p2 + . . .
K
T (p) = α
p 1 + a1 p + a2 p2 + . . .
7= α (&- "++('9 !"##$ %$ &>&-?5(
7! 7:-,(!- <
X(p)pα (1 + a1 p + a2 p2 + . . . )
ε(p) =
pα (1 + a1 p + a2 p2 + . . . ) + K(1 + b1 p + b2 p2 + . . . )
%7!) <
X(p)pα+1
ε(∞) =!%& pε(p) =!%&
p→0 p→0 pα + K
@/0AB
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I"!& )( )"& < X(p) = Ep D %7!) '392$"-,7! /0A %(#,(!- <
0

E0 p α
ε(∞) =!%&
p→0 pα + K
%7!) <
+7$. α = 0
(
E0
ε(∞) = 1+K
0 +7$. α > 0
C3(..($. %( +7&,-,7! (&- %7!) !$''( +7$. -7$- &>&-?5( %( )'"&&( &$+9.,($.( 7$ 98"'( E 10
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C3(..($. %( -."F!"8( (&- '3(..($. %"!& '( )"& %3$!( (!-.9( (! ."5+(0 ! +".'( "$&&, %3(..($.
+(.5"!(!-( %37.%.( 1 7$ (..($. %( #,-(&&(0
I"!& )( )"& < X(p) = Ep D %7!) '392$"-,7! /0A %(#,(!- <
0
2

E0 pα−1
ε(∞) =!%&
p→0 pα + K
%7!) <
+7$. α = 0

∞

ε(∞) = +7$. α = 1
E0
K

0 +7$. α > 1
C3(..($. %( -."F!"8( (&- %7!) !$''( +7$. -7$- &>&-?5( %( )'"&&( &$+9.,($.( 7$ 98"'( E 20
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4+%0 ," ,+0 5 X(p) = Ep30 6 */%, -!&7$+.(/% 819 *":("%. 5
E0 pα−2
ε(∞) = !"
p→0 pα + K
*/%, 5

∞
 3/$# α = 0 /$ 1
ε(∞) = E0
K
3/$# α = 2

0 3/$# α > 2
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w(t)
+
x(t) + ε(t) + y(t)
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-

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+
w(t) G2(p) yw(t)

- ε(p)
G1(p)

A3/(% B:BD /*01$2 3240-4'# 7 3240-4'%06). *2-(2

J) ,.+" "+&% εw ,% #)3"!, -.%((%/( -/ @ ,! #%/,% '%(&/(0!&)+"* +" '%/& 7$()(% D
G1 G2 1
εw (p) = −Y (p) = − W (p)
1 + G1 G2 G1
-+"$ D
· ¸
G1 G2 1
εw (∞) =(6$ pε(p) = − (6$ pW (p)
p→0 p→0 1 + G1 G2 G1
!"# ,% $!# 37"7(!, 4%" /&),)#!"& ,% &L7+(61% -% #/'%('+#)&)+"5* +" '%/& 7$()(% D
µ ¶
K 1 + b1 p + b 2 p 2 + . . .
G1 G2 = α
p 1 + a1 p + a2 p2 + . . .
%&
µ ¶
K1 1 + d1 p + d2 p2 + . . .
G1 = β
p 1 + c1 p + c2 p2 + . . .
!8%$ α ≥ β
-+"$ D
· ¸
pβ
εw (∞) =(6$ −
p→0
K
K1 pα + K
pW (p) 4B:M5

BM
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0%$)-$#,)(! 7
8) "4)"#($04)9 24(. !$$(.%. #% .%:%+ &'()% 2%.+(.3!+04) &% "#!$$% ) ;W (p) = Epn0 <9 0# =!(+ >(% #%
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!"# $% $!# & W (p) = Ep ' ()"$ & 0

· ¸
E0 K pβ
εw (∞) = !" −
p→0 K 1 pα + K

*)+, α = β = 0
 E
0 K
− K1 1+K

εw (∞) = E0
 K1
*)+, α 6= 0 %- β = 0

0 *)+, α 6= 0 %- β 6= 0

#$%"& % ' (%)*+),-*!./ %/ 012% ./

2.5

1.5
perturbation

x entrée 1

0.5
1 100
y
p2 +p p2 +10p+100
0
consigne sortie
G1 G2
−0.5
0 5 10 15 20 25 30

!"#$ %&'( G1 (p) ! "#$%%! & !' G2 (p) ! "#$%%! ( $)!" *!+',+-$'./0 ! "#$%%! & 12"3!#/04

2.5

pert 1.5

x entrée 1

0.5
1 100
y
p+1 p3 +10p2 +100p 0
consigne sortie
G1 G2
−0.5
0 5 10 15 20 25 30

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%*
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2

· ¸
E0 K pβ
εw (∞) = !" −
p→0 K1 p(pα + K)

*)+, α = β = 0


∞
*)+, α = 0 %- β = 1


− E0 K
εw (∞) = E0K1 1+K

 K1 *)+, α 6= 0 %- β = 1
*)+, α 6= 0 %- β 6= 1


0

#$%"& % ' (%)*+),-*!./ %/ )-"&%

2.5

1.5
Ramp

x entrée 1

0.5
1 100
y
p2 +p p2 +10p+100
0
consigne sortie
G1 G2
−0.5
0 5 10 15 20 25 30

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16

14

12

10
Ramp
8
x entrée
6

4
1 100
y
p+1 p3 +10p2 +100p 2

consigne sortie
G1 G2 0

−2
0 5 10 15 20 25 30

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I% 40* -% &% &'!()*+% %#* -% (+,#%"*%+ ?0%$?0%# 3,*'/-%# -% #5"*'6#% -%# &/++%&*%0+# (%+3%**!"*
-% #!*)#2!)+% 0" &%+*!)" "/34+% -% (%+2/+3!"&%# %* ->/4*%")+ 0" #5#*63% ;4)%"< +,9$, F
JK
 !"! #$%%&'()$* +,$-( $- %)&*.

!" #$%%&'()$* +,$-( $- %)&*.

! "# $%& '"!# () *)& + ,&&$!#(-$ "# $#."!$ '$ /,0!/)/ ($ 1)!%%,#2$ %)- ', 2"//,#($ $& '$
/!#!/)/ %! "# %3$# -,11-"24$5 6$&&$ 2"//,#($ $%& ', 1')% %!/1'$ /,!% ,)%%! ', /"!#% 1$-7"-/,#&$5
8# $9$&: !' $%& 1-;7;-,*'$ ($ -;()!-$ /%$0%&11)2&3&*( ', 1)!%%,#2$ '"-%<)$ '3"# %$ -,11-"24$ () *)&5
63$%& '$ *)& ($ ', 2"//,#($ 1-"1"-&!"##$''$5

!/ #$%%&'(&-% 0%$1$%()$**&2 304

!"#$%$&# '() *+&,,-.%-/, 0,&1&,%$&##-23( 4& '$%%&'(&-% 5 6'()$* /%$/$%()$**&77&8 &1( 7& '$%9
%&'(&-% 7& /7-1 1)3/7&8 /-)1:-& ;<=*) /6% -* 1)3/7& 06)* K ! 46 1$%()& ;- '$%%&'(&-% &1( ;$**<&
/6% >

u(t) = K.ε(t)

U (p)
?6 @$*'()$* ;& (%6*1@&%( &1( ;$*' > C(p) = = K ■
4-56,7/- '()( =3,2&!"# 1-"1"-&!"##$''$ k
ε(p)
$%& %").$#& $01-!/;$ 1,- ', *,#($ 1-"1"-&!"##$''$
P B% "> ?
100
P B% =
k
=, *,#($ 1-"1"-&!"##$''$ -$1-;%$#&$ '$ 1")-2$#&,@$ ($ '3$#&-;$ () 2"--$2&$)- #;2$%%,!-$ + )# 24,#A
@$/$#& ($ 100% ($ %, %"-&!$5 B,- $0$/1'$: K = 2 ") *!$# BP % = 50 %!@#!C$ <)3)#$ .,-!,&!"# ($
50% ($ ε(t) $#&-,D#$ )#$ .,-!,&!"# ($ 100% ($ u(t)5 ■

EF
 !"#$%&' () *&&'+%$*, -./

!"!# $%&'() *)+,-)

! "#$%&' (%)%*'+ ,! +' -./#+! 0!*&%! !"1 ,.))% 2'* 3
w(t)
+
x(t) + ε(t) + y(t)
K G(p)
-

4(/*! 5673 8.**!#19.) 2*.2.*19.))!++!

:!;2*!""9.) ,! +' -./#+! 0!*&%! !"1 3

KG(p) G(p)
Y (p) = X(p) + W (p)
1 + KG(p) 1 + KG(p)

</ !)#.*!
K denG(p) numG(p)
Y (p) = X(p) + W (p)
numG(p) + K denG(p) numG(p) + K denG(p)

!"!. /)+*%+,01')2
=./* %1/,9!* +!" 2!*0.*&')#!" >"1'-9+91%? 2*%#9"9.) "1'19@/! !1 ,A)'&9@/!B? 9+ )./" 0'/1 %1/,9!*
+' -./#+! 0!*&%!6 ! 0'9*! ,')" +! #'" (%)%*'+ *!2*%"!)1!*'9 /)! 1*.2 (*'),! ,9C#/+1%6 D./" '++.)"
2+/1E1 ,%1'9++!* #!" %1/,!" "/* ,!" "A"1F&!" ,/ 2*!&9!* .*,*! ,! #+'""! 0 !1 16

!"!#!$ %&''()*(+' P (* ,-,*./( 0( )12,,( 34'&

A
8.)"9,%*.)" 1./1 ,:'-.*, /) "A"1F&! ,/ 2*!&9!* .*,*! ,! 0.)#19.) ,! 1*')"0!*1 G(p) = ?
1 + τp
!) 2*%"!)#! ,:/)! 2!*1/*-'19.) W (p)6 ! "#$%&'G-+.#" ,! #! "A"1F&! !) -./#+! 0!*&%! !"1 ,.))%
2'* +' 4(/*! 56H6
W(p)
+ Y(p)
X(p) + ε(p) U(p) + A
K
1+τp
-

4(/*! 56H3 IA"1F&! ,! #+'""! J%*. !1 #.**!#1!/* P

' ".*19! Y (p) !"1 ,.))%! 2'* +:%@/'19.) 567 3

AK 1
Y (p) = 1+AK
τ X(p) + 1+AK
τ W (p) >567B
1 + 1+AK p 1 + 1+AK p

5H
 !"! #$%%&'(&)% *%$+$%(,$--&. /*0

! "#!$%&%' ()' *' $+$%,-' '! .#)"*' /'0-1' & )!' "#!$%&!%' 2' %'-3$ 1+AK
τ
4 ()5 '$% 3*)$ 3'%5%'
()' τ 6 7' $+$%,-' '$% 2#!" 3*)$ !"#$% '! .#)"*' /'0-1'6 8' 3*)$4 $5 *9'!%01' x(t) '$% )! 1":'*#!
)!5%14 *' 01;5-' 3'0-&!'!%4 '! *9&.$'!"' 2' 3'0%)0.&%5#! w(t) '$% 2#!!1 3&0 <
y(∞) =
AK
1 + AK
=>6?@
'% *9'00')0 2' 3#$5%5#! 3&0 <
ε1 (∞) = 1 − y(∞) =
1
1 + AK
=>6A@
B' 01$)*%&% & 1%1 #.%'!) 2&!$ *' "&$ ;1!10&* 3#)0 )! $+$%,-' 2' "*&$$' C10#6 ! 3')% 0'-&0()'0
()' *95!%0#2)"%5#! 2) "#00'"%')0 30#3#0%5#!!'* & 3'0-5$ 2' 3*&"'0 *' 3D*' 2) $+$%,-' 5!5%5&* P1 = − τ1
'! PK = − 1 +τAK 4 '% 3&0 "#!$1()'!% 2' -#25E'0 *& 2+!&-5()' 2) $+$%,-' =213*&"'-'!% 2) 3D*'
F'0$ *& ;&)":' 2#!" &-1*5#0&%5#! 2' *& 0&3525%1@6
G5 x(t) = 0 '% $5 w(t) '$% )! 1":'*#! )!5%14 &*#0$ *91"&0% '!%0' *9'!%01' '% *& $#0%5' 2) $+$%,-'
ε2 (∞) = 0 − y(∞) '$% 2#!!1 3&0 <
ε2 (∞) = −
1
1 + AK
=>6H@
'% *91"&0% '!%0' *& 3'0%)0.&%5#! '% *& $#0%5' ε3(∞) = 1 − y(∞) 2'F5'!% <
ε3 (∞) = 1 −
1
1 + AK
=
AK
1 + AK
=>6I@
7#0$()' K '$% ;0&!2 =K → ∞@4 "'%%' '00')0 %'!2 F'0$ 14 &*#0$ ()' ε1 (t) '% ε2(t) %'!2'!% F'0$
C10#6 7' $+$%,-' 2'F5'!% 2#!" 301"5$ '% 5!$'!$5.*' J *& 3'0%)0.&%5#!6 K5'! $L04 "' "&$ =K → ∞@ !9'$%
3&$ 3:+$5()'-'!% 01&*5$%'4 3)5$()' 3*)$ K &);-'!%'4 3*)$ *95!M)'!"' 2'$ 2+!&-5()'$ =5"5 !1;*5;1'$@
$' /&5% $'!%504 '% 3*)$ *'$ 3:1!#-,!'$ 2' $&%)0&%5#! =*5-5%&%5#! 2'$ &"%5#!!')0$@ 5!%'0F5'!!'!%6
! 3')% 2#!" '! "#!"*)0' ()' *95!$'!$5.5*5%1 &)N 3'0%)0.&%5#!$ '% *& 301"5$5#! 2) $+$%,-' !'
$#!% 3&$ 01&*5$&.*'$ J *9&52' 29)! "#00'"%')0 30#3#0%5#!!'*4 $)0 )! $+$%,-' 2' "*&$$' C10#6

!"!#!# $%&&'()'*& P ') +,+)-.' /' (01++' 1

B#!$5210#!$ -&5!%'!&!% )! $+$%,-' 2' "*&$$' )!4 0'301$'!%1 3&0 )!' /#!"%5#! 2' %0&!$/'0% 2)
%+3' G(p) = p(1 +A τ p) =F#50 E;)0' >6A@6
W(p)
+
X(p) + ε(p) U(p) + A Y(p)
K
p(1+τp)
-

E;)0' >6A< G+$%,-' 2' "*&$$' )! '% "#00'"%')0 P

>A
 !"#$%&' () *&&'+%$*, -./

! "#$%&' Y (p) '"% (#))*' +!$ ,

A
ω02
Y (p) = X(p) + τ
W (p) -./.0
p2 + 2ζω0 p + ω02 p2 + 2ζω0 p + ω02

#1 ω02 = AK
τ '% ζ = √1
2 AKτ

!" # → K > 1
4Aτ , #) ! !2!&$' 3 4) "5"%67' (4 ('48&67' #$($' +"'4(#9+*$&#(&:4'; <!$ ζ < 1
!"#$ %& %"$ '&$ ()'&$ $*#+ %*,('&-&$ %*#./0/1$ 2&$ ()'&$ $& 31('"%&#+ 4 '" 5&6+7%"'&8 3*#% *#

#9",1'7*6& ('/$ '" 6"(737+1 :"6 %*#+6&8 *# 31+167*6& '" (61%7$7*# 3;#",7</& =31("$$&,&#+ 3&

('/$ &# ('/$ 7,(*6+"#+>

29&66&/6 ε(p) &$+ 3*##1& ("6 ?

A
p2 + 2ζω0 p τ
ε(p) = X(p) − W (p) =@ A>
p2 + 2ζω0 p + ω02 p2 + 2ζω0 p + ω02

2*6$</& x(t) &$+ /# 1%B&'*# /#7+18 &+ &# '9"C$&#%& 3& (&6+/6C"+7*# p(t)8 '& 6107,& (&6,"#&#+

&$+ 3*##1 ("6 ?

y(∞) = A

'9&66&/6 3& (*$7+7*# ("6 ? ε1 (∞) = 0

1
&+ '9&66&/6 3& +6"D#"0& ("6 ? ε2 (∞) = AK
E*,,& 3"#$ '& %"$ (61%13&#+8 %& 61$/'+"+ 1+"7+ "++&#3/ %"6 '& ,*3F'& 3/ $;$+F,& &# C*/%'&

*/5&6+& &$+ 3& %'"$$& 1

G# %*#$+"+& </& '" (61$&#%& 39/# 7#+106"+&/6 3"#$ '" %B"D#& 376&%+&8 " (&6,7$ 39"5*76 /#

$;$+F,& (61%7$ ("6 6"((*6+ 4 '91%B&'*#8 &+ </& '9&66&/6 3& +6"D#"0& &$+ %*#$+"#+&

1
!" #→ K > ? '& $;$+F,& &$+ ($&/3*H(167*37</&8 "5&% /# (6&,7&6 31("$$&,&#+ ?
4Aτ
π
−√
D1 % = e 4AKτ − 1 =@ I>

&+ /# +&,($ 39"++&7#+& 3/ (6&,7&6 31("$$&,&#+ ?

τ
t1 = √ =@ J>
4AKτ − 1
K"7#+&#"#+8 '*6$</& '9&#+61& x(t) = 0 &+ </& '" (&6+/6C"+7*# p(t) &$+ /# 1%B&'*# /#7+18 *# (&/+
1%676& ?

A
− A
ε(∞) = $%& ε(t) = $%& (x(t) − y(t)) =$%& 2 τ =−
t→∞ t→∞ 2
p→0 p + 2ζω0 p + ω0 K
A
&+ &# 6107,& (&6,"#&#+ *# " ? y(∞) = K G# (&/+ 3*#% 6&#36& '& $;$+F,& ,*7#$ $&#$7C'& "/-

(&6+/6C"+7*#$8 &+ ε3 (∞) → 08 &# "/0,&#+"#+ =3& ,"#7F6& 7#L#7&> '& 0"7# K

M#& "/0,&#+"+7*# 3& %& 3&6#7&68 &#+6"D#& /#& 37,7#/+7*# 3/ N"%+&/6 39",*6+7$$&,&#+ ζ8 %&

</7 "/0,&#+& '& %"6"%+F6& *$%7''"+*76& 3& '" 61(*#$& ./$</94 '97#$+"C7'7+1

@O
 !"! #$%%&'(&)%* + ,'(-$.* /%$/$%(-$..&00& &( -.(12%,0& 3456

!"!" #$%&'()*$%
! "#$$!"%!&$ ' ("%)#* +$#+#$%)#**!,,! *! +!$-!% +(. /! $0(,).!$ /! 1#**!. +!$2#$-(*"!. !*
%!$-!. /! !"#$%$&' %()($*+, ,( -.')/$*+, ,( ,' !,0,( -, ,!(+!1)($&'3 4* 2()1,!
5()* K /#**! 50*0$(,!-!*% &* .6.%7-! .%(1,!8 -(). &*! !$$!&$ /! +#.)%)#* )-+#$%(*%!3 9($
"#*%$!8 &*! 5$(*/! :(,!&$ /! K 8 /#**! &*! -!),,!&$! !$$!&$ /! +#.)%)#* -(). /!. -(&:().!.
+!$2#$-(*"!. !* %$(*.)%#)$! ; +,&. K (&5-!*%!8 +,&. #* %!*/ :!$. ,<)*.%(1),)%03

!" #$%%&'(&)%* + ,'(-$.* /%$/$%(-$..&00& &( -.(12%,0& 3456

2"3'$($&' 4565 7& '$%%&'(&)% + ,'(-$.* /%$/$%(-$..&00& &( -.(12%,0& 3P I 6 &*( 819.- /,% 0:1;),(-$.
8-<1%&.(-&00& *)-=,.(& >

dε(t) du(t)
KP + Ki ε(t) =
dt dt
$? ε(t) &*( 0& *-2.,0 8:&.(%1& 8) '$%%&'(&)% 3$) *-2.,0 8:&%%&)%6 &( u(t) &*( 0& *-2.,0 8& *$%(-& 8)
'$%%&'(&)% 3$) *-2.,0 8& '$@@,.8&6!
A. /&)( .,()%&00&@&.( 1'%-%& 0, B$.'(-$. 8& (%,.*B&%( 8& '& '$%%&'(&)% P I >
µ ¶
U (p) KI 1 K
C(p) = = KP + =K 1+ = (1 + Ti p) =>3?@A
ε(p) p Ti p Ti p

KP
,=&' K = KP &( Ti = !
KI
■
B! "#$$!"%!&$ =/! ",(..! ?A $!+$0.!*%! ,<(..#")(%)#* /! /!&C ("%)#*. =9 !% DA !% !.% $!+$0.!*%0 +($
,! ."E0-( 2#*"%)#**!, /! ,( F5&$! >3G ;

K
+
ε(p) U(p)

+
K
Ti p

F5&$! >3G; H"E0-( 2#*"%)#**!, /<&* "#$$!"%!&$ P I

!+!, -$(&'. /.012.

! ."E0-( 50*0$(, /! ,( 1#&",! 2!$-0! !.% /#**0 +($ ;
w (t)
+
x(t) + ε(t) + y(t)
K(1+ 1 ) G(p)
Ti p
-

F5&$! >3I; B#$$!"%)#* +$#+#$%)#**!,,!J)*%05$(,!

