Species extinctions undermine ecosystem functioning, with the loss of a small subset of functiona... more Species extinctions undermine ecosystem functioning, with the loss of a small subset of functionally important species having a disproportionate impact. However, little is known about the effects of species loss on plant-pollinator interactions. We addressed this issue in a field experiment by removing the plant species most frequently visited by insects, then measuring the impact of plant removal on flower visitation, pollinator effectiveness and insect foraging in several sites. Our results show that total visitation decreased exponentially after removing 1-4 most visited plants, suggesting that these plants facilitate others by maintaining high flower visitor abundances. Nevertheless, we found large variation in changes of visitation among plant species. Plant traits mediated the effect of removal on flower visitation; while visitation of plants which had smaller inflorescences and more sugar per flower increased after removal, foraging of flower visitors was constrained by not s...
There is increasing evidence that rare and scarce carabid species of conservation importance are ... more There is increasing evidence that rare and scarce carabid species of conservation importance are frequent in brownfield sites such as restored landfill. However, this potential has largely been unexplored and was investigated here by examining carabid species composition, richness, and abundance in relation to habitat quality and landscape structure on landfill sites in comparison to paired reference sites of existing wildlife value. Sampling was conducted by collecting carabids in ten pitfall traps set along two 100 m transects on each of nine restored landfill and their paired reference sites in the East Midlands region of the UK. A total of 1014 individuals representing thirty seven carabid species were found during April to September in 2007 and 2008. On the landfill sites, generalist species were common, while no nationally rare or scarce species were found. Neither species richness nor diversity of carabid species was found to be different from that of the reference sites. Seeding during restoration was found to have a strong positive effect on richness and diversity, with seeded landfill sites tending to be similar to reference sites in terms of carabid species composition. Marked differences in diversity and richness were also attributed to variation in the amount of local vegetation cover, with presence of grassland in the surrounding landscape having a positive effect on carabid assemblages. We suggest that initial seeding may be an appropriate conservation strategy to improve beetle diversity and richness, coupled with management in terms of cutting to increase the potential of these sites for carabid conservation at the landscape scale.
The skylark (Alauda arvensis) lost half its number after it underwent a decade of rapid decline f... more The skylark (Alauda arvensis) lost half its number after it underwent a decade of rapid decline from the mid-1970s onwards and since then has continued to decline albeit at a reduced rate. Its listing as a UK Red-List and Biodiversity Action Plan (BAP) Priority Species has helped focus conservation action in an attempt to halt the decline and stabilise populations by restoring degraded habitats or by creating new habitats. Newly created grassland on restored landfill sites are semi-natural habitats that could potentially contribute to this process, however the extent to which these areas support breeding populations is unknown. Territory densities of breeding skylarks were studied on nine restored landfill sites in the East Midlands region of the UK during May to July 2008. The effects of restoration were investigated by examining how habitat quality, landscape factors and food resources determined territory densities. Mean vegetation height and size of sites were found to be significant predictors of the number of breeding skylarks at the local scale, whilst percentage of woodland, grassland and open habitat in the surrounding landscape had an influence at a larger scale. Mean larval and adult invertebrate abundance and species richness in skylark territories in restored landfill sites were found to be similar to that of reference sites of recognised nature conservation value. Restoration of landfill sites could be targeted toward speciesspecific goals since such sites could play a role in meeting targets for habitat and/or species restoration targets in the UK BAP.
It is clear that the majority of fl owering plants are pollinated by insects and other animals, w... more It is clear that the majority of fl owering plants are pollinated by insects and other animals, with a minority utilising abiotic pollen vectors, mainly wind. However there is no accurate published calculation of the proportion of the ca 352 000 species of angiosperms that interact with pollinators. Widely cited fi gures range from 67% to 96% but these have not been based on fi rm data. We estimated the number and proportion of fl owering plants that are pollinated by animals using published and unpublished community-level surveys of plant pollination systems that recorded whether each species present was pollinated by animals or wind. Th e proportion of animal-pollinated species rises from a mean of 78% in temperate-zone communities to 94% in tropical communities. By correcting for the latitudinal diversity trend in fl owering plants, we estimate the global number and proportion of animal pollinated angiosperms as 308 006, which is 87.5% of the estimated species-level diversity of fl owering plants. Given current concerns about the decline in pollinators and the possible resulting impacts on both natural communities and agricultural crops, such estimates are vital to both ecologists and policy makers. Further research is required to assess in detail the absolute dependency of these plants on their pollinators, and how this varies with latitude and community type, but there is no doubt that plant -pollinator interactions play a signifi cant role in maintaining the functional integrity of most terrestrial ecosystems.
