Island Biogeography

Salt domes are geological features that occur when areas of salt deposits are pressured into layers above them, causing dome shaped distortions in horizontal strata. In some instances, the distortions protrude above flat areas of land or else appear underwater as seamounts. In the case of the five Louisiana salt dome hills considered in this article, their distinct elevation above the swampy bayous and flatlands surrounding them has led to their characterisation as islands by indigenous Atakapa-Ishak peoples and by subsequent Francophone and Anglophone settlers. The article considers the ways in which the five salt domes' islandness has been perceived, enhanced and/or undermined by various local inhabitants and/or the commercial operations that have operated on them. Discussion of these aspects involves consideration of the manner in which the salt dome islands' islandness is mutable and complex, particularly with regard to human impacts. This mutability is discussed with regard to both individual island placenames and the islands' overall designations.

Damnoni cave is a Mesolithic site located on the southwest side of Crete, in the Rethymnon district. The site was found by a targeted survey method used with success in the Kandia region of the East Peloponnese.  In this method, Mesolithic sites are located by exploring
coastal areas with abundant fresh water, south-facing limestone caves, and nearby coasts with very steep bathymetry. While the importance of factors like fresh water may be obvious, the final factor is especially important; if the bathymetry is gradual, the Mesolithic sites would have been closer to the modern shore and inundated by the ever-rising sea levels since the last glacial maximum. At Damnoni, however, the subduction of the African tectonic plate under the European forces the White Mountains of west Crete dramatically up. Consequently, the bathymetric drop-off is 100 meters within a short distance from the shore at Damnoni. The region around Plakias, and specifically around the Damnoni Bay, fits all the environmental  criteria for a Mesolithic site, and, in fact, the Plakias Mesolithic Surveydiscovered early Holocene tools in front of the cave in 2008.The survey, having met with such extraordinary success, moved on to the excavation phase in 2011. This paper presents the excavation method and the preliminary results of both the 2011 and 2013 field seasons.

Page 1. BiologicalJournal ofthe Linnean SocieQ (1999), 66: 373-410. With 12 figures Article ID: bijl. 1998.0285, available online at http://www.idcalibrary.com on 10 Ekl Effect of island geological age on the arthropod species richness of Azorean pastures PAUL0 AV BORGES* ...

This collection of papers is the result of research conducted in the Väinameri area since 1992. Around forty islands have been studied with abundant information accumulated about their landscapes, flora, and fauna. Some of the material has previously been published but mostly the material has remained in the field diaries of the participants and short reports written to the Estonian Environment Investment Centre which has supported the activities including publishing this book. Its aim is to make the material available to a wider public, especially since a generation shift among the researchers is imminent and thus a danger of the results simply being forgotten is real. This is the first attempt to systematically present material about these islands as previous to these fieldtrips very little was known and their research history was limited to occasional notes about the birdlife and vegetation. The authors would also like this book to encourage others to explore and examine these small plots of land surrounded by the sea. As all the researchers agree, the area is in constant change and provides surprises, exciting discoveries and deserves care. We believe that better knowledge also helps to protect this particular part of Estonian nature, not forgetting the part that human beings have played in establishing its diversity.

We investigated the role of geographical insularity in divergence and speciation of Procolobus kirkii by examining cranial morphology. The sample (n= 369) included museum specimens of Procolobus spp. and recently deceased individuals of P. kirkii from the main island of Zanzibar and 2 smaller islands in the archipelago. Geometric morphometrics evinced pronounced divergence of Procolobus kirkii from mainland Procolobus, including members of P. badius ssp., P. pennantii ssp., P. rufomitratus, P. gordonorum and also representatives of the assemblage of red colobus populations from Central Equatorial Africa. Procolobus kirkii has a small cranium, consistent with the island rule for large mammals, reduced sexual dimorphism consistent with Rensch’s rule, and a distinct cranial form. Analyses of phenotypic variance of Procolobus kirkii gave no evidence for population bottlenecks in the history of the species, but there is a clear indication that the species has experienced accelerated morphological evolution of size, probably as a result of insularity. Their highly distinctive morphology lends weight to the argument that they are a unique insular endemic species in need of active conservation.