>I
 !"#$%&' () *&&'+%$*, -./

!"#$%"&&'() *" +, -(./+" 0"%12" "&3 4

K(1 + Ti p)G(p) G(p)Ti p
Y (p) = X(p) + W (p)
Ti p + K(1 + Ti p)G(p) Ti p + K(1 + Ti p)G(p)

numPI(p) denG(p)
Soit Y (p) = X(p)
numPI(p) numG(p) + denPI(p) denG(p)
numG(p) denPI(p)
+ W (p)
numG(p) numPI(p) + denPI(p) denG(p)

!"!# $%&'(&)*+,%-
!"!#!$ %&''()*(+' P I (* ,-,*./( 0( )12,,( 34'&
5()&'*2%()& +!"#"1$+" *. &6&371" *. $%"1'"% (%*%" $%2/2*")3 ") $%2&")/" *!.) /(%%"/3".% P I 8
"3 *!.)" $"%3.%-,3'() P (p) %"$%2&")32 $,% +, 9:.%" ;<;<
W(p)
+
X(p) + ε(p) 1
)
U(p) + 1 Y(p)
K(1+
Ti p 1+τp
-

9:.%" ;<;4 5(%%"/3".% => "3 &6&371" *!(%*%" 1 ? /+,&&" 0

, &(%3'" Y (p) "&3 *())2" $,% 4

1
ω02 (1 + Ti p) τp
Y (p) = X(p) + W (p) @;<AAB
p2 + 2ζω0 p + ω02 p2 + 2ζω0 p + ω02
q
(C ω02 = K
Ti τ "3 ζ = 1+K
2
Ti
Kτ <

!"%%".% ε(p) "&3 *())2" $,% 4

p2 + τ1 p 1
τp
ε(p) = X(p) − W (p) @;<ADB
p2 + 2ζω0 p + ω02 p2 + 2ζω0 p + ω02

(%&E." x(t) "&3 .) 2/F"+() .)'32 "3 w(t) = 08 +!"%%".% *" $(&'3'() G,.3 4
ε1 (∞) = 15/ (x(t) − y(t)) = 15/ p(ε1 (p)) = 0
t→∞
@;<AHB
p→0+

*" 1I1"8 +(%&E." x(t) = 0 "3 w(t) "&3 .) 2/F"+() .)'328 +!"%%".% *" $(&'3'() *"G'")3 4
ε2 (∞) = 15/ (0 − y(t)) = 15/ p(ε2 (p)) = 0
t→∞
@;<AJB
p→0+

/" E.' 1()3%" E." +" &6&371" "&3 $%2/'& "3 ')&")&'-+" ,.# $"%3.%-,3'()&<

;;
 !"! #$%%&'(&)%* + ,'(-$.* /%$/$%(-$..&00& &( -.(12%,0& 3456

!"# $%"&'(# )( *!+,!#%(+(-% &" ./.%0+(1 ,!.!-. α = Tτi 2 3( *!(4*'(-% &56+!#%'..(+(-% .5$*#'%
&$. )!#. 7
1+K 1
ζ= √ √ 892:;<
2 K α
3( *!+,!#%(+(-% &" ./.%0+( &$,(-& &!-* &( K (% &( α2
=' α = 1 8!" >'(- (-*!#( τ =
√ Ti <1 *5(.% ? &'#( .' )( @$#! &" *!##(*%("# (.% $A6) 6" ,B)( &" ./.%0+(1
6)!#. ζ ≥ 1 ,"'.C"( 1 + K ≥ 2 K 2 6# *!-.$C"(-%1 .' α = 11 )( ./.%0+( (.% 6,$#'!&'C"(2 3(. ,B)(.
&" ./.%0+( (- >!"*)( D(#+$( .!-% )(. #6*'-(. &( )5$C"6%'!- *6#6*%$#'.%'C"( 7
p2 + 2ζω0 p + ω02 = 0 892:9<
*5(.% ? &'#( 7 p1 = − τ1 (% p2 = − Kτ 2
36 .!#%'( &" ./.%0+( &(E'(-% 6)!#. 7
K τp
Y (p) = X(p) + W (p) 892:F<
K + τp (1 + τ p)(K + τ p)
G- *!-.%6%( C"( )6 D!-*%'!- &( %#6-.D(#% (- >!"*)( D(#+$(1 (- )56>.(-*( &( ,(#%"#>6%'!-1 (.% *())(
&5"- ./.%0+( &" ,#(+'(# !#&#( &( A6'- .%6%'C"( "-'%$ (% &( *!-.%6-%( &( %(+,. Kτ H !- (.% &!-* (-
,#$.(-*( &5"- ./.%0+( ,#$*'. (% #6,'&(2
G- *!-.%6%( 6"..' C"( )(. ,B)(. p1 (% p2 .!-% *!-D!-&". .' K = 11 *( C"' *!##(.,!-& ? ζ = 12
G- #(+6#C"( ,6# 6'))("#. C"( .' α < 11 6)!#. ζ > 11 ,!"# %!"% K 2
!"# I-'#1 .' α >p11 6)!#. 7
J ζ > 1 .' K ≥ 2pα(α − 1) − (1 − 2α)
J ζ < 1 .' K < 2 α(α − 1) − (1 − 2α)
36 IA"#( 92F +!-%#( )6 #$,!-.( &" ./.%0+( &( )6 IA"#( 929 ,!"# "-( (-%#$( x(t) (- $*K()!- "-'%$
(% "-( ,(#%"#>6%'!- w(t) -"))(1 &6-. )( *6. !L α = 12
1
K= 5
0.9

0.8

K = 1.5
0.7

0.6
K=1

0.5

K = 0.5
0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6

IA"#( 92F7 M$,!-.( &" ./.%0+( 929 ,!"# α = 1 (% K E6#'6>)(

36 IA"#( 92N +!-%#( )6 #$,!-.( &" ./.%0+( &( )6 IA"#( 929 ,!"# "-( (-%#$( x(t) (- $*K()!- "-'%$
(% "-( ,(#%"#>6%'!- w(t) -"))(1 &6-. )( *6. !L α < 12
9F
 !"#$%&' () *&&'+%$*, -./

0.9

alpha=1
0.8
alpha=0.7

0.7
alpha=0.4

0.6

alpha=0.1
0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6

!"#$ %&'( )*+,-.$ /" .0.123$ %&% +,"# α < 1 $1 K = 1

45 !"#$ %&6 3,-1#$ 75 #*+,-.$ /" .0.123$ /$ 75 !"#$ %&% +,"# "-$ $-1#*$ x(t) $- *89$7,- "-:1*
$1 "-$ +$#1"#;51:,- w(t) -"77$< /5-. 7$ 85. ,= α >p1& >- 8,-.151$ ?"@:7 $A:.1$ "- /*+5..$3$-1 +,"#
7$. /:B*#$-1$. C57$"#. /$ K < 3D3$ 7,#.?"$ K < 2 α(α − 1) − (1 − 2α)< 8@$.1 E /:#$ 3D3$ 7,#.?"$
ζ > 1 F 8$7E $.1 /" E 75 +#*.$-8$ /@"- G*#, /5-. 75 H,-81:,- /$ 1#5-.H$#1 $-1#$ 7@$-1#*$ $1 75 .,#1:$ /"
.0.123$&

1.2

K=9
1
K=7

K=5
0.8

K=3
0.6

K=1
0.4

0.2

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6

!"#$ %&6( )*+,-.$ /" .0.123$ %&% +,"# α = 2 $1 K C5#:5;7$

!"!#!# $%&&'()'*& P I ') +,+)-.' /' (01++' *2

I,-.:/*#,-. E +#*.$-1 "- .0.123$ /$ 875..$ 1 5..,8:* E "- 8,##$81$"# P I & 4$ .89*35 H,-81:,--$7
/" .0.123$ 5..$#C: $.1 /,--* +5# 75 !"#$ %&JK&
W(p)
+
X(p) + ε(p) 1
)
U(p) + 1 Y(p)
K(1+
Ti p p(1+τp)
-

!"#$ %&JK( I,##$81$"# LM $1 .0.123$ /$ 875..$ 1

45 H,-81:,- /$ 1#5-.H$#1< $- ;,"87$ ,"C$#1$ $1 $- 7@5;.$-8$ /$ +$#1"#;51:,- $.1 /,--*$ +5# (

%'
 !"! #$%%&'(&)%* + ,'(-$.* /%$/$%(-$..&00& &( -.(12%,0& 3456

K(1 + Ti p)
C(p)G(p) = !"#$%
Ti p2 (1 + τ p)
&' &( )*+,-& .&/01& 23/ 4

C(p)G(p) K(1 + Ti p)
F (p) = = 2
!"#5%
1 + C(p)G(p) Ti p (1 + τ p) + K(1 + Ti p)
6& 787'90& :+ '/*;7;90& */:/& 2&+' <'/& ;(7'3)-&" =&7 ,*(:;';*(7 :& 7'3);-;'1 7*(' :*((1&7 23/
-& ,/;'9/& :& >*+'? 4

¯
¯
p3 ¯ Ti τ KTi 0
¯
p2 ¯¯ Ti K 0
¯ KT 2 −KT τ
p1 ¯¯ i Ti i 0 0
¯
p0 ¯ K 0 0

=3 ,*(:;';*( (1,&773;/& &' 7+@73('& :& 7'3);-;'1 7; K A Ti &' τ 7*(' '*+7 '/*;7 2*7;';.7% &7' B+&
1
Ti > τ " =& C1/* :+ ,*//&,'&+/ Ti % :*;' :*(, <'/& 2-+7 2/*,?& :& -D3E& ;03F;(3;/& B+& -& 2G-& :+
1
787'90& τ %" =3 7'3);-;'1 :+ 787'90& ;02*7& :*(, +(& ,*('/3;('& 7+/ -& ,?*;E :+ ,*//&,'&+/ P I"

H; *( +';-;73;' +(& 3,';*( ;('1F/3-& 7&+-&A -& 787'90& &( )*+,-& .&/01& 7&/3;' ;(7'3)-&A ,*00& -&
1
0*('/& -D3)7&(,& :& '&/0& &( pA 3+ :1(*0;(3'&+/ :& -3 .*(,';*( :& '/3(7.&/' 4 F (p) = "
Ti τ p3 + Ti p2 + 1
=D3,';*( ;('1F/3-& (D&7' :*(, 237 +';-;71& 7&+-&"

=3 7*/';& :+ 787'90& :& -3 IF+/& !"#J &7' :*((1& 23/ 4

Y (p) = F (p)X(p) + H(p)W (p) !"KJ%

K(1 + Ti p) Ti p
*L 4 F (p) = &' H(p) =
Ti p2 (1 + τ p) + K(1 + Ti p) Ti p2 (1 + τ p) + K(1 + Ti p)
&' -D&//&+/ 23/ 4

ε(p) = X(p) − Y (p) !"K#%

p2 (1
Ti + τ p) Ti p
= X(p) − W (p)
Ti p2 (1 + τ p) + K(1 + Ti p) Ti p2 (1 + τ p) + K(1 + Ti p)
| {z } | {z }
ε1 (p) ε2 (p)

M( ,*(7'3'& :*(, B+& -*/7B+& x(t) &7' +( 1,?&-*( *+ +(& /302&A &' &( -D3)7&(,& :& 2&/'+/)3';*(
w(t)A &' 7*+7 ,*(:;';*( :& 7'3);-;'1 Ti > τ %A 3-*/7 4 ε1 (∞) = 0"

N& 0<0&A -*/7B+& -3 2&/'+/)3';*( w(t) &7' +( 1,?&-*(A &' &( -D3)7&(,& :& 7;F(3- :D&('/1& x(t) 4
ε2 (∞) = 0"

=& 787'90& 3;(7; ,*//;F1 2&+' :*(, <'/& B+3-;I1 :& 2/1,;7 &' :D;(7&(7;)-& 3+E 2&/'+/)3';*(7"

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dε(t)
u(t) = Kp ε(t) + Kd ;<1==>
µ dt ¶
dε(t)
= K ε(t) + Td
dt

":'+ K = Kp '% KTd = Kd )

'% *; ε(t) '<% 7=',%&4' 31 +*&&'+%'1& '% u(t) '<% <" <*&%$' >7" +*??",3'@)
A" B*,+%$*, 3' %&",<B'&% 3' +' %8#' 3' +*&&'+%'1& '<% 3*,,4' #"& 9
U (p)
C(p) = = K(1 + Td p) .
ε(p)

■
?* $-+* '* )&%%*)$*(% +&556'* 03 5$%()$(%* 5("@3#$* A

K
+
ε(p) U(p)

+
KTd p

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1
G(p) = 4 355&)".4 '3#5 (#* 9&()0* '* %.C(03$"&#4 F (# )&%%*)$*(% P D1 ?* 5-5$6,* *5$
1(1 + τ p)
%*+%.5*#$. +3% 03 BC(%* <1D=1
W(p)
+
X(p) + ε(p) U(p) + 1 Y(p)
K(1+Td p)
p(1+τp)
-

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67
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! "#$%&' Y (p) '"% (#))*' +!$ ,

K 1
τ³(1 + Td´(p))
Y (p) = X(p) + ³ τ ´
W (p) -./012
p2 + 1+KTτ
d
p+ Kτ p2 + 1+KTd
τ p + K
τ

3' 45' 67#) +'5% 8'%%$' "#5" 6! 9#$8' "5&:!)%' ,

1
ω02 (1 + Td p)
Y (p) = 2 X(p) + τ
W (p) -./0;2
p2 + 2ζω0 p + ω0 p2 + 2ζω0 p + ω02
q
#< , ω0 = K
τ '% ζ = 1+KT
√ d
2 Kτ
/
7'$$'5$ ε(p) '"% (#))*' +!$ ,
1
p2 + ω0 (2ζ − Td )p
ε(p) = X(p) + τ
W (p) -./0=2
p2 + 2ζω0 p + ω02 p2 + 2ζω0 p + ω02
' 3#8+#$%'8')% (>)!8&45' (5 ">"%?8' (*+')( (' ζ @ '% #) +'5% $'8!$45'$ 45' ,
(1 + KTd )2 − 4Kτ
ζ2 − 1 = -./0.2
4Kτ
3' 45& 3#)(5&% A ,
B/ C& τ < Td !6#$" 
ζ > 1/ √
ζ ≥ 1 @

"& K ≥ 2τ −Td +2 τ (τ −Td )

0/ C& τ ≥ Td !6#$" T√2

d

ζ < 1 @
 "& K < 2τ −Td +2 τ (τ −Td )
Td2
1/ C& τ = Td @ 6' ">"%?8' +#""?(' ('5D +E6'" , p1 = −K '% p2 = − τ1
7*45!%&#) ./0= 8#)%$' 45' 67'$$'5$ "%!%&45'@ +#5$ 5)' ')%$*' x(t) ') *3F'6#)@ '"% )566'/ G!$
3#)%$'@ 3'%%' '$$'5$ "%!%&45'@ +#5$ 5)' +'$%5$H!%&#) w(t) ') *3F'6#)@ :!5% , − τ ω1 2 = − K1 /
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0

' 3#$$'3%'5$ P D +'$8'% (#)3 (7!K&$ "5$ 6' %$!)"&%#&$' (5 ">"%?8' (' 36!""' 5)/ ' $'L'% ('
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9#)3%&#) (' %$!)"9'$% F (p) = K+p
K
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x(t) ') *3F'6#)/

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7!3%&#) (*$&:*' '"% (*3$&%' +!$ ,
dε(t)
u(t) = Kd -./0M2
dt
#5 H&') ')3#$' ,
U (p)
= Kd p -./0N2
ε(p)
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U (p) K(1 + Td p)
= A839GE
ε(p) 1 + TNd p
-6 , N ≥ 3
#% /& $ $,#* )-* %$ ,#** ,!&#$ H -6-$, + )?-" + '- @#*2 F

U (p) Kd p + 1
= A83IJE
ε(p) αKd p + 1

-6 , 51 < α < 20
1

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Z t
dε(t)
u(t) = KP ε(t) + KI ε(τ )dτ + Kd 5B CD8
0 dt
') 6.!- !-&'(! $/( 0/ 7'-&".'- %! "(/-*7!(" 5
µ ¶
U (p) KI 1
C(p) = = KP + + Kd p = K 1 + + Td p . 5B CE8
ε(p) p Ti p

! !" #$%&'( )(*+,(

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w (t)
+
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x(t) + y(t)
K(1+ 1 +T p) G(p)
Ti p d
-

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numPID(p) numG(p)
Y (p) = X(p)
numPID(p) numG(p) + denPID(p) denG(p)

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numG(p) denPID(p)
+ W (p)
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1 Ta 1
C(p) = K 1 + + Td p = 1.2 1+ + 0.5Tu p
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= + +p
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★ ✖ ✪❊✩ ✜ ✧ ✙
✞ ✞

✭✫ ✬ ✮✰✯ ✱✠✲ ✳ ✴✶✵✶✷✹✸ ✲ ✺ ✴✠✱✘✬✻✬✻✬✻✬✻✬✻✬✻✬✻✬✻✬✻✬✻✬✻✬✻✬✻✬✻✬✻✬✻✬✻✬✻✬✻✬✻✬✻✬✻✬✻✬✻✬✻✬✼✬✻✬✻✬✻✬✻✬✻✬✻✬✾✽✠✿

✫✭✬ ❀❂❁❃✳ ❄ ❅ ❆ ✱✠✲ ❇ ✲ ✺ ✴✠✱❈✵✶✷❈❉✶✳ ✴ ❊✹❋ ● ❍■❆❏✬✻✬✻✬✻✬✻✬✻✬✻✬✻✬✻✬✻✬✻✬✻✬✻✬✻✬✻✬✻✬✻✬✻✬✼✬✻✬✻✬✻✬✻✬✻✬✻✬✾✽✶✮
✫✭✬ ❑▼▲✼✷✹❆ ❋ ◆✭✷✹❆ ❅✻❍■❄ ✲ ❖✶✴✶✵✶❆ ❅✒✬✻✬✻✬✻✬✻✬✻✬✻✬✻✬✻✬✻✬✻✬✻✬✻✬✻✬✻✬✻✬✻✬✻✬✻✬✻✬✻✬✻✬✼✬✻✬✻✬✻✬✻✬✻✬✻✬✾✽✭❀

p✌ ✓ ✣ ✬✂✒✔✓✖✫✍✣☛✩ ✵✒✔✛ ✫✂✬

✚

❘❂ ✱ ✫✞✲✙✪ ✘ ✲✷✸ ✥ ✭✧✵ ✲✙✶✧✵ ✢ ✸ ✢ ✦✧✘ ✫ ✚ ✲ ❊☎✫✞✥ ✭✞✲✷✱ ❬ ✥ ✫✞✲✷✲ ✭✧✶✧✶❋✥ ✲ ✢❘■ ✭✞✘✰✪ ✱✮✯ ✥ ✫✞✸ ✚ ✳ ✥ ✫❏✦✧✘✰✚ ✵ ✱ ✫✞✲ ✯ ✘ ✵ ✚✰✦☎✭❏✲ ◗✧✲ ✚ ❭ ✛✣✘❘❨✜✵ ✢ ✬ ✭✧✪ ✘ ✵
★ ✥ ✭●❨✣✱ ✲ ✲ ✘ ✵ ❬☎✳ ✵ ✴✷✢ ✚ ✱ ✳ ✚✣✑ ✎ ✒✧✒✤✧✡ ✡ ✺ ❚ ✘✜❙✧✭✧✚❘✦✧✘✮✸ ✘✜✸ ✤✞✱ ✶✧✳ ✚ ✵ ✘✮✘ ✲ ✚❘✦✧✘✜✶✧✵ ✢ ✲ ✘ ✫☎✚ ✘ ✵❘■ ✭✞✘ ✪ ■ ✭✞✘ ✲✷✛✩✢ ✚ ✤✞✥☎✦✧✘ ✲✰✚ ✘ ✛✣✶❋✥ ✵ ✘ ✪ ✪ ✘ ✲
✶❋✘ ✵ ✛✣✘ ✚ ✚ ✱ ✫☎✚✙✦✧✘✷✚ ✵ ✥ ✭✧❬☎✘ ✵✷✸ ✘ ✚ ✚ ✘✙✯ ✥ ✫✞✸ ✚ ✳ ✥ ✫✩✦✧✘✷✚ ✵ ✱ ✫✞✲ ✯ ✘ ✵ ✚✙✱ ✾✧✫✩✦✧✘✷✶❋✥ ✭✧❬ ✥ ✳ ✵✷✘ ✫✞✲ ✭✧✳ ✚ ✘✙✪ ✭✧✳✞✱ ✶✧✶✞✪ ✳ ■ ✭✞✘ ✵✙✪ ✘ ✲✏✚ ✘ ✸ ✤✧✫✧✳ ■ ✭✞✘ ✲
✦✧✘✜✲ ◗☎✫☎✚ ✤✞❭ ✲ ✘✜✦✧✘ ✲✰✸ ✥ ✵ ✵ ✘ ✸ ✚ ✘ ✭✧✵ ✲❘❀✏❁ ❂✮✺
◗ ❘ ❙ ❚
✡✌✾✗✕✤✺ ✟ ✴✾ ❈ ✿✖✕✠✒ ✖✒ ✺ ✫❇✲✾ ❊ ✸ ❑ ✘ ✲ ✚✙✦✧✢ ✚ ✘ ✵ ✛✣✳ ✫✞✘ ✵ ❊☎❨❘✶✞✱ ✵ ✚ ✳ ✵✙✦✧✘ ✲✙✸ ✥ ✫✧✫✞✱ ✳ ✲ ✲ ✱ ✫✞✸ ✘ ✲✙✘ ✚✙✦✧✘ ✲✂✛✩✘ ✲ ✭✧✵ ✘ ✲✙✦☎✳ ✲ ✶❋✥ ✫✧✳ ❙✧✪ ✘ ✲ ❊
✪ ✱☞✵ ✘ ✪ ✱ ✚ ✳ ✥ ✫●✦✧✘✜✸ ✱ ✭✞✲ ✘✜❨✣✘ ❋✘ ✚❘■ ✭✧✳▼✘ ❛☎✳ ✲ ✚ ✘✮✘ ✫ ✚ ✵ ✘✮✲ ✘ ✲✷✬ ✵ ✱ ✫✞✦✧✘ ✭✧✵ ✲✰✦❋❑ ✘ ✫☎✚ ✵ ✢ ✘✜✘ ✚❘✦✧✘✜✲ ✥ ✵ ✚ ✳ ✘ ✺
✟