Biodiversity conservation through restoring degraded habitats or creating new habitats is advocat... more Biodiversity conservation through restoring degraded habitats or creating new habitats is advocated in the UK Biodiversity Action Plan. Restored grasslands on capped landfill sites are semi-natural habitats that could potentially support a wide range of plant communities. However, it is unknown whether these re-created habitats represent a significant resource in terms of biodiversity conservation. The UK National Vegetation Classification (NVC) was used to study these communities on nine restored capped landfill sites together with paired reference sites in the East Midlands region of the UK during 2007. Plant species data were collected by random quadrats along two 100 m transects from each site. The effects of restoration were investigated by examining plant attributes and Ellenberg indicators on restored landfill sites in comparison to paired reference sites. A total of 170 plant species were found from both sets of sites. There were no significant differences for most of the plant attributes between restored landfill sites and reference sites, though reference sites had significantly higher mean frequencies of native plants, nationally decreasing species and perennial species. In total 26 broad NVC community types were identified of which more than 70% fell within mesotrophic grassland (MG). The diversity of NVC communities confirms that underlying environmental factors such as soil fertility are important, dictating the type of plant communities that exist. It is recommended that management of these capped landfill sites should be targeted towards specific NVC community types to meet conservation targets.
It is clear that the majority of fl owering plants are pollinated by insects and other animals, w... more It is clear that the majority of fl owering plants are pollinated by insects and other animals, with a minority utilising abiotic pollen vectors, mainly wind. However there is no accurate published calculation of the proportion of the ca 352 000 species of angiosperms that interact with pollinators. Widely cited fi gures range from 67% to 96% but these have not been based on fi rm data. We estimated the number and proportion of fl owering plants that are pollinated by animals using published and unpublished community-level surveys of plant pollination systems that recorded whether each species present was pollinated by animals or wind. Th e proportion of animal-pollinated species rises from a mean of 78% in temperate-zone communities to 94% in tropical communities. By correcting for the latitudinal diversity trend in fl owering plants, we estimate the global number and proportion of animal pollinated angiosperms as 308 006, which is 87.5% of the estimated species-level diversity of fl owering plants. Given current concerns about the decline in pollinators and the possible resulting impacts on both natural communities and agricultural crops, such estimates are vital to both ecologists and policy makers. Further research is required to assess in detail the absolute dependency of these plants on their pollinators, and how this varies with latitude and community type, but there is no doubt that plant -pollinator interactions play a signifi cant role in maintaining the functional integrity of most terrestrial ecosystems.
There has been a rapid decline of grassland bird species in the UK over the last four decades. In... more There has been a rapid decline of grassland bird species in the UK over the last four decades. In order to stem declines in biodiversity such as this, mitigation in the form of newly created habitat and restoration of degraded habitats is advocated in the UK biodiversity action plan. One potential restored habitat that could support a number of bird species is re-created grassland on restored landfill sites. However, this potential largely remains unexplored. In this study, birds were counted using point sampling on nine restored landfill sites in the East Midlands region of the UK during 2007 and 2008. The effects of restoration were investigated by examining bird species composition, richness, and abundance in relation to habitat and landscape structure on the landfill sites in comparison to paired reference sites of existing wildlife value. Twelve bird species were found in total and species richness and abundance on restored landfill sites was found to be higher than that of reference sites. Restored landfill sites support both common grassland bird species and also UK Red List bird species such as skylark Alauda arvensis, grey partridge Perdix perdix, lapwing Vanellus vanellus, tree sparrow, Passer montanus, and starling Sturnus vulgaris. Size of the site, percentage of bare soil and amount of adjacent hedgerow were found to be the most influential habitat quality factors for the distribution of most bird species. Presence of open habitat and crop land in the surrounding landscape were also found to have an effect on bird species composition. Management of restored landfill sites should be targeted towards UK Red List bird species since such sites could potentially play a significant role in biodiversity action planning.
