In order to determine the relative crash risk of drivers at various blood alcohol concentration (... more In order to determine the relative crash risk of drivers at various blood alcohol concentration (BAC) levels a case-control study was conducted in Long Beach, CA and Fort Lauderdale, FL. Data was collected on 4,919 drivers involved in 2,871 crashes of all severities. In addition, two drivers at the same location, day of week and time of day were sampled a week after a crash, which produced 10,066 control drivers. Thus, a total of 14,985 drivers were included in the study. Relative risk models were generated using logistic regression techniques with and without covariates such as driver age, gender, marital status, drinking frequency and ethnicity. The overall result was in agreement with previous studies in showing increasing relative risk as BAC increases, with an accelerated rise at BACs in excess of .10 BAC. After adjustments for missing data (hit-and-run drivers, refusals, etc.) the result was an even more dramatic rise in risk, with increasing BAC that began at lower BACs (abov...
The effectiveness of driving while intoxicated (DWI) operations in deterring impaired driving dep... more The effectiveness of driving while intoxicated (DWI) operations in deterring impaired driving depends on the ability of police officers to detect heavy drinkers. The passive alcohol sensor (PAS), which can detect alcohol in expired breath at a distance of 6 inches from the face, provides a means for detecting heavy drinking within 15-30 seconds. The objective of this study was to determine the accuracy of the PAS unit for estimating the blood alcohol concentration (BAC) of drivers and study its potential use as a screening device for estimating BAC in relation to several factors related to its use (age, gender, light conditions, and police confidence in the PAS measure). A recent study funded by the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration of the BAC levels of crash-involved and randomly stopped drivers as a control group for comparison provided 12,587 cases in which both a breath test and a PAS measure of BAC were obtained for each driver studied. This research involved a sec...
Problem: The role of age (youth and driving inexperience) and alcohol as major risk factors in tr... more Problem: The role of age (youth and driving inexperience) and alcohol as major risk factors in traffic crash causation has been firmly established by numerous studies over the past 50 years. Less well established is how the two variables interrelate to influence crash risk. Some investigations have hypothesized an interactive or synergistic effect in which young drivers with less experience and a greater tendency to take risks are more adversely affected at lower blood alcohol concentrations (BACs) than are older drivers. The evidence for this hypothesis is mixed. Resolution of this issue has important implication for developing countermeasures directed at the young driver crash problem. Method: Case control data previously collected in Long Beach and Fort Lauderdale were reanalyzed using a more sensitive method for detecting interaction effects than used in the original analysis. A conditional logistic regression analyses found a highly significant age × BAC interaction (P b.0001) involving differences between drivers under 21 and those 21 and older. Discussion: The results clearly indicate that positive BACs in drivers under 21 are associated with higher relative crash risks than would be predicted from the additive effect of BAC and age. It is likely that two mechanisms are operating to cause the interaction. First, it seems likely that the crash avoidance skill of young novice drivers would be more adversely affected by alcohol due to their driving inexperience, immaturity, and less experience with alcohol. Second, drivers under 21 who choose to drink and to drive after drinking probably have pre-existing characteristics that predisposed them to risk taking and crash involvement apart from any increased vulnerability to alcohol impairment. Impact on Industry: The results support increased enforcement of zero-tolerance BAC laws for minors.
Data availability has forced researchers to examine separately the role of alcohol among drivers ... more Data availability has forced researchers to examine separately the role of alcohol among drivers who crashed and drivers who did not crash. Such a separation fails to account fully for the transition from impaired driving to an alcohol-related crash. In this study, we analyzed recent data to investigate how traffic-related environments, conditions, and drivers' demographics shape the likelihood of a driver being either involved in a crash (alcohol impaired or not) or not involved in a crash (alcohol impaired or not). Our data, from a recent case-control study, included a comprehensive sampling of the drivers in nonfatal crashes and a matched set of comparison drivers in two U.S. locations. Multinomial logistic regression was applied to investigate the likelihood that a driver would crash or would not crash, either with a blood alcohol concentration (BAC)=.00 or with a BAC≥.05. To our knowledge, this study is the first to examine how different driver characteristics and environmental factors simultaneously contribute to alcohol use by crash-involved and non-crash-involved drivers. This effort calls attention to the need for research on the simultaneous roles played by all the factors that may contribute to motor vehicle crashes.