❚ ✘ ✲✰✥ ✤❙ ✶ ✘ ✸ ✚ ✳ ✯ ✲✰✦✧✘✜✸ ✘ ✚ ✚ ✘✜✳ ✦✧✘ ✫☎✚ ✳ ✾✞✸ ✱ ✚ ✳ ✥ ✫●✲ ✥ ✫ ✚✰✛✮✭✧✪ ✚ ✳ ✶✧✪ ✘ ✲✮✽
❃ ✶❋✘ ✵ ✛✣✘ ✚ ✚ ✵ ✘✣✪ ✱❏✶✞✵ ✢ ✦☎✳ ✸ ✚ ✳ ✥ ✫◆✦☎✭◆✸ ✥ ✛✣✶❋✥ ✵ ✚ ✘ ✛✣✘ ✫☎✚✣✦☎✭◆✲ ◗✧✲ ✚ ❭ ✛✩✘ ❊▼✶❋✥ ✭✧✵☞✚ ✥ ✭✧✚ ✘✩✲ ✳ ✚ ✭✞✱ ✚ ✳ ✥ ✫◆✦✧✱ ✫✞✲✮✪ ✱ ■ ✭✞✘ ✪ ✪ ✘✣✳ ✪
✶❋✥ ✭✧✵ ✵ ✱✣✲ ✘❘✚ ✵ ✥ ✭✧❬☎✘ ✵☞★ ✸ ✘ ✸ ✳▼✶▼✘ ✭✧✚❘❱ ✚ ✵ ✘❘✵ ✢ ✱ ✪ ✳ ✲ ✢✜❨☞✪ ❑ ✱ ✳ ✦✧✘✮✦✧✘✜✲ ✳ ✛☞✭✧✪ ✱ ✚ ✳ ✥ ✫✞✲ ✴ ✺
❃ ✦✧✢ ✚ ✘ ✵ ✛☞✳ ✫✞✘ ✵❘✦✧✘ ✲✰✪ ✥ ✳ ✲✰✦✧✘✜✸ ✥ ✛☞✛✩✱ ✫✞✦✧✘✩★ ✘ ✫✔✸ ✱ ✪ ✸ ✭✧✪ ✱ ✫☎✚✰✭✧✫●✸ ✥ ✵ ✵ ✘ ✸ ✚ ✘ ✭✧✵ ✴ ✺
❃ ✲ ✭✧✵ ❬☎✘ ✳ ✪ ✪ ✘ ✵✰✪ ✘✜✸ ✥ ✛☞✶❋✥ ✵ ✚ ✘ ✛✩✘ ✫ ✚✜✦☎✭✔✲ ◗✧✲ ✚ ❭ ✛✣✘✣★ ✦☎✳ ✱ ✬ ✫✞✥ ✲ ✚ ✳ ✸ ✴ ✺
❚ ✱✮✦✧✢ ✚ ✘ ✵ ✛☞✳ ✫✞✱ ✚ ✳ ✥ ✫❏✦☎✭✩✛✣✥☎✦✧❭ ✪ ✘❘✥ ✭✩✦✧✘✰✪ ✱✜✵ ✘ ✪ ✱ ✚ ✳ ✥ ✫❏■ ✭✧✳✞✪ ✳ ✘✷✪ ✘ ✲✙✘ ✫☎✚ ✵ ✢ ✘ ✲✷✱ ✭✧❛✣✲ ✥ ✵ ✚ ✳ ✘ ✲✙✶❋✘ ✭✧✚✷✲ ✘✷✯ ✱ ✳ ✵ ✘✰✦✧✘❘✦✧✘ ✭✧❛
✛✣✱ ✫✧✳ ❭ ✵ ✘ ✲✮✽
❃ ✚ ✤✞✢ ✥ ✵ ✳ ■ ✭✞✘ ✛✣✘ ✫☎✚☞✽✧❨☞✶✞✱ ✵ ✚ ✳ ✵✰✦❋❑ ✭✧✫✞✘✜✸ ✥ ✫✧✫✞✱ ✳ ✲ ✲ ✱ ✫✞✸ ✘✮✱✮✶✧✵ ✳ ✥ ✵ ✳✂✦☎✭✔✲ ◗✧✲ ✚ ❭ ✛✣✘✣★ ✸ ✥ ✫✧✫✞✱ ✳ ✲ ✲ ✱ ✫✞✸ ✘❘✶✧✤✞✢ ✫✞✥ ✛✣✢ ✫✞✥ ✪ ✥ ❜
✜❚
✬ ✳ ■ ✭✞✘✜✦☎✭❏✶✧✵ ✥☎✸ ✘ ✲ ✲ ✭✞✲ ✴ ✺ ❚ ✘❘✛✩✥☎✦✧❭ ✪ ✘✮✥ ❙✧✚ ✘ ✫☎✭✔✘ ✲ ✚❘✦☎✳ ✚ ❇✝✍ ✡ ✫✽ ✾ ✡✌✾ ✔ ✍✓✕✖✌✕ ✻✑✟ ✒ ✒ ✻✑✕✖✔ ✾ ✺
❃ ✘ ❛☎✶❋✢ ✵ ✳ ✛✩✘ ✫ ✚ ✱ ✪ ✘ ✛✩✘ ✫ ✚❏✽▼✥ ✫❯✸ ✥ ✫✞✲ ✳ ✦✧❭ ✵ ✘✣✱ ✪ ✥ ✵ ✲✜✪ ✘☞✲ ◗✧✲ ✚ ❭ ✛✣✘✣❨✩✳ ✦✧✘ ✫☎✚ ✳ ✾✞✘ ✵☞✸ ✥ ✛✣✛✣✘✣✭✧✫✞✘ ✎ ✝ ✟ ✡✣✒✞✎ ✝ ✠ ✡✜✘ ✚ ❊▼✘ ✫
✥ ❙✞✲ ✘ ✵ ❬ ✱ ✫☎✚❏✲ ✘ ✲✩✲ ✳ ✬ ✫✞✱ ✭✧❛❅✦❋❑ ✘ ✫☎✚ ✵ ✢ ✘●✘ ✚✔✦✧✘✔✲ ✥ ✵ ✚ ✳ ✘ ❊✰✥ ✫✍✸ ✤✞✘ ✵ ✸ ✤✞✘●❨◆✢ ✚ ✱ ❙✧✪ ✳ ✵✩✪ ✘✔✛✣✥☎✦✧❭ ✪ ✘●✛✣✱ ✚ ✤✞✢ ✛✩✱ ✚ ✳ ■ ✭✞✘
✜❚
✝

■ ✭✧✳✜✦✧✢ ✸ ✵ ✳ ✚✔✱ ✭❅✛✣✳ ✘ ✭✧❛❅✪ ✘●✸ ✥ ✛☞✶❋✥ ✵ ✚ ✘ ✛✣✘ ✫☎✚●✦☎✭✍✲ ◗✧✲ ✚ ❭ ✛✣✘ ✺ ❚ ✘✔✛✩✥ ✦✧❭ ✪ ✘●✥ ❙✧✚ ✘ ✫ ✭ ✘ ✲ ✚❏✦☎✳ ✚ ❇✠✍ ✡ ✽ ✾ ✡✌✾
❈ ✾✗☞✌❈ ✘✗✒ ✾✗✕✤✺ ✻✫✺ ✟ ✍✓✕ ✺
✷✰✫✔✘ ✲ ✚✰✱ ✛✣✘ ✫✞✢✜✚ ✵ ❭ ✲✰✲ ✥ ✭✧❬☎✘ ✫☎✚❘❨✣✸ ✥ ✛✮❙✧✳ ✫✞✘ ✵✰✪ ✘ ✲✰✦✧✘ ✭✧❛✩✛✣✢ ✚ ✤✞✥☎✦✧✘ ✲✷✶✧✵ ✢ ✸ ✢ ✦✧✘ ✫☎✚ ✘ ✲ ✺
❚ ❑ ✳ ✦✧✘ ✫ ✚ ✳ ✾✞✸ ✱ ✚ ✳ ✥ ✫✣✦✧✘ ✲✏✲ ◗✧✲ ✚ ❭ ✛✣✘ ✲✏✱✰✶❋✥ ✭✧✵✏✥ ✠❙ ✶ ✘ ✸ ✚ ✳ ✯✞✪ ✱❘✦✧✢ ✚ ✘ ✵ ✛✣✳ ✫✞✱ ✚ ✳ ✥ ✫✩✦✧✘ ✲✂✶✞✱ ✵ ✱ ✛✩❭ ✚ ✵ ✘ ✲✏✦☎✭☞✛✩✥ ✦✧❭ ✪ ✘ ❊ ❨✰✶✞✱ ✵ ✚ ✳ ✵
✦✧✘❘✪ ✱✣✸ ✥ ✫✧✫✞✱ ✳ ✲ ✲ ✱ ✫✞✸ ✘✜✘ ❛☎✶❋✢ ✵ ✳ ✛✩✘ ✫☎✚ ✱ ✪ ✘✮✦✧✘ ✲✰✘ ✫☎✚ ✵ ✢ ✘ ✲✰✘ ✚❘✦✧✘ ✲✰✲ ✥ ✵ ✚ ✳ ✘ ✲ ✺
❃ ❯
 ✁ ✝
✌ ☎✌❯✓✷✠ ❳ ✄ ✡ ✒✞✟ ✄ ✟ ✝ ✎ ✒●❲ ✡✣✆✞✠ ✎ ✆ ✟ ☎✣✡

✌ ✖✢
✂ ✓✖✘✚✢✖✜✚✬ ✒✔✕✗✒✖✛ ✫✂✬ ✣☛✩☎☛✄ ✓✖✫ ☛✪ ✆ ✙ ✆✗ ✜

✷✰✫❏✸ ✤✞✘ ✵ ✸ ✤✞✘✜✦✧✥ ✫✞✸❘❨☞✦✧✥ ✫✞✫✞✘ ✵✷✭✧✫✞✘✰✵ ✘ ✶✧✵ ✢ ✲ ✘ ✫☎✚ ✱ ✚ ✳ ✥ ✫❏✛✣✱ ✚ ✤✞✢ ✛✩✱ ✚ ✳ ■ ✭✞✘✜❨✮✭✧✫❏✶✧✵ ✥☎✸ ✘ ✲ ✲ ✭✞✲✙✵ ✢ ✘ ✪✙★ ✱ ✶✧✶❋✘ ✪ ✢✜✥ ❙✠✶ ✘ ✚ ✴ ✺
✗ ✘✜✶✧✵ ✥☎✸ ✘ ✲ ✲ ✭✞✲❘✘ ✲ ✚✜✱ ✸ ✸ ✘ ✲ ✲ ✳ ❙✧✪ ✘☞✱ ✭●✚ ✵ ✱ ❬☎✘ ✵ ✲❘✦✧✘☞✲ ✘ ✲✰✛✩✱ ✫✧✳ ✯ ✘ ✲ ✚ ✱ ✚ ✳ ✥ ✫✞✲✜✘ ❛☎✚ ✢ ✵ ✳ ✘ ✭✧✵ ✘ ✲✣★ ✘ ✫☎✚ ✵ ✢ ✘ ✲ ❜ ✲ ✥ ✵ ✚ ✳ ✘ ✲ ✴ ✺▼❁ ✦✧✘ ✫☎✚ ✳ ✾✞✘ ✵
✷
✭✧✫❯✲ ◗✧✲ ✚ ❭ ✛✩✘✮✵ ✢ ✘ ✪✙✸ ❑ ✘ ✲ ✚✮✦✧✢ ✚ ✘ ✵ ✛✣✳ ✫✞✘ ✵✮✭✧✫❩✱ ✭✧✚ ✵ ✘☞✲ ◗✧✲ ✚ ❭ ✛✣✘✩✽❋✪ ✘☞✛✣✥☎✦✧❭ ✪ ✘ ✺✂❂❘✱ ✫✞✲❘✚ ✥ ✭✞✲✜✸ ✱ ✲ ❊✞✪ ✘✮✛✩✥ ✦✧❭ ✪ ✘✣✲ ✘ ✵ ✱✩✭✧✫✞✘
✳ ✛✣✱ ✬ ✘✮✱ ✶✧✶✧✵ ✥ ❛☎✳ ✛✣✱ ✚ ✳ ❬ ✘✮✦☎✭✔✲ ◗✧✲ ✚ ❭ ✛✣✘❘✵ ✢ ✘ ✪ ✺

✝ ☞ ✎✌☞ ✞✠✟ ☛✡
✧ ✖✌✪✠✒✤✘✗✱✗✧ ✙✂✣✦✒✠✮✗✒✤✧ ✩❊✥ ✙✂✘ ✜ ✘✗✙✠✮✌✔ ✜ ✪✭✤
✩ ✔ ✜ ✖✦✮ ☞
✷✰✫☞✶❋✘ ✭✧✚✙✦☎✳ ✲ ✚ ✳ ✫✧✬ ✭✞✘ ✵✏✶✧✪ ✭✞✲ ✳ ✘ ✭✧✵ ✲✏✢ ✚ ✱ ✶❋✘ ✲✏✦✧✱ ✫✞✲✂✪ ❑ ✢ ✪ ✱ ❙❋✥ ✵ ✱ ✚ ✳ ✥ ✫✩✦❋❑ ✭✧✫☞✛✩✥ ✦✞❭ ✪ ✘ ✺ ❚ ✱❘✶✧✵ ✥☎✸ ✢ ✦☎✭✧✵ ✘✷✬ ✢ ✫✞✢ ✵ ✱ ✪ ✘✷✦❋❑ ✭✧✫✞✘
✳ ✦✧✘ ✫ ✚ ✳ ✾✞✸ ✱ ✚ ✳ ✥ ✫✩✘ ✲ ✚✂✶✧✵ ✢ ✲ ✘ ✫ ✚ ✢ ✘✙✶✞✱ ✵✏✪ ✘✷✲ ✸ ✤✞✢ ✛✩✱✜✦✧✘✙✪ ✱❘✾✧✬ ✭✧✵ ✘ ❝ ✺ ✻✜✽ ✘ ✫☞✯ ✥ ✫✞✸ ✚ ✳ ✥ ✫✣✦✧✘ ✲✏✥ ❙✠✶ ✘ ✸ ✚ ✳ ✯ ✲✏✦✧✘✷✪ ❑ ✳ ✦✧✘ ✫☎✚ ✳ ✾✞✸ ✱ ✚ ✳ ✥ ✫
✘ ✚✷❨❘✶✞✱ ✵ ✚ ✳ ✵✷✦✧✘ ✲✏✸ ✥ ✫✧✫✞✱ ✳ ✲ ✲ ✱ ✫✞✸ ✘ ✲✷✱❘✶✧✵ ✳ ✥ ✵ ✳❋✘ ✚✙✦✧✘✷✛✩✘ ✲ ✭✧✵ ✘ ✲ ❊☎✥ ✫✩✥ ❙✧✚ ✳ ✘ ✫☎✚✙✭✧✫✣✛✩✥ ✦✧❭ ✪ ✘✰✦☎✭✩✲ ◗✧✲ ✚ ❭ ✛✣✘ ❊ ■ ✭▼❑ ✳ ✪❋✸ ✥ ✫☎❬☎✳ ✘ ✫☎✚
✦✧✘❘❬ ✱ ✪ ✳ ✦✧✘ ✵☞★ ✘ ✫✔✸ ✥ ✛☞✶✞✱ ✵ ✱ ✫☎✚✰✶✞✱ ✵❘✘ ❛✧✘ ✛✣✶✧✪ ✘ ❊✧✪ ✘ ✲✷✵ ✢ ✶▼✥ ✫✞✲ ✘ ✲✰✦☎✭●✲ ◗✧✲ ✚ ❭ ✛✩✘✜✘ ✚❘✦☎✭❏✛✣✥☎✦✧❭ ✪ ✘ ✴ ✺

objectifs connaissances
a priori

expérimentation

application d'une
méthode modèle
d'identification

obtention d'un
modèle
paramétrique

validation du
modèle non
oui

modèle

✾✧✬ ✭✧✵ ✘ ❝ ✺ ✻ ✽ ✍✌ ❈ ✍ ✔ ✘ ✡✌✿✌❈ ✾ ✏✓✘ ✕✖✘✫❈ ✻✠✽ ✾ ✡ ✟ ✌ ✏✎

✡ ✾ ✕❊✺ ✟ ❘✎✔ ✻✫✺ ✟ ✍✓✕

✝ ☞ ✎✌☞ ✒
✎ ✑✲✜ ✓ ✒✠✧ ✙✤✮✦✔ ✬✭✔ ✔✏✕ ✙✤✬★✘✗✙✂✧ ✙✖✕✗✧ ✒✤✬ ✙✠✮✌✔ ✩✤✔ ✜ ✖✦✮
❁ ✪✂✘ ☎ ❛ ✳ ✲ ✚ ✘✜✦✧✘ ✭✧❛✩✵ ✘ ✶✞✵ ✢ ✲ ✘ ✫☎✚ ✱ ✚ ✳ ✥ ✫✞✲❘✦✧✘ ✲✰✲ ◗✧✲ ✚ ❭ ✛✣✘ ✲✷✪ ✳ ✫✞✢ ✱ ✳ ✵ ✘ ✲✷✳ ✫ ❬ ✱ ✵ ✳ ✱ ✫☎✚ ✲✮✽
❃ ❆ ✾✗✌ ☞ ❈ ✘✗✒ ✾✗✤✕ ✺ ✻✫✺ ✟ ✍✓✕ ✕✖✍✓✕ ☞✌✻✠❈ ✻✠❇✝✘ ✺ ❈ ✟ ❉✦✿✌✾ ✽✧✳ ✪✂✲ ❑ ✱ ✬ ✳ ✚✜✦✧✘✜✪ ✱✣✵ ✘ ✶✧✵ ✢ ✲ ✘ ✫☎✚ ✱ ✚ ✳ ✥ ✫❩✦☎✭●✸ ✥ ✛✣✶❋✥ ✵ ✚ ✘ ✛✣✘ ✫☎✚✜✦❋❑ ✭✧✫
✲ ◗✧✲ ✚ ❭ ✛✣✘✜❨☞✪ ❑ ✱ ✳ ✦✧✘✮✦❋❑ ✭✧✫●✦☎✳ ✱ ✬ ✵ ✱ ✛✣✛✣✘✜✯ ✵ ✢ ■ ✭✞✘ ✫☎✚ ✳ ✘ ✪✷★ ✥☎✦✧✘ ❊✞❴✰◗✧■ ✭✧✳ ✲ ✚ ❊ ✪ ✱ ✸ ✞✴✷✥ ✭●✦❋❑ ✭✧✫✞✘✜✵ ✢ ✶▼✥ ✫✞✲ ✘✜✚ ✘ ✛✣✶❋✥ ❜
✙ ✙
✘

✵ ✘ ✪ ✪ ✘✣★ ✳ ✫✞✦☎✳ ✸ ✳ ✘ ✪ ✪ ✘ ❊ ✴✺
...
❃ ❆ ✾ ✗ ☞
✌ ❈ ✗
✘ ✒ ✾ ✗✤✕ ✺ ✫
✻ ✺ ✟ ✓
✍ ✝
✕ ☞ ✌✠
✻ ❈ ✻✠❇✝✘ ✺ ❈ ✟ ❉✦✿✌✾ ✽ ✳ ✪✞✲ ❑ ✱ ✬ ✳ ✚✷✦❋❑ ✭✞✫✞✘✷✵ ✘ ✶✧✵ ✢ ✲ ✘ ✫☎✚ ✱ ✚ ✳ ✥ ✫✩✛✣✱ ✚ ✤✞✢ ✛✩✱ ✚ ✳ ■ ✭✞✘ ❊ ✦✧✢ ✾✧✫✧✳ ✘✰✶✞✱ ✵✙✭✧✫
✫✞✥ ✛✮❙✧✵ ✘✜✾✧✫✧✳✂✦✧✘✜✸ ✥☎✘ ✣✸ ✳ ✘ ✫☎✚ ✲☞★ ✯ ✥ ✫✞✸ ✚ ✳ ✥ ✫●✦✧✘❘✚ ✵ ✱ ✫✞✲ ✯ ✘ ✵ ✚ ❊✞✢ ■ ✭✞✱ ✚ ✳ ✥ ✫✔✦☎✳ ❋✢ ✵ ✘ ✫☎✚ ✳ ✘ ✪ ✪ ✘ ❊
✝ ✟ ✴✺
...
❃ ✻
 ✂✁☎✄ ✆✞✝ ✟ ✠ ✡ ✌❯✕ ❲ ✡ ✒✧✟ ✝ ✷✑ ✄ ✟ ✝ ✎ ✒

✌ ✁✄✂ ☎ ✩☛✜✚✪ ✩☛✜✚✢✎✗ ✘✾✒ ☛✫✍✣✥✜✚✢ ✝✆

✗✙✘ ✲✷✛✩✢ ✚ ✤✞✥☎✦✧✘ ✲❘✲ ✥ ✫☎✚✰❙✞✱ ✲ ✢ ✘ ✲✰✲ ✭✧✵✰✪ ❑ ✳ ✫☎✚ ✘ ✵ ✶✧✵ ✢ ✚ ✱ ✚ ✳ ✥ ✫●✦✧✘✜✵ ✢ ✶❋✥ ✫✞✲ ✘ ✲✷✚ ✘ ✛☞✶❋✥ ✵ ✘ ✪ ✪ ✘ ✲❘✦☎✭●✲ ◗✧✲ ✚ ❭ ✛✩✘✜❨✮✳ ✦✧✘ ✫ ✚ ✳ ✾✞✘ ✵ ✺

✞
✟ ✡✠ ☞☛ ☛
✝
☞ ✄✴☞ ✞
★ ✗✬ ✔ ✑❁
✔ ✞ ✙✤✬✭✘✗✱ ✗✧ ✙✓✞❁✜ ✙✠✧★✖✦✧ ✘✗✧ ✙
✕

❂ ✦❂ ❃✤❂ ❃ ❙ ✒ ✺ ❚✫❇✲✾✗✒✌✌
✹✖ ✡ ✾ ✍✓✕✖✔ ✺ ✟ ✍✓✕ ✡✌✾✭✺ ❈ ✻✑✕✖✒ ✾❈✺ G(p) = K
1+τ p

❚ ✮
✱ ✵ ✢ ✶▼✥ ✫✞✲ ✘❘✳ ✫✞✦☎✳ ✸ ✳ ✘ ✪ ✪ ✘✩★ ✢ ✸ ✤✞✘ ✪ ✥ ✫❏✭✧✫✧✳ ✚ ✱ ✳ ✵ ✘ ✴✷✦❋❑ ✭✧✫❏✚ ✘ ✪✂✲ ◗✧✲ ✚ ❭ ✛✩✘❘✘ ✲ ✚✰✦✧✥ ✫✧✫✞✢ ✘❘✶✞✱ ✵✷✪ ❑ ✢ ■ ✭✞✱ ✚ ✳ ✥ ✫ ❝ ✺ ✻ ❊✧✘ ✚✷✵ ✘ ✶✧✵ ✢ ❜
✲ ✘ ✫☎✚ ✢ ✜✘ ✶✞✱ ✵✰✪ ✱☞✾✧✬ ✭✧✵ ✘ ❝ ✺ ✙☎✺

³ t
´ ★❝ ✺✻ ✴
y(t) = K 1 − e− τ

❃❍❚ ✮ ✘ ✬ ✱ ✳ ✫❩✲ ✚ ✱ ✚ ✳ ■ ✭✞✘

K
✘ ✲ ✚✜✦✧✢ ✚ ✘ ✵ ✛✣✳ ✫✞✢✮✶✞✱ ✵❘✪ ✘✜✵ ✢ ✬ ✳ ✛✣✘✮✶❋✘ ✵ ✣ ✛ ✱ ✫✞✘ ✫ ✚ ❊▼✸ ❑ ✘ ✲ ✚✜❨✩✦☎✳ ✵ ✘✮✶✞✱ ✵✜✪ ❑ ✱ ✲ ◗☎✛☞✶✧✚ ✥ ✚ ☞
✘ ❨✣✪ ✱
✸ ✥ ✭✧✵ ❙❋✘✮✦✧✘❘✵ ✢ ✶❋✥ ✫✞✲ ✘✜✳ ✫✞✦☎✳ ✸ ✳ ✘ ✪ ✪ ✘✮✘ ✫❏✪ ❑ ✳ ✫✧✾✧✫✧✳ ✺
❃❍❚ ✱✣✸ ✥ ✫✞✲ ✚ ✱ ✫☎✚ ✘✜✦✧✘✜✚ ✘ ✛✣✶✞✲ τ ✘ ✲ ✚✰✪ ❑ ✱ ❙✞✲ ✸ ✳ ✲ ✲ ✘✜✦☎✭❏✶▼✥ ✳ ✫ ✚✜✦❋❑ ✳ ✫ ✚ ✘ ✵ ✲ ✘ ✸ ✚ ✳ ✥ ✫●✦✧✘❘✪ ✱☞✚ ✱ ✫✧✬ ✘ ✫☎✚ ✘✮❨☞✪ ❑ ✥ ✵ ✳ ✬ ✳ ✫✞✘ ❋❊ ✱ ❬☎✘ ✸
✪ ❑ ✱ ✲ ◗☎✛✣✶✧✚ ✥ ✚ ✘✜✤✞✥ ✵ ✳ ✁ ✥ ✫☎✚ ✱ ✪ ✘ ✺▼✗✰❑ ✘ ✲ ✚❘✱ ✭✞✲ ✲ ✳▼✪ ❑ ✱ ❙✞✲ ✸ ✳ ✲ ✲ ✘✜✦☎✭❏✶❋✥ ✳ ✫☎✚❘✦❋❑ ✥ ✵ ✦✧✥ ✫✧✫✞✢ ✘ ✺
0.632K
✗✷✘ ✲✰✵ ✢ ✲ ✭✧✪ ✚ ✱ ✚ ✲✰✲ ✥ ✫☎✚✰✦✧✢ ✛✩✥ ✫☎✚ ✵ ✢ ✲❘✦✧✱ ✫✞✲✰✪ ✘✜✸ ✤✞✱ ✶✧✳ ✚ ✵ ✘✮✸ ✥ ✫✞✲ ✱ ✸ ✵ ✢✮✱ ✭✧❛❏✲ ◗✧✲ ✚ ❭ ✛✣✘ ✲✰✦☎✭✔✶✧✵ ✘ ✛✣✳ ✘ ✵❘✥ ✵ ✦☎✵ ✘ ✺