Pollinators are declining in Europe due to intensification of agriculture, habitat loss and fragm... more Pollinators are declining in Europe due to intensification of agriculture, habitat loss and fragmentation. Restored landfill sites are a significant potential reserve of semi-natural habitat, so their conservation value for supporting populations of pollinating insects was here examined by assessing whether the plant and pollinator assemblages of restored landfill sites are comparable to reference sites of existing wildlife value. Floral characteristics of the vegetation and the species richness and abundance of flower-visiting insect assemblages were compared between nine pairs of restored landfill sites and reference sites in the East Midlands of the United Kingdom, using standardized methods over two field seasons. No differences were found between the restored landfill and reference sites in terms of species richness or abundance of plants in flower and both types of site had similar assemblages of pollinators. However, plant and insect assemblages differed across the season, with species richness and abundance being lower for the restored landfill sites in the spring and higher in the autumn compared to the reference sites. The results indicate that in this region, landfill sites are being restored to a state comparable to that of the reference sites with regards to their provision of floral resources and the associated insect pollinator assemblages. Since there are currently 2,200 working landfill sites in England and Wales, covering 28,000 ha, and closing at a rate of 100 per year, this is potentially a significant reserve of land that could be restored.
The skylark (Alauda arvensis) lost half its number after it underwent a decade of rapid decline f... more The skylark (Alauda arvensis) lost half its number after it underwent a decade of rapid decline from the mid-1970s onwards and since then has continued to decline albeit at a reduced rate. Its listing as a UK Red-List and Biodiversity Action Plan (BAP) Priority Species has helped focus conservation action in an attempt to halt the decline and stabilise populations by restoring degraded habitats or by creating new habitats. Newly created grassland on restored landfill sites are semi-natural habitats that could potentially ...
There has been a rapid decline of grassland bird species in the UK over the last four decades. In... more There has been a rapid decline of grassland bird species in the UK over the last four decades. In order to stem declines in biodiversity such as this, mitigation in the form of newly created habitat and restoration of degraded habitats is advocated in the UK biodiversity action plan. One potential restored habitat that could support a number of bird species is re-created grassland on restored landfill sites. However, this potential largely remains unexplored. In this study, birds were counted using point sampling on nine restored landfill sites in the East Midlands region of the UK during 2007 and 2008. The effects of restoration were investigated by examining bird species composition, richness, and abundance in relation to habitat and landscape structure on the landfill sites in comparison to paired reference sites of existing wildlife value. Twelve bird species were found in total and species richness and abundance on restored landfill sites was found to be higher than that of reference sites. Restored landfill sites support both common grassland bird species and also UK Red List bird species such as skylark Alauda arvensis, grey partridge Perdix perdix, lapwing Vanellus vanellus, tree sparrow, Passer montanus, and starling Sturnus vulgaris. Size of the site, percentage of bare soil and amount of adjacent hedgerow were found to be the most influential habitat quality factors for the distribution of most bird species. Presence of open habitat and crop land in the surrounding landscape were also found to have an effect on bird species composition. Management of restored landfill sites should be targeted towards UK Red List bird species since such sites could potentially play a significant role in biodiversity action planning.
Grassland Restoration on Landfill Sites in the East Midlands, United Kingdom: An Evaluation of Floral Resources and Pollinating Insects
Pollinators are declining in Europe due to intensification of agriculture, habitat loss and fragm... more Pollinators are declining in Europe due to intensification of agriculture, habitat loss and fragmentation. Restored landfill sites are a significant potential reserve of semi-natural habitat, so their conservation value for supporting populations of pollinating insects was here examined by assessing whether the plant and pollinator assemblages of restored landfill sites are comparable to reference sites of existing wildlife value. Floral characteristics of the vegetation and the species richness and abundance of flower-visiting insect assemblages were compared between nine pairs of restored landfill sites and reference sites in the East Midlands of the United Kingdom, using standardized methods over two field seasons. No differences were found between the restored landfill and reference sites in terms of species richness or abundance of plants in flower and both types of site had similar assemblages of pollinators. However, plant and insect assemblages differed across the season, with species richness and abundance being lower for the restored landfill sites in the spring and higher in the autumn compared to the reference sites. The results indicate that in this region, landfill sites are being restored to a state comparable to that of the reference sites with regards to their provision of floral resources and the associated insect pollinator assemblages. Since there are currently 2,200 working landfill sites in England and Wales, covering 28,000 ha, and closing at a rate of 100 per year, this is potentially a significant reserve of land that could be restored.