The almiquí (Solenodon cubanus) is a venomous, 1 kg mammal nearly unchanged since the extinction of the dinosaurs and classified as endangered by the IUCN (International Union for the Conservation of Nature).  One of the only mammalian species endemic to the Caribbean to survive human colonization, the solenodon currently lacks significant conservation attention due to a lack of biological and ecological data and the strained diplomatic relations between Cuba and prominent Western nations, particularly the United States.  With U.S.-Cuban political ties improving, now is a crucial time to formulate and implement substantial conservation measures to save this unique species from extinction.  I developed a preliminary conservation plan based on research and analysis of a wide range of primary and secondary sources.  Through international cooperation combined with local efforts to conserve vital habitat, counter the negative effects of invasive predators, and monitoring of climatic changes, it seems feasible that the almiquí population can be stabilized and kept from spiraling into extinction.  Protection for this species should be prioritized due to its unique evolutionary history, endangered status, and niche as the native apex predator in its ecosystem.

Solomon Islands are the third-largest archipelago in the South Pacific, consisting of about 1,000 islands. The majority of people live on the six largest islands and the most populous are Malaita and Guadalcanal islands where the capital Honiara is situated. The composition of islands includes high volcanic islands, volcanic limestone islands and atoll islands where agricultural activities are limited to the more favorable topography of the coastal areas and the climate is hot and wet with lowland forest vegetation. Being categorized as a developing country the country’s economy mostly depend on various agricultural activities including modern and traditional system of farming. This essay focus on discussing the impacts of cultivation of oil palm, cocoa, plantation forestry, cutting of virgin forest, cattle farming on the terrestrial and freshwater biodiversity, traditional poly-cultural subsistence agricultural systems, hunting and gathering systems, the economy and the culture of Solomon Islands.

This review highlights climate change and its drivers, impacts, and mitigation and adaptation options in Ethiopia. Both climate variability and change have been occurring in Ethiopia. Evidences show that since 1960 the mean annual temperature of the country has risen by about 1.3°C, an average rate of 0.28°C per decade, and spatial and temporal rainfall variability has been increasing. As such, Ethiopia has been experiencing the impacts of both climate variability and change. Climate change has led to recurrent droughts and famines, flooding, expansion of desertification, loss of wetlands, loss of biodiversity, decline in agricultural production and productivity, shortage of water, and increased incidence of pests and diseases such as spread of cereal stemborers and malaria to higher elevation areas. On the other hand, Ethiopia has shown both conservation and policy responses to combat climate change. Protected area systems, afforestation and reforestation programmes, renewable energy sources and energy efficiency, ecological agriculture, flexible livestock production, homegardens and traditional agroforestry systems, harvesting and use/marketing of non-timber forest products and climate change education, are all feasible strategies for mitigating and adapting climate change. Indeed, there is a need to employ the right mix of climate change mitigation and adaptation strategies prioritized in space and time so as to reduce vulnerability of biodiversity and humanity to the escalating impacts of climate change. To this end, capacity building should be a priority. Moreover, there is a need to collaborate with the international community to combat climate change, which is a global challenge.