0.632 K

0.5K

0
0 τ 2τ 3τ 4τ 5τ 6τ
✾✧✬ ✭✧✵ ✘ ❝ ✺ ✙☎✽✞✿❘✢ ✶❋✥ ✫✞✲ ✘✜✳ ✫✞✦☎✳ ✸ ✳ ✘ ✪ ✪ ✘✮✦❋❑ ✭✧✫●✲ ◗✧✲ ✚ ❭ ✛✩✘✜✦✧✘❘✯ ✥ ✫✞✸ ✚ ✳ ✥ ✫●✦✧✘❘✚ ✵ ✱ ✫✞✲ ✯ ✘ ✵ ✚✮✽ G(s) = K
1+τ p

✟ ✌✠ ❂ ✦❂ ❃✤❂ ❋ ✹✖
❙ ✒ ✺ ❚✫❇✲✾✗✒✌✡✌✾ ☞☛ ☛
✍✓✕✖✔ ✺ ✟ ✍✓✕ ✡✌✾✭✺ ❈ ✻✑✕✖✒ ✾ ❈ ✺ G(p) = Kp
1+τ p

❚ ✮
✱ ✵ ✢ ✶▼✥ ✫✞✲ ✘❘✳ ✫✞✦☎✳ ✸ ✳ ✘ ✪ ✪ ✘✩★ ✢ ✸ ✤✞✘ ✪ ✥ ✫❏✭✧✫✧✳ ✚ ✱ ✳ ✵ ✘ ✴✷✦❋❑ ✭✧✫❏✚ ✘ ✪✂✲ ◗✧✲ ✚ ❭ ✛✩✘❘✘ ✲ ✚✰✦✧✥ ✫✧✫✞✢ ✘❘✶✞✱ ✵✷✪ ❑ ✢ ■ ✭✞✱ ✚ ✳ ✥ ✫ ❝ ✺ ✙✧❊✧✘ ✚✷✵ ✘ ✶✧✵ ✢ ❜
✲ ✘ ✫☎✚ ✢ ✜✘ ✶✞✱ ✵✰✪ ✱☞✾✧✬ ✭✧✵ ✘ ❝ ✺ ,☎✺

t ★ ❝ ✺✙ ✴
y(t) = Ke− τ

❃
✙
 ✌ ☎✌ ✂✁✢✧✡ ✡ ✆ ✄ ✡✧✡ ✄ ☎✣❳ ✟ ✁✧✎ ❲ ✡ ✄

0.5K
0.368 K

0
0 τ 2τ 3τ 4τ 5τ 6τ
✾✧✬ ✭✧✵ ✘ ❝ ✺ ✧✽✞✿✰✢ ✶❋✥ ✫✞✲ ✘❘✳ ✫✞✦☎✳ ✸ ✳ ✘ ✪ ✪ ✘✮✦❋❑ ✭✧✫✔✲ ◗✧✲ ✚ ❭ ✛✣✘✜✦✧✘✜✯ ✥ ✫✞✸ ✚ ✳ ✥ ✫✔✦✧✘❘✚ ✵ ✱ ✫✞✲ ✯ ✘ ✵ ✚✮✽ Kp
G(p) = 1+τ p

❃ ❚ ❘
❍ ✘ ✬☎✱ ✳ ✫✔✲ ✚ ✱ ✚ ✳ ■ ✭✞✘
K
✘ ✲ ✚✰✦✧✢ ✚ ✘ ✵ ✛✣✳ ✫✞✢✜✶✞✱ ✷ ✵ ✪ ❑ ✱ ❙✞✲ ✸ ✳ ✲ ✲ ✘✮❨✮✪ ❑ ✥ ✵ ✳ ✬ ✳ ✫✞✘ ✺
❃❍❚ ✣
✱ ✸ ✥ ✞
✫ ✲ ✚ ✱ ✫ ✚ ✮
✘ ✧
✦ ❘
✘ ✚ ✘ ✣
✛ ✞
✶ ✲ ✘ ✲ ✰
✚ ✪ ❑ ✱ ✞
❙ ✲ ✸ ✳ ✲ ✲ ✘ ✦☎✭✔✶❋✥ ✳ ✫☎✚❘✦❋❑ ✳ ✫☎✚ ✘ ✵ ✲ ✘ ✸ ✚ ✳ ✥ ✫●✦✧✘❘✪ ✱☞✚ ✱ ✫✧✬ ✘ ✫☎✚ ✘✜❨☞✪ ❑ ✥ ✵ ✳ ✬ ✳ ✫✞✘ ❊✞✱ ❬☎✘ ✸
✜
τ
✪ ❑ ✱ ❛✧✜ ✘ ✦✧✘ ✲✷✚ ✘ ✛✣✶✞✲ ✺❋✗✰❑ ✘ ✲ ✚❘✱ ✭✞✲ ✲ ✳▼✪ ❑ ✱ ❙✞✲ ✸ ✳ ✲ ✲ ✘✜☎✦ ✭❏✶❋✥ ✳ ✫☎✚❘✦❋❑ ✥ ✵ ✦✧✥ ✫✧✫✞✢ ✘ ✺

✟ ❂ ✦❂ ❃✤❂ ✌✠
0.368K
✹❙✖✒ ✺ ✫❚ ❇✲✗✾ ✒✌✡✌✿ ☞✌❈ ✾✫❇✠✟ ✾ ❈ ✍✤❈ ✡✌❈ ✾✭❈ ✾ ✺ ✻✠❈ ✡✖✘
❁ ✪✂✲ ❑ ✱ ✬ ✳ ✚✰✦✞✘ ✲❘✲ ◗✧✲ ✚ ❭ ✛✩✘ ✲✷✦✧✥ ✫☎✚✰✪ ✱☞✯ ✥ ✫✞✸ ✚ ✳ ✥ ✫✔✦✧✘✜✚ ✵ ✱ ✞
✫ ✲ ✯ ✘ ✵ ✚✰✘ ✲ ✚✮✽ − τt ✺
G(p) = Ke
❚ ✱☞✵ ✢ ✶❋✥ ✫✞✲ ✘✜✳ ✫✞✦☎✳ ✸ ✳ ✘ ✪ ✪ ✘✮✦❋❑ ✭✧✫❏✚ ✘ ✪✂✲ ◗✧✲ ✚ ❭ ✣
✛ ✘✮✘ ✲ ✚❘✦✧✥ ✧ ✫ ✫✞✢ ✘✜✶✞✱ ✰ ✵ ✪ ❑ ✢ ■ ✭✞✱ ✚ ✳ ✥ ✫ 1+T
❝ ✺ ✩✘p ✚✰✵ ✘ ✶✧✵ ✢ ✲ ✘ ✫ ✚ ✢ ✘✜✶✞✱ ✵✰✪ ✱✣✾✧✬ ✭✧✵ ✘
❝ ✺ ✼✞✺
h t−τ
i ★❝ ✺ ✴
y(t) = K 1 − e− T

0.632K

0.5

0
0
τ T +τ
✾✧✬ ✭✧✵ ✘ ❝ ✺ ✼✞✽✞✿✰✢ ✶❋✥ ✫✞✲ ✘❘✳ ✫✞✦☎✳ ✸ ✳ ✘ ✪ ✪ ✘✮✦❋❑ ✭✧✫✔✲ ◗✧✲ ✚ ❭ ✛✣✘❘✵ ✘ ✚ ✱ ✵ ✦✧✢

☞ ✄✌☞ ✎ ★ ✗✬ ✔ ✑❁ ✞
✞ ✙✤✬★✘✗✱ ✗ ✞
✘ ✙✤✆✱ ☎✗✜ ✑✞❁✙✂✖✦✧ ✘✗✧ ✙
✟ ✠
✝
✔

❂ ✦❂ ❋❊❂ ❃ ✹❙✖✒ ✺ ❚✫❇✲✗✾ ✒✌☞✖✒ ✾✫✖✿ ✡✖✍✳✆ ☞ ✘ ❈ ✟ ✍ ✡✖✟ ❉✦✿✦✗✾ ✒

❂❘✱ ✞✫ ✲▼✪ ✘✷✸ ✱ ✲✏✦✧✘ ✲✏✲ ◗✧✲ ✚ ❭ ✩✛ ✘ ✲✂✦☎✭✣✦✧✘ ✭✧❛☎✳ ❭ ✛✣✘✷✥ ✵ ✦☎✵ ✘✙✶✞✲ ✘ ✭✞✦✧✥ ❜ ✶▼✢ ✵ ✳ ✥ ✦☎✳ ■ ✭✞✘ ✲ ❊ ✪ ✘ ✲▼✶✞✱ ✵ ✱ ✛✣❭ ✚ ✵ ✘ ✲✙❨✰✳ ✦✧✘ ✫☎✚ ✳ ✾✞✘ ✵✙✲ ✥ ✫ ✚✰✽
❃ ✪ ❘
✘ ✯ ✱ ✸ ✚ ✘ ✧
✭ ❘
✵ ❋
✦ ❑ ✱ ✣
✛ ✥ ✵ ✚ ✳ ✲ ✲ ✘ ✛✩✘ ✫☎✚
ζ
❃
 ✂✁☎✄ ✆✞✝ ✟ ✠ ✡ ✌❯✕ ❲ ✡ ✒✧✟ ✝ ✷✑ ✄ ✟ ✝ ✎ ✒

❃ ✪ ✱☞✶✧✭✧✪ ✲ ✱ ✚ ✳ ✥ ✫❏✶✧✵ ✥ ✶✧✵ ✘❘✫✞✥ ✫✔✱ ✛✣✥ ✵ ✚ ✳ ✘ ω0

❃ ✪ ✘✜✬ ✱ ✳ ✫●✲ ✚ ✱ ✚ ✳ ■ ✭✞✘
✱❚ ☞✵ ✢ ✶▼✥ ✫✞✲ ✘✮❨✮✭✧✫●✢ ✸ ✤✞✘ ✪ ✥ K✫✔✭✧✫✧✳ ✚ ✢✮✘ ✲ ✚✷✵ ✘ ✶✧✵ ✢ ✲ ✘ ✫☎✚ ✢✜✶✞✱ ✵✷✪ ✱☞✾✧✬ ✭✧✵ ✘ ❝ ✺ ✧❊✞✥ ❩✽
✸

√π
★ ❝ ✺ ✼☎✴
t1 =
ω0 1−ζ 2
− √−ζπ 2 ★❝ ✺ ✴
D1 % = 100e
✸

1−ζ

❚ ✘✷✬☎✱ ✳ ✫ K ✘ ✲ ✚✷✦✧✢ ✚ ✘ ✵ ✛☞✳ ✫✞✢✰✶✞✱ ✵✙✪ ✘✰✵ ✢ ✬ ✳ ✛✩✘✷✶❋✘ ✵ ✛✣✱ ✫✞✘ ✫☎✚ ✺ ❚ ✱✮✸ ✥ ✫✧✫✞✱ ✳ ✲ ✲ ✱ ✫✞✸ ✘✰✦✧✘ t1
✘✚
D1 %
✶❋✘ ✵ ✩
✛ ✘ ✚✷✦✧✘✰✸ ✱ ✪ ✸ ✭✧✪ ✘ ✵
✘✚ ✺
ζ ω0

D1 %

0
0
t1
✾✧✬ ✭✧✵ ✘ ❝ ✺ ✧✽✞✿✰✢ ✶❋✥ ✫✞✲ ✘❘✳ ✫✞✦☎✳ ✸ ✳ ✘ ✪ ✪ ✘✜✦❋❑ ✭✧✫✔✲ ◗✧✲ ✚ ❭ ✛✣✘✜✦☎✭●✦✧✘ ✭✧❛☎✳ ❭ ✛✩✘✜✥ ✵ ✦☎✵ ✘
✸

❚ ✘ ✲✰✢ ■ ✭✞✱ ✚ ✳ ✥ ✫✞✲ ❝ ✺ ✼✩✘ ✚ ❝ ✺ ☞✶❋✘ ✵ ✛✩✘ ✚ ✚ ✘ ✫☎✚❘✦❋❑ ✢ ✸ ✵ ✳ ✵ ✘✣✽

✸

ln(D1 ) −ζ
=p =γ
π 1 − ζ2
✲ ✥ ✳ ✚✮✽
ζ2
γ2 =
1 − ζ2
✥ ✭✔❙✧✳ ✘ ✫●✘ ✫✞✸ ✥ ✵ ✘☞✽
γ2
ζ2 =
1 + γ2
✲ ✥ ✳ ✚✮✽
|γ| ★ ❝ ✺✹ ✴
ζ=p
1 + γ2
✘ ✚✮✽
π π
ω0 = p = q
t1 1 − ζ 2 γ2
t1 1 − 1+γ 2
✲ ✥ ✳ ✚✮✽

★ ❝ ✺❝ ✴
p
1 + γ2
π
ω0 =
t1

❃
✼
 ✌ ☎✌ ✂✁✢✧✡ ✡ ✆ ✄ ✡✧✡ ✄ ☎✣❳ ✟ ✁✧✎ ❲ ✡ ✄

✟ ❂ ✦❂ ❋❊❂ ❋✡✠ ✹❙✖✒ ✺ ✫❚ ❇✲✗✾ ✒ ✑✻ ☞✎✘✫❈ ✟ ✍ ✡✖✟ ❉❊✿✌✗✾ ✒

✘ ✺ ✖✍ ✡✌✾ ✡✌✿ ☞✎✍✓✟ ✤✕ ✺ ✡✏✎ ✟ ✂✕ ✁✴✾ ✟ ✍✓✕
✞
✁
✗✙✘ ✚ ✚ ✘❏✛✩✢ ✚ ✤✞✥☎✦✧✘✔✘ ✲ ✚✣❬ ✱ ✪ ✱ ✧ ❙ ✪ ✘✔■ ✭✞✘ ✪ ✪ ✘ ✲✩■ ✭✞✘✔✲ ✥ ✳ ✘ ✫ ✩ ✚ ✪ ✘ ✲✣❬ ✱ ✪ ✘ ✭✧✵ ✲✣✦✧✘ ✲
✸ ✥ ✫✞✲ ✚ ✱ ✫ ✚ ✘ ✲✰✦✧✘❘✚ ✘ ✛☞✶✞✲ ✘✚ ✺ ✥ ✫❏✭✧✚ ✳ ✪ ✳ ✲ ✱ ✚ ✳ ✥ ✫●✘ ✲ ✚✰✦✧✥ ✫✞✸❘✶✧✪ ✭✞✲✷✬☎✢ ✞ ✫ ✢ ✵ ✱ ✪ ✘✮■ ✭✞✘❘✪ ✱☞✶✧✵ ✢ ✸ ✢ ✦✧✘ ✫☎✚ ✘ ❊✧✛✣✱ ✳ ❘✲ ✘ ✪ ✪ ✘✮✘ ✲ ✚
τ τ2 ❄
✲ ✥ ✭✧❬ ✘ ✫☎✚✰✛✣✥ ✳ ✫✞✲✰✶✧✵ ✢ ✸ ✳ ✲ ✘ ✺1
❀✂✥ ✭✧✵✏✪ ✱✜✲ ✳ ✛☞✶✧✪ ✳ ✸ ✳ ✚ ✢✰✦✧✘✷✪ ✱❘✶✧✵ ✢ ✲ ✘ ✫☎✚ ✱ ✚ ✳ ✥ ✫▼❊ ✶✧✵ ✘ ✫✞✥ ✫✞✲✏✪ ✘✷✸ ✱ ✲✙✦❋❑ ✭✧✫✩✲ ◗✧✲ ✚ ❭ ✛✩✘✷✦✧✘✷✬ ✱ ✳ ✫ ❊ ✦✧✥ ✫☎✚✏✪ ✱❘✵ ✢ ✶❋✥ ✫✞✲ ✘
K=1
✳ ✫✞✦☎✳ ✸ ✳ ✘ ✪ ✪ ✘✮✘ ✲ ✚✰✦✧✥ ✫✧✫✞✢ ✘❘✶✞✱ ✵✰✪ ✱☞✾✧✬ ✭✧✵ ✘ ❝ ✺ ✹✧✺

yi

0 ✚
0 ti
✾✧✬ ✭✧✵ ✘ ❝ ✺ ✹✧✽ ❅ ✢ ✚ ✤✞✥ ✦✧✘✮✦☎✭❏✶❋✥ ✳ ✫☎✚❘✦❋❑ ✳ ✠
✫ ✹✞✘ ❛☎✳ ✥ ✫

❚ ✱☞✵ ✢ ✶❋✥ ✫✞✲ ✘❘✳ ✫✞✦☎✳ ✸ ✳ ✘ ✪ ✪ ✘✮✘ ✲ ✚✰✦✧✥ ✫✧✫✞✢ ✘✜✶✞✱ ✵✮✽

★❝ ✺ ✴
µ ¶
τ1 − t τ2 − t
y(t) = K 1 − e τ1 + e τ2
❃

τ1 − τ 2 τ1 − τ 2
✷✰✫●✸ ✤✞✘ ✵ ✸ ✤✞✘✜❨✣✦✧✢ ✚ ✘ ✵ ✛☞✳ ✫✞✘ ✵ τ1
✘✚
τ2
❨☞✶✞✱ ✵ ✚ ✳ ✵❘✦✧✘ ✲✰✸ ✥☎✥ ✵ ✦✧✥ ✫✧✫✞✢ ✘ ✲✰✦☎✭✔✶❋✥ ✳ ✫☎✚❘✦❋❑ ✳ ✫✠✞
✹ ✘ ❛☎✳ ✥ ✫▼✺
✷✰✫●✱✩✽ dy = − t
e τ1
− t
e τ2 ✘ ✚❘✦✧✥ ✫✞✸☞✽ d2 y e 1
− τt − t
e τ2 ✺
τ −τ − τ −τ = − τ1 (τ +
❚ ❑ ✳ ✠
✫ ✹ ✞ ✘ ☎
❛ ✳
dt
✥ ●
✫ ✲ ❘
✘
1
✶✧✵ ✥ ✦☎✭✧✳ ✚❘■ ✭✞✱
2 1 2
✫✞✦ d2 y
dt2 1 −τ2 )
✲ ❑ ✱ ✫✧✫☎✭✧✪ ✘ ❊✞✸ ❑ ✘ ✲ ✚❘❨☞✦☎✳ ✵ ✘✜✶❋✥ ✭✧✵✮✽
τ2 (τ1 −τ2 )

dt2

★ ❝ ✺❵ ✴
µ ¶
τ1 τ2 τ1
ti = ln
τ1 − τ 2 τ2
✵ ✫❏✶❋✥ ✲ ✱ ✫☎✚
x= τ2 ❊✞✘ ✚❘✘ ✫❏✵ ✘ ✛☞✶✧✪ ✱ ✄ ✱ ✫ ✚
tI
✦✧✱ ✫✞✲
y(t)
❊✧✥ ✫✔✥ ❙✧✚ ✳ ✘ ✫ ✚☞✽
τ1

x ★❝ ✺✻ ❯ ✴
yi = 1 − x 1−x (1 + x)
✘ ✲ ✚✜✵ ✘ ✪ ✘ ❬☎✢✣✲ ✭✧✵✮✪ ✱✔✸ ✥ ✭✞✵ ❙❋✘✩✦✧✘☞✵ ✢ ✶❋✥ ✫✞✲ ✘✣✳ ✫✞✦☎✳ ✸ ✳ ✘ ✪ ✪ ✘ ✺✏❀✂✥ ✭✧✵☞✦✧✢ ✚ ✘ ✵ ✛☞✳ ✫✞✘ ✵ ❊✂✥ ✫❩✭✧✚ ✳ ✪ ✳ ✲ ✘✣✪ ✘☞✚ ✵ ✱ ✸ ✢✣✦✧✘
f (x) =
★ ❬☎✥ ✳ ✵✏✾✧✬ ✭✧✵ ✘ ❝ ✺ ❝ ✴ ✺✫●✰✫✞✘✙✯ ✥ ✳ ✲ ✸ ✥ ✫✧✫☎✭▼❊☎✥ ✫✣✶❋✘ ✭✧✚✷✦✧✢ ✚ ✘ ✵ ☞
yi x
x ✛ ✳ ✫✞✘ ✵ ❊ ✘ ✫✣✛✩✘ ✲ ✭✧✵ ✱ ✫ ✚✙✪ ✱❘❋✶ ✘ ✫☎✚ ✘
✦✧✘❘✪ ✱☞✚ ✱ ✫✧✬ ✘ ✫☎✚ ✘✮✱ ✭❏✶❋✥ ✳ ✫☎✚❘✦❋❑ ✳ ✠
✫ ✹✞✘ ❛☎✳ ✥ ✫●✲ ✭✧✵✷✪ ✱☞✵ ✢ ✶❋✥ ✫✞✲ ✘❘✳ ✫✞✦☎✳ ✸ ✳ ✘ ✪ ✪ ✘✣❊☎✶✧✭✧✳ ✲ ■ ✭✞✘✜✸ ✘ ✚ ✚ ✘✜✶❋✘ ✫☎✚ ✘✮✘ ✲ ✚✰✦✧✥ ✫✧✫✞✢ ✘❘✶✞✱ ✵✮✽
1−x 1−x (1 + x) = yi x τ1

★❝ ✺✻ ✻ ✴
µ ¶
dy 1 1−xx
= x
dt tI τ1

❚ ✱✣✦✧✢ ✚ ✘ ✵ ✛✣✳ ✫✞✱ ✚ ✳ ✥ ✫●✦✧✘ τ2 ✲ ✘❘✯ ✱ ✳ ✚❘✘ ✫✔✢ ✸ ✵ ✳ ❬ ✱ ✫☎✚✮✽ τ2 = xτ1 ✺