Species extinctions undermine ecosystem functioning, with the loss of a small subset of functiona... more Species extinctions undermine ecosystem functioning, with the loss of a small subset of functionally important species having a disproportionate impact. However, little is known about the effects of species loss on plant-pollinator interactions. We addressed this issue in a field experiment by removing the plant species most frequently visited by insects, then measuring the impact of plant removal on flower visitation, pollinator effectiveness and insect foraging in several sites. Our results show that total visitation decreased exponentially after removing 1-4 most visited plants, suggesting that these plants facilitate others by maintaining high flower visitor abundances. Nevertheless, we found large variation in changes of visitation among plant species. Plant traits mediated the effect of removal on flower visitation; while visitation of plants which had smaller inflorescences and more sugar per flower increased after removal, foraging of flower visitors was constrained by not s...
There is increasing evidence that rare and scarce carabid species of conservation importance are ... more There is increasing evidence that rare and scarce carabid species of conservation importance are frequent in brownfield sites such as restored landfill. However, this potential has largely been unexplored and was investigated here by examining carabid species composition, richness, and abundance in relation to habitat quality and landscape structure on landfill sites in comparison to paired reference sites of existing wildlife value. Sampling was conducted by collecting carabids in ten pitfall traps set along two 100 m transects on each of nine restored landfill and their paired reference sites in the East Midlands region of the UK. A total of 1014 individuals representing thirty seven carabid species were found during April to September in 2007 and 2008. On the landfill sites, generalist species were common, while no nationally rare or scarce species were found. Neither species richness nor diversity of carabid species was found to be different from that of the reference sites. Seeding during restoration was found to have a strong positive effect on richness and diversity, with seeded landfill sites tending to be similar to reference sites in terms of carabid species composition. Marked differences in diversity and richness were also attributed to variation in the amount of local vegetation cover, with presence of grassland in the surrounding landscape having a positive effect on carabid assemblages. We suggest that initial seeding may be an appropriate conservation strategy to improve beetle diversity and richness, coupled with management in terms of cutting to increase the potential of these sites for carabid conservation at the landscape scale.
The skylark (Alauda arvensis) lost half its number after it underwent a decade of rapid decline f... more The skylark (Alauda arvensis) lost half its number after it underwent a decade of rapid decline from the mid-1970s onwards and since then has continued to decline albeit at a reduced rate. Its listing as a UK Red-List and Biodiversity Action Plan (BAP) Priority Species has helped focus conservation action in an attempt to halt the decline and stabilise populations by restoring degraded habitats or by creating new habitats. Newly created grassland on restored landfill sites are semi-natural habitats that could potentially contribute to this process, however the extent to which these areas support breeding populations is unknown. Territory densities of breeding skylarks were studied on nine restored landfill sites in the East Midlands region of the UK during May to July 2008. The effects of restoration were investigated by examining how habitat quality, landscape factors and food resources determined territory densities. Mean vegetation height and size of sites were found to be significant predictors of the number of breeding skylarks at the local scale, whilst percentage of woodland, grassland and open habitat in the surrounding landscape had an influence at a larger scale. Mean larval and adult invertebrate abundance and species richness in skylark territories in restored landfill sites were found to be similar to that of reference sites of recognised nature conservation value. Restoration of landfill sites could be targeted toward speciesspecific goals since such sites could play a role in meeting targets for habitat and/or species restoration targets in the UK BAP.
It is clear that the majority of fl owering plants are pollinated by insects and other animals, w... more It is clear that the majority of fl owering plants are pollinated by insects and other animals, with a minority utilising abiotic pollen vectors, mainly wind. However there is no accurate published calculation of the proportion of the ca 352 000 species of angiosperms that interact with pollinators. Widely cited fi gures range from 67% to 96% but these have not been based on fi rm data. We estimated the number and proportion of fl owering plants that are pollinated by animals using published and unpublished community-level surveys of plant pollination systems that recorded whether each species present was pollinated by animals or wind. Th e proportion of animal-pollinated species rises from a mean of 78% in temperate-zone communities to 94% in tropical communities. By correcting for the latitudinal diversity trend in fl owering plants, we estimate the global number and proportion of animal pollinated angiosperms as 308 006, which is 87.5% of the estimated species-level diversity of fl owering plants. Given current concerns about the decline in pollinators and the possible resulting impacts on both natural communities and agricultural crops, such estimates are vital to both ecologists and policy makers. Further research is required to assess in detail the absolute dependency of these plants on their pollinators, and how this varies with latitude and community type, but there is no doubt that plant -pollinator interactions play a signifi cant role in maintaining the functional integrity of most terrestrial ecosystems.