The aim of this review is to highlight the roles of tourism/ecotourism in conservation and development in Ethiopia. Tourism industry is currently emerging as one of the most important economic sectors in the world. In 2013, tourism accounted for 6 % of the world's overall exports, 9.1 % of the employment (1 in 11 jobs) and 9 % of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP). In line with the growth of international tourism, the tourism industry in Ethiopia is now growing fast. Indeed, there is a great potential for the development of the tourism industry in Ethiopia. Ethiopia has many remarkable natural, historical and cultural tourist attractions. It is one of the most important tourist destinations in the world. International tourist arrivals in Ethiopia increased from 138,856 in 1997 to 596,341 in 2012. Tourism receipts (revenues) also increased from USD 43 million in 1997 to USD 1.2 billion in 2012. Tourism is, generally, with minimum impacts on the environment. Moreover, tourism contributes to the conservation and management of natural, historical and cultural resources. Some of the revenues generated from tourism can be used (should be used) for conservation of biodiversity (establishment and management of protected areas, greening landscapes), preservation and restoration of historical and cultural resources and raising the environmental awareness of residents and visitors. Tourism significantly contributes to the local and national economy. In 2011, tourism accounted for 6.6 % of the overall export. In 2012, tourism generated over 700,000 jobs and accounted for 2.29 % of the GDP. Therefore, tourism plays a great role in natural and cultural heritage conservation and socioeconomic development. Ethiopia needs to promote sustainable tourism including ecotourism. On the other hand, if tourism is not properly planned and managed, tourism development can lead to negative economic, socio-cultural and environmental impacts. Tourism development in Ethiopia should be based on the principles of sustainability-social equity, economic efficiency and environmental sustainability. Sustainable tourism maximizes the benefits of tourism and minimizes its negative impacts. Ethiopian tourism, through effective policy and plans, is expected to make major progress in the future.

Aim The origins of islands influence island colonization and radiation dynamics,
thus exerting differential selection pressures on the species that inhabit
them. The occurrence of lower numbers of predator and competitor species on
islands than the mainland selects for ‘slow’ life-history attributes (the ‘island
syndrome’). Animals colonizing, and radiating on, oceanic islands probably
face more novel environments than do those inhabiting continental fragment
and land-bridge islands. We hypothesized that oceanic island endemics will
show the slowest life histories, whereas land-bridge island species will resemble
mainland species the most. We predicted that species on old, small and isolated
islands will also have slow life histories.
Location World-wide.
Methods We assembled life-history data for 540 mainland and 319 insular
endemic lizard species. We tested whether clutch size, brood frequency, hatchling
mass and productivity differed between islands of different origin and
between islands and the mainland. We controlled for female size, for latitude
and for phylogenetic relationship using the R package caper. In addition, we
tested the influences of island age, area and isolation on species life histories.
Results Oceanic island endemics have the smallest clutches and the largest offspring,
and, together with continental fragment island endemics, lay most frequently.
Clutch size, brood frequency and productivity increase with increasing
island age. Isolation and area have little effect on lizard life history.
Main conclusions Our findings support the proposition that selection pressure
differs across island type. The predator-poor environments on oceanic
islands select for few, large offspring, while the predator-rich environments of
the mainland and land-bridge islands select for many, small offspring. Island
geological origin creates the environment within which evolution takes place,
and thus plays a major role in life-history evolution. As islands grow older, lizards
adapt by increasing their yearly reproductive effort.
Keywords
Evolution, island biogeography, island endemism, island syndrome, island
type, life history, lizards, reproduction.

Background: The Philippine archipelago is globally one of the most important model island systems for studying evolutionary processes. However, most plant species on this archipelago have not yet been studied in sufficient detail. The main aim of this study is to unravel the evolutionary history and biogeographic relationships of the Philippine members of the pantropical genus Ixora.
Results: The complex plastid and nuclear divergence patterns in Philippine Ixora, documented using tree and network approaches, reveal a highly dynamic evolution in Ixora, involving several phases of radiation and recolonization. Philippine Ixora comprises at least five lineages, of which one is most closely related to species from Wallacea, and the remaining four to species from Asia.
Conclusions: Our study highlights the importance of Philippine species for understanding phytogeographic patterns in the Indomalayan-Australasian eco-region. The overall genetic differentiation, as well as the incongruence between genealogies based on the biparentally inherited nucleome and the maternally inherited plastome in Ixora, reflect the complex tectonic history of the Philippine archipelago. The Ixora lineage related to Wallacean species supports the delimitation of different ecozones along Huxley’s line, because it is absent from Palawan. The remaining four lineages are all allied with Asian taxa, reflecting several waves of colonization. Close relationships between some widespread Philippine species and locally adapted narrow endemics suggest that the widespread, genetically diverse species act as pools for the formation of new species in a process of ongoing speciation. Our results suggest that the species concepts of some of the more widespread taxa need to be revised.