❃
✸
 ✂✁☎✄ ✆✞✝ ✟ ✠ ✡ ✌❯✕ ❲ ✡ ✒✧✟ ✝ ✷✑ ✄ ✟ ✝ ✎ ✒

0.3

0.25

0.2

0.15

0.1

0.05

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1

✾✧✬ ✭✧✵ ✘ ❝ ✺ ❝ ✽ ✵ ❬ ✥ ✪ ✭✧✚ ✳ ✥ ✫●✦✧✘ ★ ✱ ❛✧✘❘❬☎✘ ✵ ✚ ✳ ✸ ✱ ✪ ✴✷✘ ✫❏✯ ✥ ✫✞✸ ✚ ✳ ✥ ✫●✦✧✘

yI x

✝
☞ ✴☞
✄ ✄
★

✔✗✬ ✔ ✑❁
✞ ✕ ✒✠✧ ✜ ✙✤✱✗✁
✞ ✙✤✬✭✘☛✡ ✖✦✧ ✘✗✧ ✙✂✬ ✱✏✢ ✧ ! ✘✗✙✤✆✱ ☎

❂ ✦❂ ✦❂ ❃ ✘ ✺ ✖✍ ✡✌✾ ✡✌✾
✞ ❊✺ ❈ ✾ ✂ ✔
✠

✗ ✘ ✚ ✚ ✘●✛✣✢ ✚ ✤✞✥☎✦✧✘ ❊✷✛✣✳ ✲ ✘❩✱ ✭✍✶❋✥ ✳ ✫☎✚❏✶✞✱ ✵ ❄ ✚ ✵ ✘ ✶ ✸❩✦✧✱ ✫✞✲❏✪ ✘ ✲✔✱ ✫✧✫✞✢ ✘ ✲❩✻ ❵ ✹ ❊✰✱❯✶❋✥ ✭✧✵❏❙✧✭✧✚✔✦✧✘●✛✣✘ ✚ ✚ ✵ ✘❩❨❯✪ ✱
✙
✦☎✳ ✲ ✶▼✥ ✲ ✳ ✚ ✳ ✥ ✫❏✦✧✘✷✪ ❑ ✱ ✭✧✚ ✥ ✛✩✱ ✚ ✳ ✸ ✳ ✘ ✫▼❊ ✭✧✫✞✘✷✛✩✢ ✚ ✤✞✥☎✦✧✘✰✶✧✵ ✱ ✚ ✳ ■ ✭✞✘✰✦❋❑ ✳ ✦✧✘ ✫☎✚ ✳ ✾✞✸ ✱ ✚ ✳ ✥ ✫▼✺✞✗✙✘ ✚ ✚ ✘✷✛✩✢ ✚ ✤❋✥ ✦✧✘ ❊ ✯ ✱ ✸ ✳ ✪ ✘✰❨❘✛✩✘ ✚ ✚ ✵ ✘
❯

✘ ✫✔✥☎✘ ✭✧❬☎✵ ✘ ❊✞✦✧✥ ✫✧✫✞✘✮✦✧✘ ✲✷✵ ✢ ✲ ✭✧✪ ✚ ✱ ✚ ✲✰✸ ✥ ✵ ✵ ✘ ✸ ✚ ✲ ❊❋✦✧✘❘✶✧✵ ✢ ✸ ✳ ✲ ✳ ✥ ✫❏❬ ✱ ✪ ✱ ❙✧✪ ✘❘✶▼✥ ✭✧✵✰✪ ✘ ✲✰✱ ✶✧✶✧✪ ✳ ✸ ✱ ✚ ✳ ✥ ✫✞✲✰✳ ✫✞✦☎✭✞✲ ✚ ✵ ✳ ✘ ✪ ✪ ✘ ✲ ✺
❚ ✘✮✦✧✥ ✛✣✱ ✳ ✫✞✘☞✦❋❑ ✱ ✶✧✶✧✪ ✳ ✸ ✱ ✚ ✳ ✥ ✫❩✦✧✘☞✸ ✘ ✚ ✚ ✘✜✛✩✢ ✚ ✤✞✥☎✦✧✘☞✘ ✲ ✚✰✪ ✳ ✛✣✳ ✚ ✢✮✱ ✭✧❛✔✲ ◗✧✲ ✚ ❭ ✛✣✘ ✲❘✱ ✶❋✢ ✵ ✳ ✥☎✦☎✳ ■ ✭✞✘ ✲✜✦❋❑ ✥ ✵ ✦☎✵ ✘☞✲ ✭✧✶❋✢ ❜
✵ ✳ ✘ ✭✧✵❘❨✣✦✧✘ ✭✧❛❋✺
❚ ✘❘✛✣✥☎✦✧❭ ✪ ✘❘✶✞✱ ✵ ✱ ✛✣✢ ✚ ✵ ✳ ■ ✭✞✘✮✸ ✥ ✫✞✲ ✳ ✦✧✢ ✵ ✢✮✘ ✲ ✚❘✦✧✘❘✪ ✱☞✯ ✥ ✵ ✛✩✘☞✽

Ke−τ p ★ ❝ ✺ ✻ ✙☎✴
G(p) =
(1 + T p)n

✗✷✘ ✚ ✚ ✘✣✯ ✥ ✵ ✛✣✘✩✦✧✘✣✛✣✥☎✦✧❭ ✪ ✘✣✶❋✘ ✭✧✚✣❱ ✚ ✵ ✘ ✶ ✭✞✲ ✚ ✳ ✾✞✢ ✘☞✶✞✱ ✵✮✪ ✘✣✯ ✱ ✳ ✚☞■ ✭✞✘✣✪ ✘ ✲☞✲ ◗✧✲ ✚ ❭ ✛✩✘ ✲✮✱ ✶❋✢ ✵ ✳ ✥☎✦☎✳ ■ ✭✞✘ ✲☞✦❋❑ ✥ ✵ ✦☎✵ ✘❏✲ ✭✧✶❋✢ ❜
✵ ✳ ✘ ✭✧✵☞❨✔✦✧✘ ✭✧❛❯✲ ✥ ✫☎✚☞✸ ✱ ✵ ✱ ✸ ✚ ✢ ✵ ✳ ✲ ✢ ✲ ❊✂✘ ✫❯✵ ✢ ✬ ✳ ✛✩✘☞✚ ✵ ✱ ✫✞✲ ✳ ✚ ✥ ✳ ✵ ✘ ❊▼✶✞✱ ✵✮✪ ✘ ✭✧✵ ✲✜✶✧✪ ✭✞✲✜✬ ✵ ✱ ✫✞✦✧✘ ✲✮✸ ✥ ✫✞✲ ✚ ✱ ✫ ✚ ✘ ✲☞✦✧✘☞✚ ✘ ✛☞✶✞✲ ✺
❀✂✱ ✵✜✘ ❛✧✘ ✛✣✶✧✪ ✘ ❊❋✪ ✱✣✯ ✥ ✫✞✸ ✚ ✳ ✥ ✫❩✦✧✘✮✚ ✵ ✱ ✫✞✲ ✯ ✘ ✵ ✚✜✦❋❑ ✭✧✫❩✲ ◗✧✲ ✚ ❭ ✛✩✘✮✦☎✭●✚ ✵ ✥ ✳ ✲ ✳ ❭ ✛✣✘✣✥ ✵ ✦☎✵ ✘ K
G1 (p) = (1+p)(1+3p)(1+0.01p)
✶❋✘ ✭✧✚✮❱ ✚ ✵ ✘☞✱ ✶✧✶✧✵ ✥ ❛☎✳ ✛✩✢ ✘✮✶✞✱ ✵ Ke −0.01p ▼
✺ ❁ ✏
✪ ✲ ✭ ✣ ❘
✚ ❋
✶ ✥ ✧
✭ ✜
✵ ✲ ❑ ✘ ❩
✫ ✸ ✥ ✫ ❬ ✱ ✳ ✞
✫ ✸ ✵ ✣
✘ ✧
✦ ✜
✘ ✚ ✵ ✱ ✸ ✘ ❘
✵ ✪ ✘ ❘
✲ ✵ ✢ ✶❋✥ ✫✞✲ ✘ ✲
G2 (p) = (1+p)(1+3p)
✝

✳ ✫✞✦✧✳ ✸ ✳ ✘ ✪ ✪ ✘ ✲❘✦✧✘ ✘ ✚❘✦✧✘ ✺

G1 (p) G2 (p)
❚ ❑ ✳ ✦✧✘ ✫ ✚ ✳ ✾✞✸ ✱ ✚ ✳ ✥ ✫❏✸ ✥ ✫✞✲ ✳ ✲ ✚ ✘✰❨✮✦✧✢ ✚ ✘ ✵ ✛☞✳ ✫✞✘ ✵✙✪ ✘ ✲✏✶✞✱ ✵ ✱ ✛✩❭ ✚ ✵ ✘ ✲ ❊ T ❊ n ✘ ✚ τ ★ τ ✫▼❑ ✘ ✲ ✚✏✶✞✱ ✲✏✚ ✥ ✭ ✶ ✥ ✭✧✵ ✲✏✫☎✭✧✪ ✴ ✺☎✗✷✘ ✲
✶✞✱ ✵ ✱ ✛✣❭ ✚ ✵ ✘ ✲✰✶❋✘ ✭✧❬☎✘ ✫☎✚❘❱ ✚ ✵ ✘✜✦✧✢ ✚ ✘ ✵ ✛☞✳ ✫✞✢ ✲❘❨✮✶✞✱ ✵ ✚ ✳ ✵❘✦✧✘✜✪ ✱☞✵ ✢ ✶▼✥ ✫✞K ✲ ✘✜✳ ✫✞✦☎✳ ✸ ✳ ✘ ✪ ✪ ✘✮✦☎✭✔✲ ◗✧✲ ✚ ❭ ✛✣✘ ✺
❄ ✚ ✵ ✘ ✶ ✸✷✶✧✵ ✥ ✶▼✥ ✲ ✘❘✦✧✘✰✵ ✘ ✪ ✘ ❬☎✘ ✵✷✲ ✭✧✵✙✪ ✱✜✵ ✢ ✶❋✥ ✫✞✲ ✘✰✳ ✫✞✦☎✳ ✸ ✳ ✘ ✪ ✪ ✘❘✦☎✭❏✲ ◗✧✲ ✚ ❭ ✛✣✘ ❊ ✪ ❑ ✥ ✵ ✦✧✥ ✫✧✫✞✢ ✘❘✦☎✭✩✶❋✥ ✳ ✫☎✚✰✦❋❑ ✳ ✫✠✞✹ ✘ ❛☎✳ ✥ ✫ yi ❊
✱ ✳ ✫✞✲ ✳✞■ ✭✞✘✙✪ ✘ ✲✂✬ ✵ ✱ ✫✞✦✧✘ ✭✧✵ ✲ ❊ ✘ ✚ ❊ ✸ ✥ ✛✣✛✣✘✷✪ ✘✷✛✣✥ ✫☎✚ ✵ ✘✙✪ ✱❘✾✧✬ ✭✧✵ ✘ ❝ ✺ ✺☎✗✙✘ ✲✙✦✧✘ ✭✧❛☞✦✧✘ ✵ ✫✧✳ ❭ ✵ ✘ ✲✂✬ ✵ ✱ ✫✞✦✧✘ ✭✧✵ ✲✙✲ ✥ ✫ ✚
✦✧✢ ✚ ✘ ✵ ✛✣✳ ✫✞✢ ✘ ✲✰✬ ✵ ✄ ✸ ✘✮❨☞✪ ✱☞τ✚ ✱ ✫✧T✬ u✘ ✫☎✚ ✘✜T✱a ✭❏✶❋✥ ✳ ✫☎✚❘✦❋❑ ✳ ✠✫ ✞✹ ✘ ❛☎✳ ✥ ✫●✦✧✘❘✪ ✱☞✸ ✥ ✭✧✵ ❙▼✘✜✦✧✘✜✵ ✢ ✶❋✥ ✫✞✲ ✘❘✳ ✫✞✦☎✳ ✸ ✳ ✘ ✪ ✪ ✘✮✦☎✭✔✲ ◗✧✲ ✚ ❭ ✛✩✘ ✺
❃

❃
✹
 ✌ ☎✌ ✂✁✢✧✡ ✡ ✆ ✄ ✡✧✡ ✄ ☎✣❳ ✟ ✁✧✎ ❲ ✡ ✄

1.2

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

τ Ta
0

Tu
-0.2
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
✾✧✬ ✭✧✵ ✘ ❝ ✺ ✽ ❃

❅ ✢ ✚ ✤✞✥☎✦✧✘✮✦✧✘ ❄ ✚ ✵ ✘ ✶ ✸

❚ ✘❘✚ ✱ ❙✧✪ ✘ ✱ ✭ ❝ ✺ ✻✜✶❋✘ ✵ ✛✩✘ ✚❘✦✧✘✜✦✧✢ ✚ ✘ ✵ ✛✣✳ ✫✞✘ ✵❘✪ ✘ ✲✰✸ ✥ ✫✞✲ ✚ ✱ ✫☎✚ ✘ ✲❘✸ ✱ ✵ ✱ ✸ ✚ ✢ ✵ ✳ ✲ ✚ ✳ ■ ✭✞✘ ✲✰✦☎✭✔✛✣✥☎✦✧❭ ✪ ✘✮✦✧✘ ❄ ✚ ✵ ✘ ✶ ✸ ✺

✫ Tu Ta Tu
Ta yi T T
✻ ❯ ❯
✻ ❯

✙
❯
✺✻ ✼ ❯ ❯
✺ ✹ ✼✙ ☎✺ ❝
✙ ✙
❯
✺ ✙
❃

!
❯
✺ ✧✻
✙
❃ ❯
✺ ! ✙ ! ☎✺ ❝
!
❯ ❯
✺ ❃ ❯

✼ ❯
✺ ✧✻ ❵
!
❯
✺ ! ✸ ! ✼✧✺ ✼ ✹ ✻ ✺✼ ✙

✸ ❯
✺ ✼✞✻ ❯ ❯
✺ ❝ ✻! ✸☎✺ ✻ ✙ ☎✺ ✻
✙
❯

✹ ❯
✺ ✼☎❵ !
❯
✺ !
❃
! ✸☎✺ ❝ ❯
☎✺ ✻
✙
❃

❝ ❯
✺✸ ❝ ❯ ❯
✺ ❵ ! ✙ ✹☎✺ ✙ ! ☎✺ ✸
! ✸
❃ ❯
✺✹ ✼ ✙
❯
✺✼ ❯ ❯
✹☎✺ ❝ ✻ ✼✧✺ ☎✻ !

❵ ❯
✺❝ ❵ ❯ ❯
✺✼ ❝ ❯ ❝ ✺✻ ✹ ✸☎✺ ❯ ❃

✻ ❯ ❯
✺❝ ❝ !
❯
✺ ✼✞✻ !
❝ ✺✸ ❵ ✸☎✺ ❃ ❝

✺ ✻✠✼✌✽ ✾✫✻✠✿ ✟

❂ ❃✤❄✦❅ ✢ ✚ ✤✞✥ ✦✧✘✮✦✧✘ ❄ ✚ ✵ ✘ ✶ ✸

❚ ✘✏✵ ✱ ✶✧✶❋✥ ✵ ✚ Tu ✥ ✭✮✪ ❑ ✥ ✵ ✦✧✥ ✫✧✫✞✢ ✘✷✦☎✭✮✶❋✥ ✳ ✫☎✚✏✦❋❑ ✳ ✠

✫ ✹✞✘ ❛☎✳ ✥ ✫ ✶❋✘ ✵ ✛✣✘ ✚ ✚ ✘ ✫☎✚✏✦✧✘✙✦✧✢ ✚ ✘ ✵ ✛✣✳ ✫✞✘ ✵✏✪ ❑ ✥ ✵ ✦☎✵ ✘ ✦☎✭✮✛✣✥☎✦✧❭ ✪ ✘
✦✧✘ ❄ ✚ ✵ ✘ ✶ ✸ ✺✠✰
✷ ✫✣✶✧✵T✘a✫✞✦☎✵ ✱✮✪ ✱✜❬ ✱ ✪ ✘ ✭✧✵✷✦✧✘ n ✸ ✥ ✵ ✵ ✘ ✲ ✶❋✥ ✫✞✦✧✱ ✫☎✚✷❨✜yi✪ ✱✜❬ ✱ ✪ ✘ ✭✧✵✏✳ ✛☞✛✩✢ ✦☎✳ ✱ ✚ ✘ ✛✩✘ ✫☎✚✙✳ ✫✧✯ ✢ ✵ ✳ ✘ ✭✧✵ ✘❘n ✱ ✭✣✵ ✱ ✶✧✶❋✥ ✵ ✚
Tu ✺ ❄ ✭✧✵✜✪ ✱✩✛✣❱ ✛✩✘✮✪ ✳ ✬ ✫✞✘☞✦☎✭●✚ ✱ ❙✧✪ ✘ ✱ ✭❩✥ ✫❩✦✧✢ ✚ ✘ ✵ ✛☞✳ ✫✞✘ ✵ ✱ ✬ ✵ ✸ ✘✮✪ ✱✩✸ ✥ ✪ ✥ ✫✧✫✞✘ Ta ❋✘ ✫❩✘ ▼✘ ✚ ❊❋✪ ✱✣❬ ✱ ✪ ✘ ✭✧✵✜✦✧✘ ✄ ✁ ✟

T Tu
✘ ✚✮✦✧✥ ✫✞✸☞✦✧✘ Tu ✘ ✲ ✚✜✛✩✥ ✳ ✫✞✲❘✶✧✵ ✢ ✸ ✳ ✲ ✘✣✦☎✭●✯ ✱ ✳ ✚✮✦✧✘☞✪ ✱❏✦☎✳ ✣✸ ✭✧✪ ✚ ✢✣❨❏✦✧✢ ✚ ✘ ✵ ✛✣✳ ✫✞✘ ✵✮✶✧T✵ ✢ ✸ ✳ ✲ ✢ ✛✣✘ ✫☎✚
Ta
✲ ✭✧✵✜✪ ✱✩✵ ✢ ✶❋✥ ✫✞✲ ✘
✝

τ
✳ ✫✞✦☎✳ ✸ ✳ ✘ ✪ ✪ ✘ ✺ T
❚ ✥ ✵ ✲ ■ ✭✞✘✷✪ ✘✷✵ ✱ ✶✞✶❋✥ ✵ ✚ Tu ✸ ✱ ✪ ✸ ✭✧✪ ✢❘❨✜✶✞✱ ✵ ✚ ✳ ✵✰✦✧✘ ✲✏✛✣✘ ✲ ✭✧✵ ✘ ✲✙✶✧✵ ✳ ✲ ✘ ✲✙✲ ✭✧✵✙✪ ✱✜✵ ✢ ✶❋✥ ✫✞✲ ✘✷✳ ✫✞✦☎✳ ✸ ✳ ✘ ✪ ✪ ✘ ❊☎✫✞✘✰✸ ✥ ✵ ✵ ✘ ✲ ✶❋✥ ✫✞✦
✶✞✱ ✲✰✘ ❛✧✱ ✸ ✚ ✘ ✛✩✘ ✫ ✚✜❨☞✭✧✫✞✘✜❬ T✱ a✪ ✘ ✭✧✵❘✦☎✭✔✚ ✱ ❙✧✪ ✘ ✱ ✭▼❊✧✫✞✥ ✭✞✲✰✲ ✥ ✛☞✛✩✘ ✲❘✱ ✛✩✘ ✫✞✢ ✲✰❨✣✸ ✥ ✵ ✵ ✳ ✬☎✘ ✵✰✪ ✱☞❬ ✱ ✪ ✘ ✭✧✵❘✦☎✭✔✵ ✘ ✚ ✱ ✵ ✦❏✶✧✭✧✵
τ
✛✩✘ ✲ ✭✧✵ ✢ ✘ ✺✁!✷✥ ◗☎✥ ✫✞✲✰✸ ✘ ✪ ❨✣✲ ✭✧✵✰✭✧✫✔✘ ❛✧✘ ✛✣✶✧✪ ✘✮✸ ✤✧✳ ✞✵ ✢ ✺ ✟

❃ ❝
 ✂✁☎✄ ✆✞✝ ✟ ✠ ✡ ✌❯✕ ❲ ✡ ✒✧✟ ✝ ✷✑ ✄ ✟ ✝ ✎ ✒

✂✁ ✠☞
✾✫❇ ✌✽ ✾ ❄ ❄ ✭✧✶✧✶❋✥ ✲ ✥ ✫✞✲✰✪ ✘ ✲✷✛✩✘ ✲ ✭✧✵ ✘ ✲✰✲ ✭✧✳ ❬ ✱ ✫☎✚ ✘ ✲✷✵ ✢ ✱ ✪ ✳ ✲ ✢ ✘ ✲❘✲ ✭✧✵✷✭✧✫✞✘✜✵ ✢ ✶❋✥ ✫✞✲ ✘❘✳ ✫✞✦☎✳ ✸ ✳ ✘ ✪ ✪ ✘✣✽

K = 1.5
τ = 1s
Tu = 2.5 s
Ta = 10 s
✷✰✫❍✸ ✱ ✪ ✸ ✭✧✪ ✘ Tu ✺✙✗✙✘ ✚ ✚ ✘✩❬ ✱ ✪ ✘ ✭✧✵☞✫✞✘✩✾✧✬ ✭✧✵ ✘✩✶✞✱ ✲✣✦✧✱ ✫✞✲✮✪ ✘✣✚ ✱ ❙✧✪ ✘ ✱ ✭ ❝ ✺ ✻ ✺ ❚ ✱✔❬ ✱ ✪ ✘ ✭✧✵✣✳ ✛✣✛✣✢ ✦☎✳ ✱ ✚ ✘ ✛✣✘ ✫☎✚
Ta = 0.25
✳ ✫✧✯ ✢ ✵ ✳ ✘ ✭✧✵ ✘✮✘ ✲ ✚ ❊✞✸ ✘✜■ ✭✧✳▼✸ ✥ ✵ ✵ ✘ ✲ ✶❋✥ ✫✞✦❏❨ ✘ ✚ Ta ❊✧✶✞✱ ✵❘✸ ✥ ✫✞✲ ✢ ■ ✭✞✘ ✫☎✚ ✺
✱❚ ✮✛✣✘ ✲ ✭✧✵ ✘✜r✦✧=✘ 0.218 ✫▼❑ ✘ ✲ ✚✷✶✞✱ ✲✷✱ ❋✘ ✸ ✚ ✢ ✘❘✶✞✱ ✵✰✭✧✫✞n✘❘=
✟ ✘ ✵ ✵ 3✘ ✭✧✵❘✲ T✭✧✵✷=✪ ✱✣3.70 = 2.7 s
✦✧✢ ✚ ✘ ✵ ✛☞✳ ✫✞✱ ✚ ✳ ✥ ✫✔✦✧✘ ✺✧❀✏T✱ ✵❘ ✸ ✥ ✫☎✚ ✵ ✘✜✸ ✘ ✪ ✪ ✘✜✦✧✘
✪ ❑ ✘ ✲ ✚ ✺ ❄ ✳ ✘ ✲ ✚✷✛✣T✱ a✪❋✘ ✲ ✚ ✳ ✛✣✢ ❊✧✱ ✪ ✥ ✵ ✲✙✪ ✘✰✶✞✱ ✵ ✱ ✛✣❭ ✚ ✵ ✘ ✛✩✘ ✲ ✭✧✵ ✢❘✸ ✥ ✛☞✶❋✥ ✵ ✚ ✘✰✭✧✫✞✘✰✶✞✱ ✵ ✚✰✦✧τ ✘✰✵ ✘ ✚ ✱ ✵ ✦✣✶✧✭✧✵❘✽☎✥ ✫✩✫▼❑ ✱
Tu τ Tu
✶✞✱ ✲✷✛✣✘ ✲ ✭✧✵ ✢ ❊✧✛✣✱ ✳ ✲ ✺
❴❘✥ ✚ ✥ ✫✞✲ Tu✪ ❑ ✢ ✸ ✱ ✵ ✚✜✘ T✫ u✚ ✵ +
✘✜✪ τ✘✜c ✵ ✱ ✶✧✶❋✥ ✵ ✚ Tu ✸ ✱ ✪ ✸ ✭✧✪ ✢✜✘ ✚✰✪ ✱☞❬ ✱ ✪ ✘ ✭✧✵❘✦✧✘ ✪ ✭✞✘✜✦✧✱ ✫✞✲✷✪ ✘❘✚ ✱ ❙✧✪ ✘ ✱ ✭▼✺❊✰ ✷ ✫✔✚ ✵ ✥ ✭✧❬☎✘☞✽
e Ta r