Biodiversity conservation through restoring degraded habitats or creating new habitats is advocat... more Biodiversity conservation through restoring degraded habitats or creating new habitats is advocated in the UK Biodiversity Action Plan. Restored grasslands on capped landfill sites are semi-natural habitats that could potentially support a wide range of plant communities. However, it is unknown whether these re-created habitats represent a significant resource in terms of biodiversity conservation. The UK National Vegetation Classification (NVC) was used to study these communities on nine restored capped landfill sites together with paired reference sites in the East Midlands region of the UK during 2007. Plant species data were collected by random quadrats along two 100 m transects from each site. The effects of restoration were investigated by examining plant attributes and Ellenberg indicators on restored landfill sites in comparison to paired reference sites. A total of 170 plant species were found from both sets of sites. There were no significant differences for most of the plant attributes between restored landfill sites and reference sites, though reference sites had significantly higher mean frequencies of native plants, nationally decreasing species and perennial species. In total 26 broad NVC community types were identified of which more than 70% fell within mesotrophic grassland (MG). The diversity of NVC communities confirms that underlying environmental factors such as soil fertility are important, dictating the type of plant communities that exist. It is recommended that management of these capped landfill sites should be targeted towards specific NVC community types to meet conservation targets.
It is clear that the majority of fl owering plants are pollinated by insects and other animals, w... more It is clear that the majority of fl owering plants are pollinated by insects and other animals, with a minority utilising abiotic pollen vectors, mainly wind. However there is no accurate published calculation of the proportion of the ca 352 000 species of angiosperms that interact with pollinators. Widely cited fi gures range from 67% to 96% but these have not been based on fi rm data. We estimated the number and proportion of fl owering plants that are pollinated by animals using published and unpublished community-level surveys of plant pollination systems that recorded whether each species present was pollinated by animals or wind. Th e proportion of animal-pollinated species rises from a mean of 78% in temperate-zone communities to 94% in tropical communities. By correcting for the latitudinal diversity trend in fl owering plants, we estimate the global number and proportion of animal pollinated angiosperms as 308 006, which is 87.5% of the estimated species-level diversity of fl owering plants. Given current concerns about the decline in pollinators and the possible resulting impacts on both natural communities and agricultural crops, such estimates are vital to both ecologists and policy makers. Further research is required to assess in detail the absolute dependency of these plants on their pollinators, and how this varies with latitude and community type, but there is no doubt that plant -pollinator interactions play a signifi cant role in maintaining the functional integrity of most terrestrial ecosystems.
There has been a rapid decline of grassland bird species in the UK over the last four decades. In... more There has been a rapid decline of grassland bird species in the UK over the last four decades. In order to stem declines in biodiversity such as this, mitigation in the form of newly created habitat and restoration of degraded habitats is advocated in the UK biodiversity action plan. One potential restored habitat that could support a number of bird species is re-created grassland on restored landfill sites. However, this potential largely remains unexplored. In this study, birds were counted using point sampling on nine restored landfill sites in the East Midlands region of the UK during 2007 and 2008. The effects of restoration were investigated by examining bird species composition, richness, and abundance in relation to habitat and landscape structure on the landfill sites in comparison to paired reference sites of existing wildlife value. Twelve bird species were found in total and species richness and abundance on restored landfill sites was found to be higher than that of reference sites. Restored landfill sites support both common grassland bird species and also UK Red List bird species such as skylark Alauda arvensis, grey partridge Perdix perdix, lapwing Vanellus vanellus, tree sparrow, Passer montanus, and starling Sturnus vulgaris. Size of the site, percentage of bare soil and amount of adjacent hedgerow were found to be the most influential habitat quality factors for the distribution of most bird species. Presence of open habitat and crop land in the surrounding landscape were also found to have an effect on bird species composition. Management of restored landfill sites should be targeted towards UK Red List bird species since such sites could potentially play a significant role in biodiversity action planning.