shown that while young drivers pose the greatest accident risk, there is evidence of an increase ... more shown that while young drivers pose the greatest accident risk, there is evidence of an increase in the accident rate (per driver) among older drivers at about 70 years of age. If the rates are further adjusted for mileage, the increase begins at about age 50 and becomes very steep at 70 and above. Evidence suggests that the increase in the accident rate among older drivers is attributable to age-related decrements in driving skill combined with an increased vulnerability to injury and death following trauma. This paper presents a number of analyses examining the po~i~ity of an interactive relationship between age and prior driving record as a method for identifying high-risk drivers. The results indicate that older drivers exhibit a steeper increase in future accident risk at successive prior incident levels, relative to drivers in general. The report concludes that a record of traffic convictions presents a higher risk of accidents for older drivers than for younger drivers. Several hypotheses are offered to explain these findings. The report recommends revising the Department's negligent driver and accident reexamination process to initiate actions against older drivers based on fewer incidents.
Introduction: In 2004, Washington State applied NHTSA's High Visibility Enforcement model used in... more Introduction: In 2004, Washington State applied NHTSA's High Visibility Enforcement model used in the Click It or Ticket seat belt campaign in an attempt to reduce unsafe driving behaviors around commercial motor vehicles (CMVs). The program was called Ticketing Aggressive Cars and Trucks (TACT). This paper details the methods used to evaluate the program's effectiveness and the results of the evaluation. Method: Four highcrash interstate highway corridors, each approximately 25 miles in length, were selected. Two of these corridors received TACT media messages and increased enforcement over an 18-month period while two comparison corridors did not receive any increased media or enforcement. Results: A total of 4,737 contacts were made with drivers during the two enforcement waves, and 72% of these contacts led to a citation. Drivers at the intervention sites who said they saw or heard any of the TACT messages increased from 17.7% in the pre period to a high of 67.3% in the post periods. Drivers at the intervention sites also reported increased exposure to the core message of leaving more space when passing trucks (14% pre to 40% post period). The percentage of drivers who said they leave more room when passing trucks than when passing cars rose from 16% in the pre period to 24% in the post period at the intervention sites, while comparison sites showed no change. Over 150 hours of video recorded by law enforcement officers in unmarked vehicles were utilized to examine violation rates and severity of violations before and after the intervention campaigns. Statistical analyses showed that violation rates were reduced significantly at the intervention sites (between 23% and 46%), while remaining constant at the comparison sites. Analyses of the video data also showed that the seriousness of the residual violations at the intervention sites decreased. Conclusions: Overall, the evaluation results provide a consistent picture of the effectiveness of the TACT pilot project. Success was demonstrated at every step -messages were received and understood, knowledge was changed in the intended direction, self reported driving behavior around large trucks improved, and observed driving behaviors confirmed the self reports. Impact on Industry: After this initial success in Washington State, the TACT model will continue to be implemented and evaluated by FMCSA in an attempt to validate the program. Based on the results of this study and the consistent positive results found for other sTEP projects, it is likely that TACT will show continued success in a variety of settings and will help reduce the number and severity of crashes involving CMVs. Future research should attempt to use many of the methods described here to further validate the methods for not only evaluations of TACT programs, but also for any other highway safety programs that require measurements of the program's effectiveness.
It is estimated that at least 75% of suspended or revoked drivers continue to drive illegally. In... more It is estimated that at least 75% of suspended or revoked drivers continue to drive illegally. In states like California, there are also a substantial and growing number of people who drive without ever having been licensed. Some states, such as Ohio and California, have enacted vehicle impoundment and forfeiture programs as sanctions to reduce these offenses. Published evaluations indicate that vehicle impoundment laws reduce recidivism and crash rates. However, vehicle forfeiture programs have been less successful, mostly because of low levels of enforcement. Police officers and district attorneys from 17 jurisdictions were interviewed by phone or in person to determine current enforcement levels and impediments to more aggressive application of statutory authority. The survey found that most California jurisdictions are enforcing vehicle impoundments for first-time offenders. However, very few jurisdictions were enforcing the vehicle forfeiture law for repeat offenders. Among the reasons for not enforcing the vehicle forfeiture law was a perception that it was too time-consuming and/or not a priority among prosecutors. However, a number of authorities indicated that the simple vehicle impoundment procedure is often functionally equivalent to forfeiture because many drivers fail to retrieve the vehicle at the end of the impoundment period. Vehicle impoundment programs are effective mechanisms in deterring illicit driving, and states should be encouraged to initiate vehicle impoundment laws. States could achieve even greater safety benefits if vehicle forfeiture sanctions were extensively used for repeat offenders. However, based on California's experience, the incremental benefits of vehicle forfeiture (over vehicle impoundment) may not be very great.