Tu
e= − r = 0.032
Ta
✗✷✘ ✚❘✢ ✸ ✱ ✵ ✚❘✘ ✲ ✚❘✦☎✭✔❨ ✽ ✺✞❀✂✱ ✵❘✸ ✥ ✫✞✲ ✢ ■ ✭✞✘ ✫☎✚ ✺
τc e = Tτca = 0.032 τc = 0.32 s
✗✙✘✜✲ ◗✧✲ ✚ ❭ ✣✛ ✘✜✲ ✘ ✵ ✣
✱ ✦✧✥ ✞✫ ✸✜✛✣✥☎✦✧✢ ✪ ✳ ✲ ✢❘✶✞✱ ✵✰✪ ✱☞✯ ✥ ✫✞✸ ✚ ✳ ✥ ✫✔✦✧✘✜✚ ✵ ✱ ✫✞✲ ✯ ✘ ✵ ✚✮✽ 1.5e−1.32 p
G(p) = (1+2.7 p)3

✘ ✺ ✍ ✡✌✝✾ ✡✌✾❊✺ ❈ ✾ ✔✁! ✍✤❈ ✡✌❈ ✾ ❈ ✻✑✔ ✺ ✟ ✍✓✕✖✌✕ ✑✻ ✟ ❈ ✾ ❀✏✥ ✭✧✵✮✲ ❑ ✱ ❋✵ ✱ ✫✞✸ ✤✧✳ ✵☞✦✧✘✮✪ ❑ ✳ ✫ ✚ ✵ ✥☎✦☎✭✞✸ ✚ ✳ ✥ ❯
✫ ✦☎✭❩✵ ✘ ✚ ✱ ✵ ✦●✶✧✭✧✵ ❊
✂☞✺ ❂❘✱ ❬☎✥ ✭✞✲ ✚✩✱❩✶✧✵ ✥ ✶❋✥ ✲ ✢❏✭✧✫❍✫✞✥ ✛✣✥ ✬ ✵ ✱ ✛✣✛✣✘ ❊✙✯ ✥ ✫✞✦✧✢✔✲ ✭✧✵✣✪ ✱●✛✩✢ ✚ ✤✞✥☎✦✧✘●✦✧✘ ❄ ✚ ✵ ✘ ✶ ✸ ❊✙✛✣✱ ✳ ✲✩■ ✭✧✜✳ ✱ ❙❋✥ ✭✧✚ ✳ ✚❏❨❩✦✧✘ ✲
✟

✞ ✠ ✂ ☛

✶✧✭✧✳ ✲ ✲ ✱ ✫✞✸ ✘ ✲ ✫✞✥ ✫✔✘ ✫☎✚ ✳ ❭ ✵ ✘ ✲ ✺ ❚ ✘❘✛✩✥ ✦✧❭ ✪ ✘✮✥ ❙✧✚ ✘ ✫ ✭●✘ ✲ ✚❘✦✧✘❘✪ ✱☞✯ ✥ ✵ ✛✩✘☞✽
n

K ★ ❝ ✺ ✻ ☎* ✴
G(p) =
(1 + T p)n
❄ ✧✭ ✵✩✪ ✱❩✵ ✢ ✶▼✥ ✞✫ ✲ ✘✔✳ ✫✞✦☎✳ ✸ ✳ ✘ ✪ ✪ ✘●✱ ✶▼✢ ✵ ✳ ✥ ✦☎✳ ■ ✭✞✘ ❊✷✥ ✫❍✚ ✵ ✱ ✸ ✘✔✪ ✱❩✚ ✱ ✧✫ ✬ ✘ ✫☎✚ ✘✔✱ ✭❍✶❋✥ ✳ ✫☎✚❏✦❋❑ ✳ ✠✫ ✞✹ ✘ ❛☎✳ ✥ ✫▼❊✷✘ ✚❏✥ ✫❅✵ ✘ ✪ ❭ ❬☎✘✔✪ ✘ ✲
❬ ✱ ✪ ✘ ✭✧✵ ✲✰✦✧✘ ✘ ✚✰✦✧✘ ✞❊ ✸ ✥ ✛✣✛✣✘✜✳ ✫✞✦☎✳ ■ ✭✞✢✜✲ ✭✧✵✰✪ ✱☞✾✧✬ ✭✧✵ ✘ ❝ ✺ ☎❵ ✺
Tu Ta

Tu Ta
0

✾✧✬ ✭✧✵ ✘ ❝ ✺ ❵✧✽ ❅ ✢ ✚ ✤✞✥☎✦✧✘✜✦✧✘ ❄ ✚ ✵ ✘ ✶ ✸✮❨☞✥ ✵ ✦☎✵ ✘❘✯ ✵ ✱ ✸ ✚ ✳ ✥ ✫✧✫✞✱ ✳ ✵ ✘

✷✰✫✩✭✧✚ ✳ ✪ ✳ ✲ ✘✰✱ ✪ ✥ ✵ ✲✙✪ ❑ ✱ ❙✞✱ ■ ✭✞✘✜✦✧✘✷✪ ✱✜✾✧✬ ✭✧✵ ✘ ❝ ✺ ✻ ✻✣★ ✱ ❙✞✱ ■ ✭✞✘❘✦✧✘❘❂✜✱ ❬☎✥ ✞✭ ✲ ✚ ✴ ❊ ▼✶ ✥ ✧✭ ✵✰✦✧✢ ✚ ✘ ✵ ✛☞✳ ✫✞✘ ✵✷✪ ✱☞✸ ✥ ✫✞✲ ✚ ✱ ✫☎✚ ✘❘✦✧✘
✚ ✘ ✛✣✶✞✲✰✘ ✚✰✪ ❑ ✥ ✵ ✦☎✵ ✘✜✦☎✭✔✲ ◗✧✲ ✚ ❭ ✛✣✘ ✺
❚ ❑ ✭✧✚ ✳ ✪ ✳ ✲ ✱ ✚ ✳ ✥ ✫●✦✧✘❘✪ ❑ ✱ ❙✞✱ ■ ✭✞✘✮✦✧✘✜❂✜✱ ❬☎✥ ✭✞✲ ✚❘✘ ✲ ✚✷✶✧✵ ✢ ✸ ✳ ✲ ✢ ✘✜✶✞✱ ✵✰✪ ✱✮✾✧✬ ✧✭ ✵ ✘ ❝ ✺ ✻ ✺ ❯

❃ ❃
 ✌ ☎✌ ✂✁✢✧✡ ✡ ✆ ✄ ✡✧✡ ✄ ☎✣❳ ✟ ✁✧✎ ❲ ✡ ✄

0,1
2
10

20
2,5
5

0,2
3
2,7
10
3.1 2
0,3
4
5
1
0,4
5

0,5
0,5 6

✾✧✬ ✭✧✵ ✘ ❝ ✺ ✻ ✽✤●✰✚ ✳ ✪ ✳ ✲ ✱ ✚ ✳ ✥ ✫✔✦☎✭❏✫✞✥ ✛✣✥ ✬ ✵ ✱ ✛✣✛✣✘☞✦✧✘✜❂❘✱ ❬ ✥ ✭✞✲ ✚

❯

❚ ✱☞✯ ✥ ✫✞✸ ✚ ✳ ✥ ✫✔✦✧✘❘✚ ✵ ✱ ✫✞✲ ✯ ✘ ✵ ✚❘✥ ❙✧✚ ✘ ✫☎✭✞✘✮✘ ✲ ✚✰✱ ✪ ✥ ✵ ✲✮✽ G(p) = 1.5
(1+2.7p)3.1

Tu
Ta n T Ta
Identification Strejc
1 1000 1000
0

0,005 500
500

0,01

200

0,02
1,2
200
100

50 100
0,05
1,5

20 50

0,1
2
10

20
2,5
5

0,2
3
10
2
0,3
4
5
1
0,4
5

0,5
0,5 6

2
7
0,6
8
0,2
0,7 9
1
10

✾✧✬ ✭✧✵ ✘ ❝ ✺ ✻ ✻ ✽✞❈✰❙✞✱ ■ ✭✞✘❘✶❋✥ ✭✧✵✰✪ ✱☞✛✣✢ ✚ ✤✞✥ ✦✧✘✮✦✧✘ ❄ ✚ ✵ ✘ ✶ ✸

❃
❵
 ✂✁☎✄ ✆✞✝ ✟ ✠ ✡ ✌❯✕ ❲ ✡ ✒✧✟ ✝ ✷✑ ✄ ✟ ✝ ✎ ✒

❂ ✦❂ ✦❂ ❋ ✘ ✺ ✖✍ ✡✌✾ ✡✌✾ ❊✺ ❈ ✾ ✔ ✭✑✻ ✒ ✽ ✟ ✕

✞ ✠ ✂ ✆ ✝

❚ ✱☞✲ ✚ ✵ ✭✞✸ ✚ ✭✧✵ ✘✜✦☎✭❏✛✩✥☎✦✧❭ ✪ ✘✜✵ ✘ ✲ ✚ ✘✜✸ ✘ ✪ ✪ ✘✜✶✧✵ ✥ ✶❋✥ ✲ ✢ ✘✜✶✞✱ ✵ ❄ ✚ ✵ ✘ ✶ ✸✣✽ G(p) = Ke−τ pn ✺
❀✂✥ ✭✧✵✩✲ ❑ ✱ ❋✵ ✱ ✫✞✸ ✤✧✳ ✵✩✦✧✘✩✪ ✱❩✦✧✢ ✚ ✘ ✵ ✛☞✳ ✫✞✱ ✚ ✳ ✥ ✫❅✦☎✭◆✶❋✥ ✳ ✫☎✚✩✦❋❑ ✳ ✫✠✞✹ ✘ ❛☎✳ ✥ ✫▼❊✙❀✂✺✙❴❘(1+T
✟ ✱ ✲ ✪ ✳ p)✫❍✱●✶✧✵ ✥ ✶❋✥ ✲ ✢✩✭✧✫✞✘❏✛✣✢ ✚ ✤✞✥ ✦✧✘
■ ✭✧✳✙✸ ✥ ✫❋✲ ✳ ✲ ✚ ✘☞❨✩✵ ✘ ✪ ✘ ❬☎✘ ✵✜✪ ✘ ✲❘✬ ✵ ✱ ✫✞✦✧✘ ✭✧✵ ✲✮✲ ✭✧✳ ❬ ✱ ✫☎✚ ✘ ✲✮✲ ✭✧✵✜✪ ✱✩✵ ✢ ✶❋✥ ✫✞✲ ✘☞✳ ✫✞✦☎✳ ✸ ✳ ✘ ✪ ✪ ✘✣✦❋❑ ✭✧✫❯✲ ◗✧✲ ✚ ❭ ✛✩✘☞✱ ✶❋✢ ✵ ✳ ✥☎✦☎✳ ■ ✭✞✘✣❨
✳ ✦✧✘ ✫☎✚ ✳ ✾✞✘ ✵ ❊✞✸ ✥ ✛☞✛✩✘❘✪ ✘❘✛✩✥ ✫☎✚ ✵ ✘❘✪ ✱☞✾✧✬ ✭✧✵ ✘ ❝ ✺ ✻ ✙☎✺
❃ t1 ✘ ✲ ✚✰✪ ❑ ✱ ❙✞✲ ✸ ✳ ✲ ✲ ✘✜✦☎✭❏✶❋✥ ✳ ✫☎✚❘✦✧✥ ✫ ✚✰✪ ❑ ✥ ✵ ✦✧✥ ✫✧✫✞✢ ✘✮✘ ✲ ✚✰✢ ✬☎✱ ✪ ✘✜❨ 5 % ✦☎✭❏✵ ✢ ✬ ✳ ✛✣✘✜✶❋✘ ✵ ✛✩✱ ✫✞✘ ✫☎✚ ✺
❃ t2 ✘ ✲ ✚✰✪ ❑ ✱ ❙✞✲ ✸ ✳ ✲ ✲ ✘✜✦☎✭❏✶❋✥ ✳ ✫☎✚❘✦✧✥ ✫ ✚✰✪ ❑ ✥ ✵ ✦✧✥ ✫✧✫✞✢ ✘✮✘ ✲ ✚✰✢ ✬☎✱ ✪ ✘✜❨ 95 % ✦☎✭✔✵ ✢ ✬ ✳ ✛✩✘❘✶▼✘ ✵ ✛✩✱ ✫✞✘ ✫☎✚ ✺
❃ h1 ✘ ✲ ✚✷✪ ❑ ✥ ✵ ✦✧✥ ✫✧✫✞✢ ✘✮✦☎✭❏✶❋✥ ✳ ✫☎✚❘✦❋❑ ✱ ❙✞✲ ✸ ✳ ✲ ✲ ✘ t1 + 0.2∆t ❊✧✱ ❬ ✘ ✸ ∆t = t2 − t1 ✺
❃ h2 ✘ ✲ ✚✷✪ ❑ ✥ ✵ ✦✧✥ ✫✧✫✞✢ ✘✮✦☎✭❏✶❋✥ ✳ ✫☎✚❘✦❋❑ ✱ ❙✞✲ ✸ ✳ ✲ ✲ ✘ t1 + 0.4∆t ✺

100
95

h2 0.2∆t

0.2∆t
h1

50
0 t1 t2
✾✧✬ ✭✧✵ ✘ ❝ ✺ ✻ ✙☎✽ ❅ ✢ ✚ ✤✞✥☎✦✧✘✮✦✧✘✜❴❘✱ ✲ ✪ ✳ ✫

✗✙✥ ✫✧✫✞✱ ✳ ✲ ✲ ✱ ✫☎✚ ✘✚ ❊✏✥ ✫◆✭✧✚ ✳ ✪ ✳ ✲ ✘✣✪ ✘✣✫✞✥ ✛✣✥ ✬ ✵ ✱ ✛✣✛✣✘✔✦✧✘✩❴❘✱ ✲ ✪ ✳ ✫❯✶✧✵ ✢ ✲ ✘ ✫☎✚ ✢✩❨✔✪ ✱✔✾✧✬ ✭✧✵ ✘ ❝ ✺ ✻ *☎❊✏✶✧✭✧✳ ✲☞✪ ✘ ✲
✯ ✥ ✵ ✛✮✭✧✪ ✘ ✲✰✲ ✭✧✳ ❬ ✱ ✫ ✚ ✘ h✲✜1 ✽ h2

★ ❝ ✺ ✻ ✼✧✴
µ ¶
t2 − t 1
T = TN
10
★ ❝ ✺ ✻ ✸☎✴
µ ¶
t2 − t 1
τ = t1 − t0
10
❚ ✘❘✫✞✥ ✣ ✛ ✥ ✬ ✵ ✱ ✛✣✛✣✘☞✦✧✘✜❴❘✱ ✲ ✪ ✳ ✫✔✲ ❑ ✭✧✚ ✳ ✪ ✳ ✲ ✘✜✦✧✘❘✪ ✱☞✯ ✱ ✥ ✫✔✲ ✭✧✳ ❬ ✱ ✫ ✚ ✘☞✽
✄

❃ ✧✶ ✵ ✥ ✶ ✘ ✚ ✘ ✵❘✪ ✱✣❬ ✱ ✪ ✘ ✭✧✵✜✦✧✘ h1 ✲ ✭✧✵❘✪ ✱✩✸ ✥ ✭✧✵ ❙❋✘✮✯ ✥ ✫✞✸ ✚ ✳ ✥ ✫❩✦✧✘ h1 ❊✞✶✧✭✧✳ ✲✰✶✧✵ ✥ ✶ ✘ ✚ ✘ ✵✜✪ ✘✮✶❋✥ ✳ ✫☎✚✜✥ ❙✧✚ ✘ ✫☎✭❩✲ ✭✧✵❘✪ ❑ ✱ ❛✧✘
✤✞✥ ✵ ✳ ✁ ✥ ✫☎✚ ✱ ✪▼✶❋✥ ✭✧✵❘✦✧✢ ✚ ✘ ✵ ✛☞✳ ✫✞✘ ✵✰✭✧✫✞✘✜✶✧✵ ✘ ✛✣✳ ❭ ✵ ✘❘❬ ✱ ✪ ✘ ✭✧✵❘✦✧✘ ✫✞✥ ✚ ✢ ✘ ✺
n n1
❃ ✵ ✥ ✶ ✘ ✚ ✘ ✵❘✪ ✱✣❬ ✱ ✪ ✘ ✭✧✵✜✦✧✘ h2 ✲ ✭✧✵❘✪ ✱✩✸ ✥ ✭✧✵ ❙❋✘✮✯ ✥ ✫✞✸ ✚ ✳ ✥ ✫❩✦✧✘ h2 ❊✞✶✧✭✧✳ ✲✰✶✧✵ ✥ ✶ ✘ ✚ ✘ ✵✜✪ ✘✮✶❋✥ ✳ ✫☎✚✜✥ ❙✧✚ ✘ ✫☎✭❩✲ ✭✧✵❘✪ ❑ ✱ ❛✧✘
✧
✶
✤✞✥ ✵ ✳ ✁ ✥ ✫☎✚ ✱ ✪▼✶❋✥ ✭✧✵❘✦✧✢ ✚ ✘ ✵ ✛☞✳ ✫✞✘ ✵✰✭✧✫✞✘✮✦✧✘ ✭✧❛☎✳ ❭ ✛✩✘❘❬ ✱ ✪ ✘ ✭✧✵❘✦✧✘ ✫✞✥ ✚ ✢ ✘ ✺
n n2
❃ ✘ ✚ ✘ ✫✧✳ ✵❘✶❋✥ ✭✧✵✰❬ ✱ ✪ ✘ ✭✧✵❘✦✧✘ n ❊✧✪ ✱☞✛✣✥ ◗☎✘ ✫✧✫✞✘✜✱ ✵ ✳ ✚ ✤✧✛✩✢ ✚ ✳ ■ ✭✞✘✜✦✞✘ n1 ✘ ✚ n2 ✽ n = n1 +n2 ✺
✵
❃ ✶✧✵ ✥ ✶ ✘ ✚ ✘ ✵✜✪ ✱✩❬ ✱ ✪ ✘ ✭✧✵✮✦✧✘ n ✲ ✭✧✵❘✪ ✱✩✸ ✥ ✭✧✵ ❙❋✘☞✯ ✥ ✫✞✸ ✚ ✳ ✥ ✫❩✦✧✘ TN ❊✞✶✞✭✧✳ ✲❘✶✧✵ ✥ ✶ ✘ ✚ ✘ ✵✜✪ ✘✮✶❋2✥ ✳ ✫☎✚✮✥ ❙✧✚ ✘ ✫☎✭❩✲ ✭✧✵❘✪ ❑ ✱ ❛✧✘
❬☎✘ ✵ ✚ ✳ ✸ ✱ ✪ ❊✧✶❋✥ ✭✧✵❘✥ ❙✧✚ ✘ ✫✧✳ ✵❘✪ ✱☞❬ ✱ ✪ ✘ ✭✧✵❘✦✧✘ ✺
TN
❃ ✧
✶ ✵ ✥ ✶ ✘ ✚ ✘ ✮
✵ ✪ ✩
✱ ❬ ✱ ✪ ✘ ✧
✭ ☞
✵ ✧
✦ ✘ ✲ ✧
✭ ✮
✵ ✪ ✔
✱ ✸ ✥ ✧
✭ ✵ ❋
❙ ✣
✘ ✯ ✥ ✫✞✸ ✚ ✳ ✥ ✫◆✦✧✘ ❊▼✶✧✭✧✳ ✲✜✶✧✵ ✥ ✶ ✘ ✚ ✘ ✵✮✪ ✘✣✶❋✥ ✳ ✫☎✚☞✥ ❙✧✚ ✘ ✫☎✭◆✲ ✭✧✵✜✪ ❑ ✱ ❛✧✘
n t0
❬☎✘ ✵ ✚ ✳ ✸ ✱ ✪ ❊✧✶❋✥ ✭✧✵❘✥ ❙✧✚ ✘ ✫✧✳ ✵❘✪ ✱☞❬ ✱ ✪ ✘ ✭✧✵❘✦✧✘ ✺
t0
❃ ✭✧✚ ✳ ✪ ✳ ✲ ✘ ✵❘✪ ✘ ✲❘✢ ■ ✭✞✱ ✚ ✳ ✥ ✫✞✲ ❝ ✺ ✻ ✼❏✘ ✚ ❝ ✺ ✻ ✸✣✶❋✥ ✭✧✵✜✦✧✢ ✚ ✘ ✵ ✛☞✳ ✫✞✘ ✵❘✪ ✘✜✵ ✘ ✚ ✱ ✵ ✦ τ ✘ ✚❘✪ ✱✩✸ ✥ ✫✞✲ ✚ ✱ ✫ ✚ ✘✮✦✧✘✮✚ ✘ ✛✣✶✞✲ T ✦☎✭
✛✣✥☎✦✧❭ ✪ ✘ ✺
✿✰✘ ✛✩✱ ✵ ■ ✭✞✘☞✽ ❚ ❑ ✥ ✵ ✦☎✵ ✘☞✦✧✘ ✲✷✛✩✥☎✦✧❭ ✪ ✘ ✲❘✥ ❙✧✚ ✘ ✫☎✭✞✲✰✶✞✱ ✵❘✪ ✱✣✛✣✢ ✚ ✤✞✥ ✦✧✘☞✦✧✘ ❄ ✚ ✵ ✘ ✶ ✸ ❜ ❴❘✱ ✲ ✪ ✳ ✫◆★ ✸ ❑ ✘ ✲ ✚❘❨✣✦☎✳ ✵ ✘✜✪ ✱☞❬ ✱ ✪ ✘ ✭✧✵✜✦✧✘
✴✜✘ ✲ ✚✜✬☎✢ ✫✞✢ ✵ ✱ ✪ ✘ ✛✩✘ ✫☎✚✮✫✞✥ ✫❯✘ ✫☎✚ ✳ ✘ ✵ ▼✳ ✪✷✸ ✥ ✫☎❬☎✳ ✘ ✫☎✚✮✶✞✱ ✵✮✸ ✥ ✫✞✲ ✢ ■ ✭✞✘ ✫☎✚✮✦❋❑ ✭✧✚ ✳ ✪ ✳ ✲ ✘ ✵✮✭✧✫❯✦✧✢ ❬☎✘ ✪ ✥ ✶✧✶❋✘ ✛✩✘ ✫ ✚☞✪ ✳ ✛☞✳ ✚ ✢✩✦☎✭
✁

n
✦✧✢ ✫✞✥ ✛☞✳ ✫❋✱ ✚ ✘ ✭✧✵❘✦✧✘❘✪ ✱☞✯ ✥ ✫✞✸ ✚ ✳ ✥ ✫✔✦✧✘✜✚ ✵ ✱ ✫✞✲ ✯ ✘ ✵ ✚ ❊✞✲ ✳▼✥ ✫✔✲ ✥ ✭✧✤✞✱ ✳ ✚ ✘✜✵ ✘ ✫✞✦☎✵ ✘❘✪ ❑ ✥ ✵ ✦☎✵ ✘✜✘ ✫☎✚ ✳ ✘ ✵ ✺
❵ ❯
 ✌ ☎✌ ✂✁✢✧✡ ✡ ✆ ✄ ✡✧✡ ✄ ☎✣❳ ✟ ✁✧✎ ❲ ✡ ✄