Pollinators are declining in Europe due to intensification of agriculture, habitat loss and fragm... more Pollinators are declining in Europe due to intensification of agriculture, habitat loss and fragmentation. Restored landfill sites are a significant potential reserve of semi-natural habitat, so their conservation value for supporting populations of pollinating insects was here examined by assessing whether the plant and pollinator assemblages of restored landfill sites are comparable to reference sites of existing wildlife value. Floral characteristics of the vegetation and the species richness and abundance of flower-visiting insect assemblages were compared between nine pairs of restored landfill sites and reference sites in the East Midlands of the United Kingdom, using standardized methods over two field seasons. No differences were found between the restored landfill and reference sites in terms of species richness or abundance of plants in flower and both types of site had similar assemblages of pollinators. However, plant and insect assemblages differed across the season, with species richness and abundance being lower for the restored landfill sites in the spring and higher in the autumn compared to the reference sites. The results indicate that in this region, landfill sites are being restored to a state comparable to that of the reference sites with regards to their provision of floral resources and the associated insect pollinator assemblages. Since there are currently 2,200 working landfill sites in England and Wales, covering 28,000 ha, and closing at a rate of 100 per year, this is potentially a significant reserve of land that could be restored.
The skylark (Alauda arvensis) lost half its number after it underwent a decade of rapid decline f... more The skylark (Alauda arvensis) lost half its number after it underwent a decade of rapid decline from the mid-1970s onwards and since then has continued to decline albeit at a reduced rate. Its listing as a UK Red-List and Biodiversity Action Plan (BAP) Priority Species has helped focus conservation action in an attempt to halt the decline and stabilise populations by restoring degraded habitats or by creating new habitats. Newly created grassland on restored landfill sites are semi-natural habitats that could potentially ...
There has been a rapid decline of grassland bird species in the UK over the last four decades. In... more There has been a rapid decline of grassland bird species in the UK over the last four decades. In order to stem declines in biodiversity such as this, mitigation in the form of newly created habitat and restoration of degraded habitats is advocated in the UK biodiversity action plan. One potential restored habitat that could support a number of bird species is re-created grassland on restored landfill sites. However, this potential largely remains unexplored. In this study, birds were counted using point sampling on nine restored landfill sites in the East Midlands region of the UK during 2007 and 2008. The effects of restoration were investigated by examining bird species composition, richness, and abundance in relation to habitat and landscape structure on the landfill sites in comparison to paired reference sites of existing wildlife value. Twelve bird species were found in total and species richness and abundance on restored landfill sites was found to be higher than that of reference sites. Restored landfill sites support both common grassland bird species and also UK Red List bird species such as skylark Alauda arvensis, grey partridge Perdix perdix, lapwing Vanellus vanellus, tree sparrow, Passer montanus, and starling Sturnus vulgaris. Size of the site, percentage of bare soil and amount of adjacent hedgerow were found to be the most influential habitat quality factors for the distribution of most bird species. Presence of open habitat and crop land in the surrounding landscape were also found to have an effect on bird species composition. Management of restored landfill sites should be targeted towards UK Red List bird species since such sites could potentially play a significant role in biodiversity action planning.
Grassland Restoration on Landfill Sites in the East Midlands, United Kingdom: An Evaluation of Floral Resources and Pollinating Insects
Pollinators are declining in Europe due to intensification of agriculture, habitat loss and fragm... more Pollinators are declining in Europe due to intensification of agriculture, habitat loss and fragmentation. Restored landfill sites are a significant potential reserve of semi-natural habitat, so their conservation value for supporting populations of pollinating insects was here examined by assessing whether the plant and pollinator assemblages of restored landfill sites are comparable to reference sites of existing wildlife value. Floral characteristics of the vegetation and the species richness and abundance of flower-visiting insect assemblages were compared between nine pairs of restored landfill sites and reference sites in the East Midlands of the United Kingdom, using standardized methods over two field seasons. No differences were found between the restored landfill and reference sites in terms of species richness or abundance of plants in flower and both types of site had similar assemblages of pollinators. However, plant and insect assemblages differed across the season, with species richness and abundance being lower for the restored landfill sites in the spring and higher in the autumn compared to the reference sites. The results indicate that in this region, landfill sites are being restored to a state comparable to that of the reference sites with regards to their provision of floral resources and the associated insect pollinator assemblages. Since there are currently 2,200 working landfill sites in England and Wales, covering 28,000 ha, and closing at a rate of 100 per year, this is potentially a significant reserve of land that could be restored.
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