Problem Given the public safety risk posed by violation and crash repeaters and the substantial c... more Problem Given the public safety risk posed by violation and crash repeaters and the substantial costs for state driver improvement programs, it is important that their effectiveness be scientifically demonstrated and that intervention programs are based on sound research findings. Method Crash and traffic violation standardized effect sizes (d) representing 106 individual interventions were coded from 35 methodologically sound studies and analyzed using meta-analysis. Results Driver improvement intervention in general was associated with small but significant reductions in both crashes (d w = 0.03) and violations (d w = 0.06). Significant effects were found on both measures for warning letters, group meetings, individual hearings and license suspense/revocation. Of the driver improvement interventions studied, license suspension/revocation was by far the most effective treatment for both crashes and violations (d w = 0.11 and 0.19). Since one of the objectives of license suspension/revocation is to eliminate driving for the period of suspension, it is possible that much or all of the effect is due to reduced exposure and/or more careful driving during the suspension interval. Results were mixed for other types of interventions, although distributing educational or informational material was not associated with any reductions. Interventions associated with violation reduction tended to also be associated with crash reduction, although the relationship was not very strong (r = .30). Discussion Although interpretation of the effect size estimates was complicated by almost ubiquitous heterogeneity, the results do suggest an overall positive impact of driver improvement interventions in general. Impact on Industry The results support the continued use of driver improvement interventions, chiefly warning letters, group meetings, individual hearings, and especially license suspension/revocation. The results also suggest that courttriggered traffic violator programs are less effective than interventions triggered by driver license agencies.
Since the 1970s, nighttime fatal crashes have been used as a surrogate measure for alcohol-relate... more Since the 1970s, nighttime fatal crashes have been used as a surrogate measure for alcohol-related fatalities for crashes for which more direct measures were absent. The validity of this approach was confirmed in 1985, but has not been re-evaluated since. Although this measure has also been applied to identify alcohol involvement in nonfatal crashes, its validity when applied to non-fatal cases has never been determined.
There have been a number of studies conducted during the past three decades which show that most ... more There have been a number of studies conducted during the past three decades which show that most suspended/revoked (S/R) drivers violate their license action and continue to drive during their period of disqualification. Traffic safety researchers also suspect that S/R drivers are overinvolved in traffic crashes, but this is difficult to demonstrate because of the lack of good data on their prevalence among all road users. This paper applies the quasi-induced exposure method to fatal crash data obtained from the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration's Fatal Accident Reporting System, to generate exposure and crash rate estimates for S/R drivers in California. The results show exposure rates of 8.8% and 3.3% for suspended/revoked and unlicensed drivers, respectively, and that, compared to validly licensed drivers, the former are overinvolved in fatal crashes by a factor of 3.7:1, and the latter 4.9:l. These findings provide support for efforts to better control S/R and unlicensed drivers. The paper also discusses serious limitations to using quasi-induced exposure to estimate the numbers of such drivers on California roads, and concludes that it is not suited to this task.
California Department of Motor Vehicles currently uses first-class mail to notify drivers of a su... more California Department of Motor Vehicles currently uses first-class mail to notify drivers of a suspension or revocation of their driving privilege. The served drivers are instructed to sign and return the order and any driver's license to the department, thereby establishing proof of the driver's knowledge of the order. The establishment of proof is considered essential in the prosecution of drivers cited for operating a motor vehicle while under a suspension or revocation (California Vehicle Code Section 14601). However, past research indicates that a majority of drivers fail to comply with the order. In an attempt to increase proof rates, the present study developed and evaluated a number of mailing strategies for various categories of suspensions and revocations. Among the mailing factors evaluated were (1) use of certified mail, (2) use of a follow-up contact, (3) use of a postage paid return envelope and (4) masking the Department of Motor Vehicles return address of the certified mail action notice. The results indicate that there are significant differences between the type of mail contact employed as well as between the different categories of suspension or revocation reason. The most effective strategies (certified mail, return receipt requested) resulted in proof rates of approximately 60-70% compared to approximately 25% for the current first-class mailing procedure. An analysis of subsequent driving records indicated that certified mail also increased the percentage of convictions which were prosecuted as 14601 violations, while decreasing the total number of entries (convictions and accidents) accumulated during suspension or revocation. Copyright 0 1997 Elsevier Science Ltd
In order to determine the relative crash risk of drivers at various blood alcohol concentration (... more In order to determine the relative crash risk of drivers at various blood alcohol concentration (BAC) levels a case-control study was conducted in Long Beach, CA and Fort Lauderdale, FL. Data was collected on 4,919 drivers involved in 2,871 crashes of all severities. In addition, two drivers at the same location, day of week and time of day were sampled a week after a crash, which produced 10,066 control drivers. Thus, a total of 14,985 drivers were included in the study. Relative risk models were generated using logistic regression techniques with and without covariates such as driver age, gender, marital status, drinking frequency and ethnicity. The overall result was in agreement with previous studies in showing increasing relative risk as BAC increases, with an accelerated rise at BACs in excess of .10 BAC. After adjustments for missing data (hit-and-run drivers, refusals, etc.) the result was an even more dramatic rise in risk, with increasing BAC that began at lower BACs (abov...