Identification Strejc - Naslin

h1 h2
Tn

50

45 2.5

40 65 2

35 Tn 1.5

30 h2
h1

25 t0
5

t0
20 45 n
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
✾✧✬ ✭✧✵ ✘ ❝ ✺ ✻ ☎✽ ❅ ✢ ✚ ✤✞✥☎✦✧✘✮✦✧✘✜❴❘✱ ✲ ✪ ✳ ✫❯✽✧✱ ❙✞✱ ■ ✭✞✘

✂✁ ✾✫✠
❇ ☞✌✽ ✾✂❄ ❄ ✭✧✶✧✶▼✥ ✲ ✥ ✫✞✲❘■ ✭✞✘✜✪ ❑ ✥ ✫●✱ ✳ ✚✜✦✧✢ ✚ ✘ ✵ ✛✣✳ ✫✞✢ ❊▼❨✣✶✞✱ ✵ ✚ ✳ ✵✜✦✧✘✮✪ ✱✣✵ ✢ ✶▼✥ ✫✞✲ ✮ ✘ ✳ ✫✞✦☎✳ ✸ ✳ ✘ ✪ ✪ ✘☞✦❋❑ ✭✧✫●✲ ◗✧✲ ✚ ❭ ✛✣✘✩✽
❊ ✲ ❊ ✲ ❊ ✘✚ ✺ ❚ ❑ ✭✞✚ ✳ ✪ ✳ ✲ ✱ ✚ ✳ ✥ ✫✔✦☎✭✩✫✞✥ ✛✣✥ ✬ ✵ ✱ ✛✣✛✣✘✜✦✧✘❘❴❘✱ ✲ ✪ ✳ ✫✩✶❋✘ ✵ ✛✩✘ ✚
K = 1 t1 = 1.8 t2 = 5.0 h1 = 0.29 h2 = 0.56
✦✧✱ ✫✞✲✰✸ ✘✜✸ ✱ ✲ ❊✧❋
✦ ❑ ✥ ❙✧✚ ✘ ✧ ✫ ✳ ✵❘✪ ✘ ✲✷✵ ✢ ✲ ✭✧✪ ✚ ✱ ✚ ✲✰✲ ✭✧✳ ❬ ✱ ✫ ✚ ✲✜✽ ❊ ✘✚ ❊ ✘ ✚❘✦✧✥ ✫✞✸✣✽
✞
n ≃ 3.4 TN ≃ 1.7 t0 ≃ 2.2
µ µ ¶ ¶
t2 − t 1 5.0 − 1.8
T = TN = 1.7 = 2.02
10 10
µ ¶ µ ¶
t2 − t 1 5.0 − 1.8
τ = t1 − t0 = 1.8 − 2.2 = 1.096
10 10
✵ ✫❏✵ ✘ ✛✣✱ ✵ ■ ✭✞✱ ✫ ✚✜■ ✭✞✘
(1 + x)α ≃ 1 + αx
❊✧✪ ✘✜✲ ◗✧✲ ✚ ❭ ✛✣✘❘✶▼✘ ✭✧✚❘❱ ✚ ✵ ✘❘✛✩✥ ✦✧✢ ✪ ✳ ✲ ✢✜✶✞✱ ✵✰✪ ✱✮✯ ✥ ✫✞✸ ✚ ✳ ✥ ✫●✦✧✘❘✚ ✵ ✱ ✫✞✲ ✯ ✘ ✵ ✚✮✽

e−1.096p e−1.096p
G(p) = =
(1 + 2.02p)3.4 (1 + 2.02p)3 (1 + 2.02p)0.4
e−1.096p
≃
(1 + 2.02p)3 (1 + 0.4(2.02p))
e−1.096p
≃
(1 + 2.02p)3 (1 + 0.808s)

❵☎✻
 ✙✂✁■✗❏✓ ✑✔✓✄✁ ✛✆☎✞✝✠✟❏✄
✓ ✁

✻ ✺ ✻ ❴❘✥ ✚ ✳ ✥ ✫✔✦✧✘✜✲ ◗✧✲ ✚ ❭ ✛✣✘ ✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺

✻ ✺ ✏◗☎✶❋✘ ✲✰✦❋❑ ✘ ✫☎✚ ✵ ✢ ✘ ✲✰✦❋❑ ✭✧✫✔✲ ◗✧✲ ✚ ❭ ✛✣✘ ✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺
✻ ✺ ✰✫✔✲ ◗✧✲ ✚ ❭ ✛✩✘☞✽☎✭✧✫✔✛✣✥ ✚ ✘ ✭✧✵❘❨✣✸ ✥ ✭✧✵ ✱ ✫ ✚✜✸ ✥ ✫☎✚ ✳ ✫☎✭ ✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺ ✼
✙ ✄

✻ ✺ ✼ ❄ ◗✧✲ ✚ ❭ ✛✩✘✜✦✧✘✜✸ ✤✞✱ ✭ ❋✱ ✬ ✘✮✦❋❑ ✭✧✫✞✘✜✶✧✳ ❭ ✸ ✘ ✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺ ✼

●

✻ ✺ ❄ ◗✧✲ ✚ ❭ ✛✩✘✜✘ ✫ ✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺

✟

✻ ✺ ✹ ❄ ◗✧✲ ✚ ❭ ✛✩✘✜✘ ✫ ☛✡ ✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺ ✹

✸ ✷ ✸
✙

✻ ✺ ❝ ❄ ◗✧✲ ✚ ❭ ✛✩✘✜✘ ✫❏❙▼✥ ✭✞✸ ✪ ✘❘✯ ✘ ✵ ✛✣✢ ✘✣✽✧✸ ✤✞✱ ✭ ▼✱ ✬☎✘✮✦❋❑ ✭✧✫✞✘✜✶✧✳ ❭ ✸ ✘ ✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺ ✹
✙

✻ ✺ ✗✏✳ ✵ ✸ ✭✧✳ ✚❘✿✰✗ ✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺ ✻

✟

✻ ✺ ❵ ❄ ◗✧✲ ✚ ❭ ✛✩✘ ✱ ✲ ✲ ✘❘❜✙✿✰✘ ✲ ✲ ✥ ✵ ✚●✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺ ✻✼

❃

✻ ✺ ✻ ❯ ✰✫✔✸ ✥ ✛✣✶✞✱ ✵ ✱ ✚ ✘ ✭✧✵✮✽ ❄ ✳ ✬ ✫✞✱ ✪✂✦❋❑ ✘ ✵ ✵ ✘ ✭✧✵✌☞ ✗✙✥ ✫✞✲ ✳ ✬ ✫✞✘❘❜ ✘ ✲ ✭✧✵ ✘◆✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺ ✻
❅

✻ ✺ ✻ ✻◆✸ ✥ ✛✣✶✞✱ ✵ ✱ ✚ ✘ ✭✧✵❘❨☞✶✧✪ ✭✞✲ ✳ ✘ ✭✧✵ ✲✰✘ ✫☎✚ ✵ ✢ ✘ ✲✜✽✞✘ ☞❘✱ ✍✰❙✧❜ ✸❩✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺ ✻
● ✸

✻ ✺ ✻ ❄ ✸ ✤✞✢ ✛✣✱ ❜ ❙✧✪ ✥☎✸ ✲❘✦❋❑ ✭✧✫●✲ ◗✧✲ ✚ ❭ ✛✩✘✜✘ ✫❏❙❋✥ ✭✞✸ ✪ ✘✜✯ ✘ ✵ ✛✩✢ ✘☞✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺ ✻✹
✸

✻ ✺ ✻ ❄ ✸ ✤✞✢ ✛✣✱ ❜ ❙✧✪ ✥☎✸ ✲❘✘ ✫✔✲ ✢ ✵ ✳ ✘❘✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺ ✻✹

✙

✻ ✺ ✻ ✼ ❄ ✸ ✤✞✢ ✛✣✱ ❜ ❙✧✪ ✥☎✸ ✲❘✘ ✫❏✶✞✱ ✵ ✱ ✪ ✪ ❭ ✪ ✘ ✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺ ✻❝

✻ ✺ ✻ ✥ ✭✞✸ ✪ ✘❘✯ ✘ ✵ ✛✣✢ ✘❯✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺ ✻❝
✻ ✺ ✻ ✹❅❂❘✢ ✶✧✪ ✱ ✸ ✘ ✛✩✘ ✫ ✚✜✦❋❑ ✭✧✫❏✪ ✳ ✘ ✫✔✱ ✵ ✵ ✳ ❭ ✵ ✘❉✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺ ✻❝
✸
✙

✻ ✺ ✻ ❝ ❂❘✢ ✶✧✪ ✱ ✸ ✘ ✛✩✘ ✫ ✚✜✦❋❑ ✭✧✫❏✪ ✳ ✘ ✫✔✱ ❬ ✱ ✫ ✚☞✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺ ✻

✻ ✺ ✻ ❄ ✸ ✤✞✢ ✛✣✱ ❜ ❙✧✪ ✥☎✸ ✲❘❨☞✲ ✳ ✛☞✶✧✪ ✳ ✾✞✘ ✵❘✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺ ✻
❃

✻ ✺ ✻ ❵❅❀✂✵ ✘ ✛☞✳ ❭ ✵ ✘✮✢ ✚ ✱ ✶❋✘✮✦✧✘✜✲ ✳ ✛☞✶✧✪ ✳ ✾✞✸ ✱ ✚ ✳ ✥ ✫❩✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺ ✻

❃ ❃

✻ ✺ ❯ ❂❘✘ ✭✧❛☎✳ ❭ ✛✣✘✮✢ ✚ ✱ ✶❋✘✮✦✧✘✜✲ ✳ ✛✣✶✧✪ ✳ ✾✞✸ ✱ ✚ ✳ ✥ ✫ ✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺ ✻❵

❃

☎✺ ✻ ✿✰✢ ✶❋✥ ✫✞✲ ✘❘✳ ✛☞✶✧✭✧✪ ✲ ✳ ✥ ✫✧✫✞✘ ✪ ✪ ✘✮✦❋❑ ✭✧✫●✲ ◗✧✲ ✚ ❭ ✛✩✘✜✦☎✭❏✶✧✵ ✘ ✛✣✳ ✘ ✵✜✥ ✵ ✦☎✵ ✘ ✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺
☎✺ ✿✰✢ ✶❋✥ ✫✞✲ ✘❘✳ ✛☞✶✧✭✧✪ ✲ ✳ ✥ ✫✧✫✞✘ ✪ ✪ ✘✮✦❋❑ ✭✧✫●✲ ◗✧✲ ✚ ❭ ✛✩✘✜✦☎✭❏✶✧✵ ✘ ✛✣✳ ✘ ✵✜✥ ✵ ✦☎✵ ✘✮✘ ✫❏✯ ✥ ✫✞✸ ✚ ✳ ✥ ✫●✦✧✘ τ ✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺
✙ ✙ ✙

☎✺ ✿✰✢ ✶❋✥ ✫✞✲ ✘❘✳ ✫✞✦☎✳ ✸ ✳ ✘ ✪ ✪ ✘✮✦❋❑ ✭✧✫✔✲ ◗✧✲ ✚ ❭ ✛✣✘✜✦☎✭✔✶✧✵ ✘ ✛✣✳ ✘ ✵❘✥ ✵ ✦✧✵ ✘ ✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺ ✼
✙ ✙ ✙ ✙

☎✺ ✼ ✿✰✢ ✶❋✥ ✫✞✲ ✘❘✳ ✫✞✦☎✳ ✸ ✳ ✘ ✪ ✪ ✘✮✦❋❑ ✭✧✫✔✲ ◗✧✲ ✚ ❭ ✛✣✘✜✦☎✭✔✶✧✵ ✘ ✛✣✳ ✘ ✵❘✥ ✵ ✦✧✵ ✘✜✘ ✫✔✯ ✥ ✫✞✸ ✚ ✳ ✥ ✫✔✦✧✘ ✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺ ✼
✙ ✙

☎✺ ✿✰✢ ✶❋✥ ✫✞✲ ✘❘✳ ✫✞✦☎✳ ✸ ✳ ✘ ✪ ✪ ✘✮✦❋❑ ✭✧✫✔✲ ◗✧✲ ✚ ❭ ✛✣✘✜✦☎✭✔✶✧✵ ✘ ✛✣✳ ✘ ✵❘✥ ✵ ✦✧✵ ✘✜✘ ✫✔✯ ✥ ✫✞✸ ✚ ✳ ✥ ✫✔✦✧✘ τK ✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺
✙ ✙

☎✺ ✹ ✿✰✢ ✶❋✥ ✫✞✲ ✘✜✦❋❑ ✭✧✫✔✲ ◗✧✲ ✚ ❭ ✛✣✘✜✦☎✭❏✶✧✵ ✘ ✛☞✳ ✘ ✵❘✥ ✵ ✦☎✵ ✘✜❨☞✭✧✫✞✘❘✵ ✱ ✛✣✶❋✘✮■ ✭✞✱ ✫✞✦❏❆✎✮ ☞ ✻ ✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺ ✹
✙ ✸ ✙ ✸

☎✺ ❝ ✿✰✢ ✶❋✥ ✫✞✲ ✘❘✳ ✫✞✦☎✳ ✸ ✳ ✘ ✪ ✪ ✘✮✦❋❑ ✭✧✫✔✲ ◗✧✲ ✚ ❭ ✛✣✘✜✦☎✭✔✶✧✵ ✘ ✛✣✳ ✘ ✵❘✥ ✵ ✦✧✵ ✘❘✵ ✘ ✚ ✱ ✵ ✦✧✢✮✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺ ❝
✙ ✙

✙ ✙

☎✺ ✻ ✿✰✢ ✶❋✥ ✫✞✲ ✘❘✳ ✛☞✶✧✭✧✪ ✲ ✳ ✥ ✫✧✫✞✘ ✪ ✪ ✘✮✘ ✫❏✯ ✥ ✫✞✸ ✚ ✳ ✥ ✫✔✦✞✘ ζ ✶❋✥ ✭✧✵ ω ✾✧❛✧✢❅✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺ ☎✻
☎✺ ✿✰✢ ✶❋✥ ✫✞✲ ✘❘✳ ✫✞✦☎✳ ✸ ✳ ✘ ✪ ✪ ✘✮✘ ✫❏✯ ✥ ✫✞✸ ✚ ✳ ✥ ✫✔✦✧✘ ζ ✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮0 ✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺
☎✺ ✗✙✱ ✵ ✱ ✸ ✚ ✢ ✵ ✳ ✲ ✚ ✳ ■ ✭✞✘ ✲ ▼✵ ✱ ✫✞✲ ✳ ✚ ✥ ✳ ✵ ✘ ✲✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺ ✼
✙

☎✺ ✼ ✿✰✢ ✶❋✥ ✫✞✲ ✘❘✳ ✫✞✦☎✳ ✸ ✳ ✘ ✪ ✪ ✘✮✘ ✫❏✯ ✥ ✫✞✸ ✚ ✳ ✥ ✫✔✦✧✘ ω ✶❋✥ ✭✧✵ ζ = 1 ✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺
✄

☎✺ ✿✰✢ ✶❋✥ ✫✞✲ ✘❘✳ ✫✞✦☎✳ ✸ ✳ ✘ ✪ ✪ ✘✮✘ ✫❏✯ ✥ ✫✞✸ ✚ ✳ ✥ ✫✔✦✧✘ ω0 ✶❋✥ ✭✧✵ ζ < 1 ✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺
✸

☎✺ ✹ ✂✘ ✛✣✶✞✲✰✦✧✘✜✵ ✢ ✶❋✥ ✫✞✲ ✘❘✵ ✢ ✦☎✭✧✳ ✚☞★ t ω ✴✷✘ ✫❏0✯ ✥ ✫✞✸ ✚ ✳ ✥ ✫●✦✧✘ ζ ✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺ ✹
✸ ✸

☎✺ ❝ ✿✰✢ ✶❋✥ ✫✞✲ ✘✜✦☎✭✔✲ ◗✧✲ ✚ ❭ ✛✣✘✜❨☞✭✧✫✞✘❘r✵ ✱ ✛✣0 ✶❋✘✜✶❋✥ ✭✧✵ ζ ∈ {0.1, 0.5, 1, 1.5, 2, 3, 5} ✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺ ❝
✄

☎✺ ✿✰✢ ✶❋✥ ✫✞✲ ✘❘✳ ✫✞✦☎✳ ✸ ✳ ✘ ✪ ✪ ✘ ✲✰✘ ✚✰✶❋❪ ✪ ✘ ✲❘✦✧✥ ✛✣✳ ✫✞✱ ✫ ✚ ✲ ✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺
☎✺ ❵ ✵ ✵ ✘ ✭✧✵ ✲✰✲ ✭✧✵✰✪ ✘ ✲✷✵ ✢ ✶❋✥ ✫✞✲ ✘ ✲✷✳ ✫✞✦☎✳ ✸ ✳ ✘ ✪ ✪ ✘ ✲❘✘ ✚✰✶❋❪ ✪ ✘ ✲✰✦✧✥ ✛☞✳ ✫✞✱ ✫☎✚ ✲ ✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺
❃ ❃

✵ ❃

❵ ✙
✼✧✺ ✻ ❊✺ ✻✠✼✖✟ ✽ ✟ ✺ ✘✂❄✌✾ ✾✫❇✠✌
☞ ✽ ✾ ✡✌✾★✽ ✻✲✼✌✻✠✽ ✽ ✾★❉❊✿✖✟ ❈ ✍✤✿✌✽ ✾ ✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺ ✼✧✻
✼✧✺ ✙ ●✰✫✔✲ ◗✧✲ ✚ ❭ ✛✩✘❘✳ ✫✞✲ ✚ ✱ ❙✞✪ ✘✣✽☎✭✧✫❏✵ ✘ ✲ ✘ ✵ ❬☎✥ ✳ ✵❘❨✣✦✧✢ ❙✧✳ ✚❘✦✧✘✜✲ ✥ ✵ ✚ ✳ ✘✮✸ ✥ ✫✞✲ ✚ ✱ ✫☎✚❯✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺ ✼✙
✁

✼✧✺ ( ✌ ✍✓✒ ✟ ✺ ✟ ✍✓✕ ✡✌✾ ✒✌✁☞ !✤✽ ✾ ✒ ✾ ✺✌✒ ✺ ✻✠✼✖✟ ✽ ✟ ✺ ✘ ✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺ ✼✙

✼✧✺ ✼ ❊✺ ✻✠✼✖✟ ✽ ✟ ✺ ✘✂✖❄ ✔ ✍✓❊✕ ✺ ✾ ✺ ✾ ✏✓✘✗✕✖✘ ❈ ✻✠✽✄✂ ✒ ✿✌❈ ❈ ✘ ☞✎✍✓✕✖✒ ✾ ✟ ✕✖✡✖✟ ✔ ✟ ✾✫✽ ✽ ✾✆☎ ✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺ ✼✹
✼✧✺ ✸ ❊✺ ✻✠✼✖✟ ✽ ✟ ✺ ✘✂✖❄ ☞✌❈ ✾ ❇✝✟ ✾✫❈✌✤✍ ❈ ✡✌❈ ✾✝✂ ✒ ✿✌❈ ❈ ✘✗☞✎✍✓✕✖✒ ✾✂✟ ❇✠☞✌✿✌✽ ✒ ✟ ✍✓✕✖✕✌✾ ✽ ✽ ✾✞☎ ✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺ ✼❝
✁

✼✧✺ ✹ ❊✺ ✻✠✖✼ ✟ ✽ ✟ ✺ ✘✂✖❄ ✡✌✾✫✿ ✟ ❚ ❇✂✾ ✍✤❈ ✡✌❈ ✾✟✂ ✒ ✿✌❈ ❈ ✘ ☞ ✍✓✕✖✒ ✾ ✟ ❇✝✌☞ ✿✌✽ ✒ ✟ ✍✓✕✖✌✕ ✾✫✽ ✽ ✆✾ ☎ ✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺ ✼❝
✠

✼✧✺ ❝✡✠ ✽ ✽ ✿✌❈ ✾ ✡✌✗✾ ✒ ❈ ✘✗☞✎✍✓✕✖✒ ✾✗✒✌✟ ❇✝✌☞ ✿✌✽ ✒ ✟ ✍✓✕✖✌✕ ✾✫✽ ✽ ✾ ✒ ✾ ✺✌✒ ✺ ✻✠✖✼ ✟ ✽ ✟ ✺ ✘☞☛❊✾ ❈ ✒ ✿✖✒ ✽ ✟ ✾ ✿ ✡✌✾ ✒✌✁☞ ✤! ✽ ✾ ✒ ✺✜✺✜✺✮✺ ✼❝
✁

✸☎✺ ✻ ❆ ✾ ☞✌❈ ✘ ✒ ✾ ✕❊✺ ✻✫✺ ✟ ✍✓✕ ✔ ✽ ✑✻ ✒ ✒ ✟ ❉✦✿✌✾ ✡✏✎ ✿✖✕ ✻✑✒ ✒ ✾ ❈ ☛ ✟ ✒ ✒ ✾ ❇✂✾ ✕❊✺ ✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺ ✼
✸☎✺ ✙✡✌ ✟ ✒ ✿✌✻✠✽ ✟ ✒ ✻✠✺ ✟ ✍✓✕ ✡✌✾✗✒ ✾ ❈ ❈ ✾✫✿✌❈ ✒ ✾ ✕❁❈ ✘✗✏✓✟ ❇✂✾✂✗ ☞ ✾ ❈ ❇✲✻✑✕✌✗✾ ✕✤✺ ✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺ ✼❵
❃

✸☎✺ ( ✠ ✽ ✽ ✿✌❈ ✾ ✡✌✾✗✒ ✾ ❈ ❈ ✾✫✿✌❈ ✒ ✾✗✕ ✍✓✕✖✔ ✺ ✟ ✍✓✕ ✡✌✾★✽ ✠ ✻ ✔ ✽ ✑✻ ✒ ✒ ✾ ✡✌✿ ✒ ❙✖✒ ✺ ❚✫❇✲✾ ✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺ ✸ ✙
✸☎✺ ✼ ✔ ✖✘✫❇✲✻ ✼✌✽ ✍ ✔ ✒☛✏ ✡ ✎ ✿✖✕ ✒ ❙✖✒ ✺ ❚✫❇✲✾ ☞✗✾ ❈ ✺ ✿✌❈ ✼ ✘ ✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺ ✸ (
☛

✸☎✺ ✸ ✹❙ ✒ ✺ ❚ ❇✂✾ ☞✴✾✫❈ ✺ ✿✌❈ ✼✎✲ ✘ ❄✎☞✴✾✫❈ ✺ ✿✌❈ ✼✌✻✫✺ ✟ ✍✓✕ ✒ ✾ ✿✌✽ ✾ ✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺ ✸ (
✠ ✞ ✆