Knowledge of biodiversity in the past, and the timing, nature, and drivers of human-induced ecological change, is important for gaining deep time perspectives and for modern conservation efforts. The Marquesas Islands (Polynesia) are one of the world's most remote archipelagos and illustrate the vulnerability of indigenous bioscapes to anthropogenic activities. Characterised by high levels of endemism across many biotic groups, the full spectrum of the group's flora and fauna is nonetheless incompletely known. Several centuries of Polynesian settlement reshaped biotic communities in ways that are not yet fully understood, and historically-introduced mammalian herbivores have devastated the indigenous lowland flora. We report here on archaeological recovery of a diverse assemblage of plant and arthropod subfossils from a waterlogged deposit on the largest Marquesan island: Nuku Hiva. These materials offer new perspectives on the composition of lowland plant and arthropod communities pene-contemporaneous with human arrival. Bayesian analysis of multiple 14 C results from short-lived materials date the assemblages to the mid-12 th century AD (1129-1212 cal. AD, 95.4% HPD). Evidence for human activities in the catchment coincident with deposit formation includes Polynesian associated arthropods, microcharcoal, and an adzed timber. Plant macrofossils (seeds, fruits, vegetative structures) and microfossils (pollen, phytoliths) reveal coastal and lowland wet-moist forest communities unlike those observed today. Several apparently extinct taxa are identified, along with extant taxa currently constrained to high altitude and/or interior areas. A diverse inventory of subfossil arthropods-the first pre-18 th century records for the islands-includes more than 100 distinct taxa, with several new archipelago records and one previously unreported for eastern Polynesia. The assemblages provide new insights into lowland Marquesan forest communities coincident with human arrival, and portend the considerable anthropogenic transformations that followed. These records also have implications for human colonisation of the Marquesas Islands and East Polynesia at large.

Rewilding aims at maintaining or even increasing biodiversity through the restoration of ecological and evolutionary processes using extant keystone species or ecological replacements of extinct keystone species that drive these processes. It is hailed by some as the most exciting and promising conservation strategy to slow down or stop what is considered to be the greatest mass extinction of species since the extinction of the dinosaurs 65 million years ago.
Rewilding has clearly gained the most traction in North America and Europe, which have several key features in common. Both regions have recently experienced a spontaneous return of wildlife. Rewilders on both sides of the Atlantic are, however, aware that this wildlife resurgence is not that impressive, given that we are in the midst of the ‘sixth mass extinction’, that is characterized by the loss of large-bodied animals known as ‘megafauna’. Their common goal is to bring back such megafaunal species because of their importance for maintaining and enhancing biodiversity. Lastly, both North American and European rewilders perceive the extinction crisis through the lens of the ‘island theory’ that shows that the number of species in an area depends on its size and degree of isolation – hence their special attention to the spatial aspects of rewilding.
But rewilding projects on both sides of the Atlantic not only have much in common, they also differ in certain aspects. North American rewilders have adopted the late Pleistocene as reference period and have emphasized the role of predation by large carnivores, while European rewilders have opted for the mid-Holocene and put more focus on naturalistic grazing by large herbivores.

Aim Island taxa often attain forms outside the range achieved by mainland relatives. Body size evolution of vertebrates on islands has therefore received much attention, with two seemingly conflicting patterns thought to prevail:(1) islands harbour animals of extreme size, and (2) islands promote evolution towards medium body size ('the island rule'). We test both hypotheses using body size distributions of mammal, lizard and bird species.