The effectiveness of driving while intoxicated (DWI) operations in deterring impaired driving dep... more The effectiveness of driving while intoxicated (DWI) operations in deterring impaired driving depends on the ability of police officers to detect heavy drinkers. The passive alcohol sensor (PAS), which can detect alcohol in expired breath at a distance of 6 inches from the face, provides a means for detecting heavy drinking within 15-30 seconds. The objective of this study was to determine the accuracy of the PAS unit for estimating the blood alcohol concentration (BAC) of drivers and study its potential use as a screening device for estimating BAC in relation to several factors related to its use (age, gender, light conditions, and police confidence in the PAS measure). A recent study funded by the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration of the BAC levels of crash-involved and randomly stopped drivers as a control group for comparison provided 12,587 cases in which both a breath test and a PAS measure of BAC were obtained for each driver studied. This research involved a sec...
Problem: The role of age (youth and driving inexperience) and alcohol as major risk factors in tr... more Problem: The role of age (youth and driving inexperience) and alcohol as major risk factors in traffic crash causation has been firmly established by numerous studies over the past 50 years. Less well established is how the two variables interrelate to influence crash risk. Some investigations have hypothesized an interactive or synergistic effect in which young drivers with less experience and a greater tendency to take risks are more adversely affected at lower blood alcohol concentrations (BACs) than are older drivers. The evidence for this hypothesis is mixed. Resolution of this issue has important implication for developing countermeasures directed at the young driver crash problem. Method: Case control data previously collected in Long Beach and Fort Lauderdale were reanalyzed using a more sensitive method for detecting interaction effects than used in the original analysis. A conditional logistic regression analyses found a highly significant age × BAC interaction (P b.0001) involving differences between drivers under 21 and those 21 and older. Discussion: The results clearly indicate that positive BACs in drivers under 21 are associated with higher relative crash risks than would be predicted from the additive effect of BAC and age. It is likely that two mechanisms are operating to cause the interaction. First, it seems likely that the crash avoidance skill of young novice drivers would be more adversely affected by alcohol due to their driving inexperience, immaturity, and less experience with alcohol. Second, drivers under 21 who choose to drink and to drive after drinking probably have pre-existing characteristics that predisposed them to risk taking and crash involvement apart from any increased vulnerability to alcohol impairment. Impact on Industry: The results support increased enforcement of zero-tolerance BAC laws for minors.
Data availability has forced researchers to examine separately the role of alcohol among drivers ... more Data availability has forced researchers to examine separately the role of alcohol among drivers who crashed and drivers who did not crash. Such a separation fails to account fully for the transition from impaired driving to an alcohol-related crash. In this study, we analyzed recent data to investigate how traffic-related environments, conditions, and drivers' demographics shape the likelihood of a driver being either involved in a crash (alcohol impaired or not) or not involved in a crash (alcohol impaired or not). Our data, from a recent case-control study, included a comprehensive sampling of the drivers in nonfatal crashes and a matched set of comparison drivers in two U.S. locations. Multinomial logistic regression was applied to investigate the likelihood that a driver would crash or would not crash, either with a blood alcohol concentration (BAC)=.00 or with a BAC≥.05. To our knowledge, this study is the first to examine how different driver characteristics and environmental factors simultaneously contribute to alcohol use by crash-involved and non-crash-involved drivers. This effort calls attention to the need for research on the simultaneous roles played by all the factors that may contribute to motor vehicle crashes.