✸☎✺ ✹ ✼
✠

✡✌✾ ✔ ✽ ✑✻ ✒ ✒ ✾ ❃✭✾ ✺ ✡✌✂✾ ✔ ✽ ✑✻ ✒ ✒ ✾✎✍ ✻ ☛❊✾ ✔✂✴ ☞ ✾✫❈ ✺ ✿✌❈ ✼✌✻✫✺ ✟ ✍✓✕ ✡✌✾✂✔ ✽ ✻✑✒ ✒ ✾ ❃✟✂ ✘✗✔ ✌✾ ✽ ✍✓✕✁☎ ✸
✸☎✺ ❝ G1 (p) ✡✌✾ ✔ ✽ ✑✻ ✒ ✒ ✾✎✍ ✾ ✺ G2 (p) ✡✌✂ ✾ ✔ ✽ ✑✻ ✒ ✒ ✾ ❃✭✻ ☛❊✾ ✔✂✴ ☞ ✾✫❈ ✺ ✿✌❈ ✼✌✻✫✺ ✟ ✍✓✕ ✡✌✾✂✔ ✽ ✻✑✒ ✒ ✾ ❃✟✂ ✘✗✔ ✌✾ ✽ ✍✓✕✁☎ ✼
✞

✸
✸☎✺ G1 (p) ✡✌✾ ✔ ✽ ✑✻ ✒ ✒ ✾✂❃★✾ ✺ G2 (p) ✡✌✾ ✔ ✽ ✻✑✒ ✒ ✾✏✍✲✻ ☛❊✾ ✔ ☞✴✾✫❈ ✺ ✿✌❈ ✼✌✻✫✺ ✟ ✍✓✕ ✡✌✾ ✔ ✽ ✑✻ ✒ ✒ ✾ ❋✑✂ ❈ ✻✠❇✠☞✗✾✆☎
✞

✸ ✸
✸☎✺ ❵ G1 (p) ✡✌✾ ✔ ✽ ✑✻ ✒ ✒ ✾✏✍✲✾ ✺ G2 (p) ✡✌✾ ✔ ✽ ✻✑✒ ✒ ✾✂❃★✻ ☛❊✾ ✔ ☞✴✾✫❈ ✺ ✿✌❈ ✼✌✻✫✺ ✟ ✍✓✕ ✡✌✾ ✔ ✽ ✑✻ ✒ ✒ ✾ ❋✑✂ ❈ ✻✠❇✠☞✗✾✆☎
❃

✸ ✸
✸☎✺ ✻ ❯ G ❄ ◗✧✲ ✚ ❭ ✛✩✘❘✪ ✘ ✫ ✚❘✘ ✚✰✵ ✱ ✶✧✳ ✦✧✘ ✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺
1 (p) G2 (p)
✸ ✹
✸☎✺ ✻ ✻◆✿✰✱ ✶✧✳ ✦☎✳ ✚ ✢✮✘ ✚❘✲ ✳ ✚ ✭✞✱ ✚ ✳ ✥ ✫✔✦✧✘ ✲✷✶▼❪ ✪ ✘ ✲✰✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺ ✸ ✹
✸☎✺ ✻ ✙ ✂✘ ✛☞✶✞✲❘✦✧✘❘✵ ✢ ✶▼✥ ✫✞✲ ✘✮✘ ✚✰✲ ✳ ✚ ✭✞✱ ✚ ✳ ✥ ✫●✦✧✘ ✲✷✶❋❪ ✪ ✘ ✲ ✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺ ✸ ❝
✸☎✺ ✻ (❅✿✰✱ ✶✧✳ ✦☎✳ ✚ ✢✮✱ ❬☎✘ ✸✜✦✧✘ ✲✷✶❋❪ ✪ ✘ ✲❘✸ ✥ ✛✣✶✧✪ ✘ ❛✧✘ ✲ ✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺ ❝
✄

✸
✸☎✺ ✻ ✼✍❀✂✵ ✢ ✸ ✳ ✲ ✳ ✥ ✟ ✫ ✒☞✱ ✛✩✥ ✵ ✚ ✳ ✲ ✲ ✘ ✛✣✘ ✫☎✚❘✘ ✚❘✲ ✳ ✚ ✭✞✱ ✚ ✳ ✥ ✫●✦✧✘ ✲✷✶❋❪ ✪ ✘ ✲✣✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺ ✸
✸☎✺ ✻ ✸✍✗✙✥ ✛☞✶✧✵ ✥ ✛✣✳ ✲❘✿❘✱ ✶✧✳ ✦☎✳ ✚ ✓ ✢ ☞
✒ ❀✂✵ ✢ ✸ ✳ ✲ ✳ ✥ ✟✫ ✒ ❄ ✚ ✱ ❙✧✳ ✪ ✳ ✚ ✢✮✦✧✱ ✫✞✲✷✪ ✘❘✶✧✪ ✱ ✫✔✸ ✥ ✛☞✶✧✪ ✘ ❛✧✘ ✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺
❃

✸ ❃

✹☎✺ ✻ ✗✙✥ ✵ ✵ ✘ ✸ ✚ ✳ ✥ ✫✔✶✧✵ ✥ ✶▼✥ ✵ ✚ ✳ ✥ ✫✧✫✞✘ ✪ ✪ ✘◆✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺ ✹✙

✹☎✺ ✙ ❄ ◗✧✲ ✚ ❭ ✛✩✘✜✦✧✘✜✸ ✪ ✱ ✲ ✲ ✘ ✁ ✢ ✵ ✥✣✘ ✚❘✸ ✥ ✵ ✵ ✘ ✸ ✚ ✘ ✭✧✵ P ✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺ ✹✙
✹☎✺ ( ❄ ◗✧✲ ✚ ❭ ✛✩✘✜✦✧✘✜✸ ✪ ✱ ✲ ✲ ✘✜✭✧✫✔✘ ✚❘✸ ✥ ✵ ✵ ✘ ✸ ✚ ✘ ✭✧✵ ✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺ ✹(
✹☎✺ ✼ ❄ ✸ ✤✞✢ ✛✣✱☞✯ ✥ ✫✞✸ ✚ ✳ ✥ ✫✧✫✞✘ ✪✏✦❋❑ ✭✧✫●✸ ✥ ✵ ✵ ✘ ✸ ✚ ✘ ✭✧✵ PP I ✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺ ✹✸
✹☎✺ ✸ ✗✙✥ ✵ ✵ ✘ ✸ ✚ ✳ ✥ ✫✔✶✧✵ ✥ ✶▼✥ ✵ ✚ ✳ ✥ ✫✧✫✞✘ ✪ ✪ ✘ ❜ ✳ ✫☎✚ ✢ ✬ ✵ ✱ ✪ ✘☞✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺ ✹ ✸
✹☎✺ ✹ ✗✙✥ ✵ ✵ ✘ ✸ ✚ ✘ ✭✧✵✜❀✏❁✷✘ ✚❘✲ ◗✧✲ ✚ ❭ ✛✩✘✜✦❋❑ ✥ ✵ ✦☎✵ ✘ ✸ ✪ ✱ ✲ ✲ ✘ ✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺ ✹✹
✹☎✺ ❝ ✿✰✢ ✶▼✥ ✫✞✲ ✘✜✦☎✭●✲ ◗✧✲ ✚ ❭ ✛✩✘✜✹☎✺ ✹✮✶▼✥ ✭✧✵ α =11✔ ✘ ✚ K ❬ ✱ ✵ 0✳ ✱ ❙✧✪ ✘❏✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺ ✹❝
✹☎✺ ✿✰✢ ✶▼✥ ✫✞✲ ✘✜✦☎✭●✲ ◗✧✲ ✚ ❭ ✛✩✘✜✹☎✺ ✹✮✶▼✥ ✭✧✵ ✘ ✚ = 1 ✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺ ✹
✹☎✺ ❵ ✿✰✢ ✶▼✥ ✫✞✲ ✘✜✦☎✭●✲ ◗✧✲ ✚ ❭ ✛✩✘✜✹☎✺ ✹✮✶▼✥ ✭✧✵ αα =< 12 ✘ ✚ K ❬ ✱ ✵ ✳ ✱ ❙✧✪ ✘❏✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺ ✹
❃ ❃

✹☎✺ ✻ ❯ ✗✙✥ ✵ ✵ ✘ ✸ ✚ ✘ ✭✧✵✜❀✏❁✷✘ ✚❘✲ ◗✧✲ ✚ ❭ ✛✩✘✜✦✧✘✜✸ ✪ ✱ ✲ ✲ ✘ ✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺

K
✹
❃

✹☎✺ ✻ ✻ ❄ ✸ ✤✞✢ ✛✣✱☞✯ ✥ ✫✞✸ ✚ ✳ ✥ ✫✧✫✞✘ ✪✏✦❋❑ ✭✧✫●✸ ✥ ✵ ✵ ✘ ✸ ✚ ✘ ✭✧✵ 1P D ✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺ ❝❯

❃

✹☎✺ ✻ ✙✍✗✙✥ ✵ ✵ ✘ ✸ ✚ ✘ ✭✧✵ P D ✘ ✚❘✲ ◗✧✲ ✚ ❭ ✛✣✘✜✦✧✘✜✸ ✪ ✱ ✲ ✲ ✘❘✭✧✫❍✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺ ❝❯

✹☎✺ ✻ (✍✗✙✥ ✵ ✵ ✘ ✸ ✚ ✳ ✥ ✫✔✶✧✵ ✥ ✶▼✥ ✵ ✚ ✳ ✥ ✫✧✫✞✘ ✪ ✪ ✘ ❜ ✳ ✫☎✚ ✢ ✬ ✵ ✱ ✪ ✘ ❜ ✦✧✢ ✵ ✳ ❬ ✢ ✘ ✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺ ❝✙
✹☎✺ ✻ ✼✍✿✰✢ ✬ ✪ ✱ ✬ ✘ ✲❘✲ ✭✞✸ ✸ ✘ ✲ ✲ ✳ ✯ ✲✰✦✧✘ ✲✰❀✏❁ ❂ ✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺ ❝✼
✹☎✺ ✻ ✸❅✿✰✢ ✶▼✥ ✫✞✲ ✘✜❁ ✫✞✦☎✳ ✸ ✳ ✘ ✪ ✪ ✘❘✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺ ❝✸
✹☎✺ ✻ ✹✍❫✧✳ ✘ ✬ ✪ ✘ ✵ ❜ ❴✰✳ ✸ ✤✞✥ ✪ ✲❘✘ ✫❏❙❋✥ ✭✞✸ ✪ ✘✜✯ ✘ ✵ ✛✩✢ ✘☞✽✧✶❋✥ ✛✣✶✞✱ ✬☎✘ ✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺ ❝✹
❝ ✺ ✻ ✌ ❈ ✍ ✔ ✘✗✡✌✿✌❈ ✾ ✏✓✘ ✕✖✘✫❈ ✻✠✽ ✾ ✡✏✎ ✟ ✌✡ ✾✗✕✤✺ ✟ ❘✎✔ ✻✫✺ ✟ ✍✓✕ ✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺ ✻
❝ ✺ ✙ ✿✰✢ ✶▼✥ ✫✞✲ ✘❘✳ ✫✞✦☎✳ ✸ ✳ ✘ ✪ ✪ ✘✮✦❋❑ ✭✧✫●✲ ◗✧✲ ✚ ❭ ✛✩✘✜✦✧✘❘✯ ✥ ✫✞✸ ✚ ✳ ✥ ✫✔✦✧✘✜✚ ✵ ✱ ✫✞✲ ✯ ✘ ✵ ✚✮✽ G(s) = K ✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺
❃

❃
✙
❝ ✺ ( ✿✰✢ ✶▼✥ ✫✞✲ ✘❘✳ ✫✞✦☎✳ ✸ ✳ ✘ ✪ ✪ ✘✮✦❋❑ ✭✧✫●✲ ◗✧✲ ✚ ❭ ✛✩✘✜✦✧✘❘✯ ✥ ✫✞✸ ✚ ✳ ✥ ✫✔✦✧✘✜✚ ✵ ✱ ✫✞✲ ✯ ✘ ✵ ✚✮✽ G(p) = 1+τ p
✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺ (
❝ ✺ ✼ ✿✰✢ ✶▼✥ ✫✞✲ ✘❘✳ ✫✞✦☎✳ ✸ ✳ ✘ ✪ ✪ ✘✮✦❋❑ ✭✧✫●✲ ◗✧✲ ✚ ❭ ✛✩✘❘✵ ✘ ✚ ✱ ✵ ✦✧✢ ✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺
Kp ❃

1+τ p (
❝ ✺ ✸ ✿✰✢ ✶▼✥ ✫✞✲ ✘❘✳ ✫✞✦☎✳ ✸ ✳ ✘ ✪ ✪ ✘✮✦❋❑ ✭✧✫●✲ ◗✧✲ ✚ ❭ ✛✩✘✜✦☎✭✔✦✧✘ ✭✧❛☎✳ ❭ ✛✩✘✮✥ ✵ ✦☎✵ ✘ ✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺ ✼
❃

❝ ✺ ✹ ❅ ✢ ✚ ✤✞✥☎✦✧✘✜✦☎✭✔✶❋✥ ✳ ✫☎✚❘✦❋❑ ✳ ✠✫ ✞✹ ✘ ❛☎✳ ✥ ✫ ✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺

❃

✸
❝ ✺ ❝ ✵ ❬☎✥ ✪ ✭✧✚ ✳ ✥ ✫✔✦✧✘ ★ ✱ ❛✧✘❘❬☎✘ ✵ ✚ ✳ ✸ ✱ ✪ ✴✰✘ ✫❏✯ ✥ ✫✞✸ ✚ ✳ ✥ ✫✔✦✧✘ ✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺ ✹
❃

❝ ✺ ❅ ✢ ✚ ✤✞✥☎✦✧✘✜✦✧✘ ❄ y✚ I✵ ✘ ✶ ✸ ✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜x✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺ ❝
❃

❃ ❃

❵(
✂✝ ✟ ✡✮❲ ✡ ✁! ☎✠ ✡
✂ ✄ ✄ ✡ ✄

❝ ✺❵ ✢ ✚ ✤✞✥☎✦✧✘✜✦✧✘ ❄ ✚ ✵ ✘ ✸✮❨☞✥ ✵ ✦☎✵ ✘❘✯ ✵ ✱ ✸ ✚ ✳ ✥ ✫✧✫✞✱ ✳ ✵ ✘ ✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺

✶
❃ ❃

❝ ✺ ✻ ✰✚ ✳ ✪ ✳ ✲ ✱ ✚ ✳ ✥ ✫✔✦☎✭✔✫✞✥ ✛✩✥ ✬ ✵ ✱ ✛☞✛✩✘✮✦✧✘✜❂❘✱ ❬☎✥ ✭✞✲ ✚ ✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺ ❵

❅

●
❯ ❃

❝ ✺ ✻ ✻◆❈✰❙✞✱ ■ ✭✞✘❘✶▼✥ ✭✧✵✰✪ ✱✮✛✩✢ ✚ ✤✞✥☎✦✧✘✮✦✧✘ ❄ ✚ ✵ ✘ ✸ ✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺ ❵

✶
❃

❝ ✺✻ ✙ ✢ ✚ ✤✞✥☎✦✧✘✜✦✧✘✜❴❘✱ ✲ ✪ ✳ ✫ ✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺ ❵ ❯

❝ ✺✻ ✢ ✚ ✤✞✥☎✦✧✘✜✦✧✘✜❴❘✱ ✲ ✪ ✳ ✫❩✽✞✱ ❙✞✱ ■ ✭✞✘❅✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺ ❵☎✻

❅

❵✼
 ✙✂✒✁ ✗❏✓ ✓ ✁ ✗✚✤✁!✄✜✂ ✓✖✤
✑✔✄ ✆☎
✝

✹☎✺ ✻ ❅
✢✚✞ ✤ ✥☎✦✧✘✜✦✧✘✮❫✞✳ ✘ ✬ ✪ ✘ ✵✜✘ ✚✰❴✰✳ ✸ ✞
✤ ✥ ✪ ✲✮★ ❙▼✥ ✞✭ ✸ ✪ ✘✜✥ ✭✧❬☎✘ ✵ ✚ ✘ ✴ ✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺ ❝ ✸

✹☎✺ ✙

❅
✢ ✚ ✤✞☎✥ ✦✧✘✜✦✧✘✮❫✞✳ ✘ ✬ ✪ ✘ ✵✜✘ ✚✰❴✰✳ ✸ ✞✤ ✥ ✪ ✲✮★ ❙▼✥ ✞✭ ✸ ✪ ✘❘✯ ✘ ✵ ✛✣✢ ✘ ✴✣✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺ ❝ ✹
✹☎✺ !

❅
✢ ✚ ✤✞☎✥ ✦✧✘✜✦✧✘✮✗✙✤✧✳ ✘ ✫▼❊ ❘✥ ✵ ✫✞✘ ✲✰✘ ❘
✕ ✗✚ ✿✰✘ ✲ ✰✳ ✸
✘ ✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺ ❝ ❝

❝ ✺✻ ❅
✢ ✚ ✤✞✥☎✦✧✘✜✦✧✘ ❄ ✚ ✵ ✘ ✸
✶ ✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✜✺✮✺✜✺✜✺✮✺ ❃ ❝

❵ ✸
 ✙ ✄✂ ✙✜✧ ☎ ✝✤
✟ ✂✁☎✄ ✙✜✓

✆ ❂✜✿✰❵ ✝
✥ ✵ ✫✞✘❘❀✂✺ ❊✧❂✜✱ ✭✧✶✧✤✧✳ ✫✧❜ ✂✱ ✫✧✬ ✭✧◗ ✭ ✺☎❀✂✺ ❊✧✿✷✳ ✸ ✤✞✱ ✵ ✦ ✭ ✺✧❀▼✺ ❊✧✿✰✥ ✚ ✘ ✪ ✪ ✱ ✺✧✘ ✚✰❁ ✺✞❫✞✱ ✛✮❙❋✘ ✚ ✚ ✱ ☎✳ ✲ ✺✰❖ ✞✰✒✞✄ ✆ ✞ ✄ ✡✮✡ ✟
✟
❳ ✡✫✆ ✄ ✟ ✝ ✎ ✒❩❲ ✡ ✄✜✓✷✠ ✎ ✑ ✡ ✄ ✄ ✡ ✄✜✕ ✒❋❲ ✡ ✄ ✟ ✠ ✝ ✡ ✆ ✄ T ✺ ▼✘ ✸ ✤✧✫✧✳ ✶▼❊▼✻ ❵ ❵ ✧✺
✄ ✘
✙ ✙ ✡

✆ ❂✜✘ ❚ ❵ ✝☞❂❘✘ ❚ ✱ ✵ ✛☞✳ ✫✞✱ ✚✜❀▼✺❘❖ ✞✢✡☎✟ ✎ ☎✣✄ ✟ ✝ ✡✧✡ ✠✜Y✙✎ ☎ ☎✣✄ ✒✞❲ ✡☞❲ ✡ ✄☛✤✡ ✞ ✄ ✟ ✟ ☎✩✡ ✄ ✂✝ ✒❋❳ ✄ ✝ ✠ ✡ ✄ T ✺ ❘✘ ✵ ✛✣❭ ✲ ❊▼✻ ❵ ❵ ✧✺
✄

✆ ✜❂❘❀✙❵ ❯ ✝ ✰✳ ✪ ✪ ✘ ✭ ✺✷✗✙✤▼✺ ❊✷❂❘✘ ✸ ✱ ✭✧✪ ✫✞✘●❀▼✺ ❊✙✘ ✚❏❀✂✺✙❀✂✘ ✪ ✘ ✬ ✵ ✳ ✫▼✺ ❖✌❋☞ ✁✧❳ ✎ ✠ ✝ ✡●✡ ✟✩Y✙✄ ✆ ✑ ✡✫✆❘❲ ✡ ✄✍✢✞ ✄ ✄ ✡ ✠ ✎ ✝ ✄ ✄ ✡ ☎✣✡ ✒✞✟ ✄ ✂✝ ✏
✄ ✂ ✕

✒✞❳ ✄ ✝ ✠ ✡ ✄ T ✺✙❂❘✭✧✫✞✥ ✦❋❊▼✻ ❵ ❵ ❯ ✺

✂ ✂ ✂

✆ ❀ ✵☎❃ ❝ ✝ ✵ ✱ ✫ ☎✪ ✳ ✫✣✬✧✺ ✺ ❊ ❀✂✥ ✰✘ ✪ ✪ ✭ ✺ ❂☞✺ ✘ ✚✙❈✮✺ ✵ ✛✩✱ ✛✣✳ ❜ ❴❘✱ ✘ ✳ ✫✧✳ ✺✏❖ ▼✡ ✡ ❲ ✄ ✑ ✑✩Y✙✎ ✒✧✟ ✠ ✎ ✆✞✎ ✒✷✖✝✞ ✒✞✄ ☎☞✝ ✑✓✤✡ ✞ ✄ ✟ ✡ ☎ ✄ T ✺
❈✰✦✧✦☎✳ ✲ ✥ ✫✧❜ ✔❩✘ ✲ ✪ ✘ ◗❏❀✂✭✧❙✧✪ ✳ ✲ ✤✧✳ ✫✧✬❏✗✷✥ ✛✣✶✞✱ ✫☎◗ ❊▼✻ ❵ ❃☎❝ ✺
✘ ✗ ☎ ✝
✡ ✡ ✡

✆ ✿✰✳ ❵ ✸ ✝✮✿✰✳ ❬☎✥ ✳ ✵ ✘ ❅ ✺✞✘ ✚ ✭ ✺ ❚ ✺ ✘ ✵ ✵ ✳ ✘ ✵ ✺❘❖❋Y✙✎ ✡☎✠ ✄✮✌❲ ✕ ✞ ✡☎✟ ✎ ☎✩✄ ✟ ✝ ✡✧✡✍✞☞ ✎ ☎✣✡ ▼T ✺ ✵ ◗☎✵ ✥ ✪ ✪ ✘ ✲ ❊▼✻ ❵ ❵ ✸☎✺
✆ ❄ ❈❘❵ ✼ ✝ ✲ ✱ ✚ ✱✰❈✮✺❋❖ ✕ ✠✒ ✄ ✟ ✠ ✡✫✣☎ ✡ ✒✧✟ ✄ ✟ ✝ ✎ ✒✣✡ ✟▼✄ ✡☎✟ ✎ ☎✣✄ ✟ ✝ ✎ ✒✩❲ ✄ ✫✒ ✄ ✆ ✡✰✑ ✎ ✒✞✟ ✠ ✖ ✆ ✡✰❲ ✡ ✄▼✆✞✠ ✎ ✑ ❳ ❲ ❳ ✄ ✠❋✖✮✡ ✡ ✗ ✝ ✟ ☎✣✡✰❳ ❲ ✝ ✟ ✝ ✎ ✒▼T ✺
✄ ✁
✡ ✡

❚ ✘ ❘✵ ✳ ❋✥ ✫✔✦❋❑ ✱ ✵ ✬ ✳ ✪ ✘ ❊▼✻ ❵ ❵ ✼✧✺

✙ ✙

✂ ✟

❵✹