The Zanzibar leopard (Panthera pardus adersi) is (was) a little-known subspecies endemic to Unguja island. Rapid population growth and the expansion of farming in the twentieth century destroyed leopard habitat and decimated their natural prey, bringing them into increasing conflict with people. Villagers explained the growing number of attacks on their children and livestock by supposing that the leopards responsible for them were owned by witches and sent by them to do harm. Following the Zanzibar Revolution in 1964, localised efforts to act on this theory culminated in an island-wide leopard eradication and witch-finding campaign, supported by the government. By the 1990s state-subsidised hunting had brought the leopard to the brink of extinction, and most zoologists now presume it to be extinct. However, many islanders believe that leopard keepers are still active in rural Unguja and sightings of leopards continue to be reported. Beguiled by such narratives, visiting researchers and local conservationists have continued to pursue these elusive felids. In this paper we describe and analyse a series of unsuccessful “kept leopard chases”, including abortive calls by government officials for the capture and display of domesticated leopards. These quixotic efforts show no signs of abating, and the underlying conflicts of knowledge and practice remain unresolved, posing a challenge to the theory and practice of conservation not only in Zanzibar but also further afield.

... Habitat fragmentation affects different species in different ways. ... generalist predators, competitors, or brood parasites in the vicinity of edges often impact forest birds ([Gates and ... Edge effects alter many aspects of the structure, microclimate, dynamics, and species composition of ...

"Holocene sediments from the ria of Burmarrad (western Malta) provide a record of changing geomorphology, relative sea-level rise and human impacts. Chronostratigraphic evidence attests to a fluvial-dominated upper estuarine environment between ~7500 cal. BP and ~7000 cal. BP, with increasing salinity linked to rising postglacial sea level. The shift to amarine setting is dated to ~7000 cal. BP, characterized by awave-dominated coastline that accreted up until ~4000 cal. BP. During the maximum marine ingression, the Burmarrad floodplain formed a vast 1.8 km2 marine bay, ~3000 m long by ~650 m wide, whose environmental potentiality presented
western Malta's early societies with amultiplicity of coastal, terrestrial, and fluvial resources, in addition to a low energy context favourable to the anchoring of boats. Rapid human-induced sedimentation means that by the Bronze Age, the palaeobay had been reduced by ~40% compared to its mid-
Holocene maximum. The final morphogenetic phase constitutes fluvial silts and sands that began accreting after 2700 cal. BP. During Punic/Roman times, the ria bay was ~1 km2, andwas flanked to the south by a well developed deltaic plain providing fertile land for agriculture. Today, the ria is ~60% smaller than it was 7000 years ago."

The use of islands as ‘model systems’ has become particularly relevant for examining a host of important issues in archaeology and other disciplines. As papers in this special issue of the Journal of Island and Coastal Archaeology demonstrate, islands can serve as critical and ideal analytical platforms for observing human populations in the past and their evolutionary histories within complex and insular human ecodynamics. In this paper we address the issue of how islands are also important models for future sustainability and as corollaries for the survival of humans generally. In a sense, island cultures and ecosystems can be seen as microcosms of the issues we have faced as humans, and provide important insights for understanding the fate of our species, particularly as it pertains to the exploration and colonization of new worlds.

This paper explores how the Ramsar Convention, a key multilateral environmental agreement for the world’s wetlands, influences the allocation and use of ecosystem goods and services. Focusing on the world’s second largest uninhabited mangrove island, Pulau Kukup, this study illustrates the social and ecological risks and opportunities surrounding protected wetlands. Interviews with, and observations of, nearby communities reveal that Pulau Kukup has continued to render regulatory, cultural, provisioning and supporting ecosystem services under different governance regimes and institutional arrangements. Under the current governance regime, national conservation agencies focus largely on conservation and have struggled to implement the principles of wise use as specified by the Ramsar Convention. Nevertheless, such strict local (formal) conservation rules restricting public access have improved the ecological integrity of the mangrove island, with little negative impact on the locals.  While restrictions in access may be seen as a trade-off for local communities wishing to pursue cultural activities, tourism linked to the island’s Ramsar designation has boosted the local economy. Despite these benefits, changes in property rights and growing influxes of tourists visiting the protected wetland may affect the long-term ecological integrity and the balance between wetlands, communities, livelihood options, and sustainability. Such challenges demand governance that recognises and responds to these emerging issues.   
Keywords: Wetlands, local community, resource regimes, intergovernmental, trade-offs