shown that while young drivers pose the greatest accident risk, there is evidence of an increase ... more shown that while young drivers pose the greatest accident risk, there is evidence of an increase in the accident rate (per driver) among older drivers at about 70 years of age. If the rates are further adjusted for mileage, the increase begins at about age 50 and becomes very steep at 70 and above. Evidence suggests that the increase in the accident rate among older drivers is attributable to age-related decrements in driving skill combined with an increased vulnerability to injury and death following trauma. This paper presents a number of analyses examining the po~i~ity of an interactive relationship between age and prior driving record as a method for identifying high-risk drivers. The results indicate that older drivers exhibit a steeper increase in future accident risk at successive prior incident levels, relative to drivers in general. The report concludes that a record of traffic convictions presents a higher risk of accidents for older drivers than for younger drivers. Several hypotheses are offered to explain these findings. The report recommends revising the Department's negligent driver and accident reexamination process to initiate actions against older drivers based on fewer incidents.
Introduction: In 2004, Washington State applied NHTSA's High Visibility Enforcement model used in... more Introduction: In 2004, Washington State applied NHTSA's High Visibility Enforcement model used in the Click It or Ticket seat belt campaign in an attempt to reduce unsafe driving behaviors around commercial motor vehicles (CMVs). The program was called Ticketing Aggressive Cars and Trucks (TACT). This paper details the methods used to evaluate the program's effectiveness and the results of the evaluation. Method: Four highcrash interstate highway corridors, each approximately 25 miles in length, were selected. Two of these corridors received TACT media messages and increased enforcement over an 18-month period while two comparison corridors did not receive any increased media or enforcement. Results: A total of 4,737 contacts were made with drivers during the two enforcement waves, and 72% of these contacts led to a citation. Drivers at the intervention sites who said they saw or heard any of the TACT messages increased from 17.7% in the pre period to a high of 67.3% in the post periods. Drivers at the intervention sites also reported increased exposure to the core message of leaving more space when passing trucks (14% pre to 40% post period). The percentage of drivers who said they leave more room when passing trucks than when passing cars rose from 16% in the pre period to 24% in the post period at the intervention sites, while comparison sites showed no change. Over 150 hours of video recorded by law enforcement officers in unmarked vehicles were utilized to examine violation rates and severity of violations before and after the intervention campaigns. Statistical analyses showed that violation rates were reduced significantly at the intervention sites (between 23% and 46%), while remaining constant at the comparison sites. Analyses of the video data also showed that the seriousness of the residual violations at the intervention sites decreased. Conclusions: Overall, the evaluation results provide a consistent picture of the effectiveness of the TACT pilot project. Success was demonstrated at every step -messages were received and understood, knowledge was changed in the intended direction, self reported driving behavior around large trucks improved, and observed driving behaviors confirmed the self reports. Impact on Industry: After this initial success in Washington State, the TACT model will continue to be implemented and evaluated by FMCSA in an attempt to validate the program. Based on the results of this study and the consistent positive results found for other sTEP projects, it is likely that TACT will show continued success in a variety of settings and will help reduce the number and severity of crashes involving CMVs. Future research should attempt to use many of the methods described here to further validate the methods for not only evaluations of TACT programs, but also for any other highway safety programs that require measurements of the program's effectiveness.
It is estimated that at least 75% of suspended or revoked drivers continue to drive illegally. In... more It is estimated that at least 75% of suspended or revoked drivers continue to drive illegally. In states like California, there are also a substantial and growing number of people who drive without ever having been licensed. Some states, such as Ohio and California, have enacted vehicle impoundment and forfeiture programs as sanctions to reduce these offenses. Published evaluations indicate that vehicle impoundment laws reduce recidivism and crash rates. However, vehicle forfeiture programs have been less successful, mostly because of low levels of enforcement. Police officers and district attorneys from 17 jurisdictions were interviewed by phone or in person to determine current enforcement levels and impediments to more aggressive application of statutory authority. The survey found that most California jurisdictions are enforcing vehicle impoundments for first-time offenders. However, very few jurisdictions were enforcing the vehicle forfeiture law for repeat offenders. Among the reasons for not enforcing the vehicle forfeiture law was a perception that it was too time-consuming and/or not a priority among prosecutors. However, a number of authorities indicated that the simple vehicle impoundment procedure is often functionally equivalent to forfeiture because many drivers fail to retrieve the vehicle at the end of the impoundment period. Vehicle impoundment programs are effective mechanisms in deterring illicit driving, and states should be encouraged to initiate vehicle impoundment laws. States could achieve even greater safety benefits if vehicle forfeiture sanctions were extensively used for repeat offenders. However, based on California's experience, the incremental benefits of vehicle forfeiture (over vehicle impoundment) may not be very great.
Problem Given the public safety risk posed by violation and crash repeaters and the substantial c... more Problem Given the public safety risk posed by violation and crash repeaters and the substantial costs for state driver improvement programs, it is important that their effectiveness be scientifically demonstrated and that intervention programs are based on sound research findings. Method Crash and traffic violation standardized effect sizes (d) representing 106 individual interventions were coded from 35 methodologically sound studies and analyzed using meta-analysis. Results Driver improvement intervention in general was associated with small but significant reductions in both crashes (d w = 0.03) and violations (d w = 0.06). Significant effects were found on both measures for warning letters, group meetings, individual hearings and license suspense/revocation. Of the driver improvement interventions studied, license suspension/revocation was by far the most effective treatment for both crashes and violations (d w = 0.11 and 0.19). Since one of the objectives of license suspension/revocation is to eliminate driving for the period of suspension, it is possible that much or all of the effect is due to reduced exposure and/or more careful driving during the suspension interval. Results were mixed for other types of interventions, although distributing educational or informational material was not associated with any reductions. Interventions associated with violation reduction tended to also be associated with crash reduction, although the relationship was not very strong (r = .30). Discussion Although interpretation of the effect size estimates was complicated by almost ubiquitous heterogeneity, the results do suggest an overall positive impact of driver improvement interventions in general. Impact on Industry The results support the continued use of driver improvement interventions, chiefly warning letters, group meetings, individual hearings, and especially license suspension/revocation. The results also suggest that courttriggered traffic violator programs are less effective than interventions triggered by driver license agencies.
Since the 1970s, nighttime fatal crashes have been used as a surrogate measure for alcohol-relate... more Since the 1970s, nighttime fatal crashes have been used as a surrogate measure for alcohol-related fatalities for crashes for which more direct measures were absent. The validity of this approach was confirmed in 1985, but has not been re-evaluated since. Although this measure has also been applied to identify alcohol involvement in nonfatal crashes, its validity when applied to non-fatal cases has never been determined.
There have been a number of studies conducted during the past three decades which show that most ... more There have been a number of studies conducted during the past three decades which show that most suspended/revoked (S/R) drivers violate their license action and continue to drive during their period of disqualification. Traffic safety researchers also suspect that S/R drivers are overinvolved in traffic crashes, but this is difficult to demonstrate because of the lack of good data on their prevalence among all road users. This paper applies the quasi-induced exposure method to fatal crash data obtained from the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration's Fatal Accident Reporting System, to generate exposure and crash rate estimates for S/R drivers in California. The results show exposure rates of 8.8% and 3.3% for suspended/revoked and unlicensed drivers, respectively, and that, compared to validly licensed drivers, the former are overinvolved in fatal crashes by a factor of 3.7:1, and the latter 4.9:l. These findings provide support for efforts to better control S/R and unlicensed drivers. The paper also discusses serious limitations to using quasi-induced exposure to estimate the numbers of such drivers on California roads, and concludes that it is not suited to this task.
California Department of Motor Vehicles currently uses first-class mail to notify drivers of a su... more California Department of Motor Vehicles currently uses first-class mail to notify drivers of a suspension or revocation of their driving privilege. The served drivers are instructed to sign and return the order and any driver's license to the department, thereby establishing proof of the driver's knowledge of the order. The establishment of proof is considered essential in the prosecution of drivers cited for operating a motor vehicle while under a suspension or revocation (California Vehicle Code Section 14601). However, past research indicates that a majority of drivers fail to comply with the order. In an attempt to increase proof rates, the present study developed and evaluated a number of mailing strategies for various categories of suspensions and revocations. Among the mailing factors evaluated were (1) use of certified mail, (2) use of a follow-up contact, (3) use of a postage paid return envelope and (4) masking the Department of Motor Vehicles return address of the certified mail action notice. The results indicate that there are significant differences between the type of mail contact employed as well as between the different categories of suspension or revocation reason. The most effective strategies (certified mail, return receipt requested) resulted in proof rates of approximately 60-70% compared to approximately 25% for the current first-class mailing procedure. An analysis of subsequent driving records indicated that certified mail also increased the percentage of convictions which were prosecuted as 14601 violations, while decreasing the total number of entries (convictions and accidents) accumulated during suspension or revocation. Copyright 0 1997 Elsevier Science Ltd
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Papers by Raymond Peck