Storia e Teoria Della Coralità
Storia e Teoria Della Coralità
Storia e Teoria Della Coralità
POLIFONIE
Storia e teoria della coralit
History and theory of choral music
I, 1
2001
Fondazione Guido dArezzo
POLIFONIE
Storia e teoria della coralit
History and theory of choral music
Saggi / Articles
FRANCESCO FACCHIN
Si cantas, male cantas: si legis, cantas. Primi sondaggi 7
per una riflessione sulleducazione vocale . . . . . . . . .
Si cantas, male cantas: si legis, cantas. First soundings
towards a reflection on vocal education. . . . . . . . . . . 45
IVANO CAVALLINI
Linguarum non est praestantior ulla latina: le Har-
monie morales di Jakob Handl Gallus e il latino a
Praga nel XVI secolo. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Linguarum non est praestantior ulla latina: the
Harmonie morales of Jakob Handl Gallus and Latin
in sixteenth-century Prague . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
GABRIELE GIACOMELLI
Uninedita messa di Marco da Gagliano e le sue sre-
golate bellezze . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
An unpublished mass by Marco da Gagliano and its
disordered beauties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Interventi / Discussions
RODOBALDO TIBALDI
La musica sacra italiana del XVII secolo: riflessioni e
considerazioni su alcune recenti edizioni moderne. . . 133
Italian sacred music of the 17th century: some reflec-
tions and thoughts about several recent modern
editions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Libri, musica e siti internet / Books, music and web
*Cesare Augusto,
espressione attribuitagli
da MARCO FABIO QUINTILIANO,
Institutio Oratoria, I/VIII, 2
7
F R A N C E S C O FA C C H I N
8
S I C A N TA S , M A L E C A N TA S
9
F R A N C E S C O FA C C H I N
segue dunque limpulso del cuore che principio della vita cos come la voce
la sua manifestazione. Guglielmo Bilancioni spiega il significato di tale raf-
figurazione allinterno del vasto mosaico: Dio ha in suo potere il cuore del-
luomo, ne possiede lanima, rappresenta pertanto la volont, la quale signo-
reggia dispotica i nostri sensi, le facolt dellanima e ogni membro del nostro
corpo. Cos il gesto della mano dellEterno che nella basilica classense affio-
ra fra le nubi dellempireo sarebbe restato muto, se non supplisse il disegno
schematizzato che mostra come il moto della mano segua la voce-parola divi-
na, indicando ai fedele il sublime Figliolo.1 Pi tardi Dante, nella Comme-
dia, render assolutamente muta solo una categoria di dannati: gli indovini e
fattucchieri condannati a camminare con il collo torto di 180 gradi, cosicch
non soltanto non possono vedere innanzi a s, ma anche impedito loro di
parlare. A tale proposito ancora il Bilancioni precisa che, ammessa una tor-
sione del collo di 180 gradi, il tubo laringo-tracheale dovrebbe risultare for-
temente stenotico; quindi produrre una forte riduzione del passaggio daria
che renderebbe faticosa la respirazione. Motivo questo che non solo allo-
rigine della necessit di questi dannati di procedere lentamente, ma anche
causa dellimpotenza funzionale della voce principalmente proprio per lin-
sufficiente pressione dellaria: il fenomeno fisio-patologico ha il suo equi-
valente senso morale: chi ostent parola profetica e si arrog di prevedere e
di predire, viene punito nel vedere e nel dire.2
Certo, allepoca di Dante, le conoscenze di anatomia e fisiologia della
voce e dei suoi organi non erano di molto superiori a quelle tramandate dagli
studi di Galeno; ne dobbiamo dimenticare che lo studio su osservazioni
autoptiche era ancora molto difficile: il medico Mondino de Liuzzi, coevo di
Dante e docente nello studio bolognese, menziona le autopsie di una scrofa
(1305) e di due donne (1315).3 Rimane tuttavia rilevante la sottile attenzione
che anche Dante dedica al fenomeno sonoro della voce e della respirazione
che lo accompagna.
1
GUGLIELMO BILANCIONI, A buon cantor buon citarista, Roma, Formiggini, 1932, pp. 282-284;
ID., Lorgano della voce in uno dei mosaici di S. Apollinare in Classe, Il Valsalva, IV, 1928,
pp. 85-90.
2
BILANCIONI, A buon cantor cit., pp. 294-295.
3
Ivi, pp. 295-303.
10
S I C A N TA S , M A L E C A N TA S
4
CICERONE, De Oratore, III, 224: [] quae primum est optanda nobis; deinde, quaecumque
erit, ea tuenda; ho utilizzato: MARCO TULLIO CICERONE, Loratore. Con un saggio introdutti-
vo di Emanuele Narducci, traduzioni a cura di Mario Martina, Marina Ogrin, Ilaria Torzi e
Giovanna Cettuzzi, Milano, BUR, 19995.
11
F R A N C E S C O FA C C H I N
5
CICERONE, De Oratore, III, 216-217, 218, 219, 220-221: omnis enim motus animi suum
quendam a natura habet voltum et sonum et gestum; corpusque totum hominis et eius omnis
voltus onmesque voces, ut nervi in fidibus, ita sonant, ut motu animi quoque sunt pulsae. nam
voces ut chordae sunt intentae, quae ad quemque tactum respondeant, acuta, gravis, cita, tarda,
magna, parva; quas tamen inter omnis est suo quaeque in genere mediocris. atque etiam illa
sunt ab his delapsa plura genera leve, asperum, contractum, diffusum, continenti spiritu, inter-
misso, fractum, scissum flexo sono extenuatum, inflatum. nullum est enim horum generum,
quod non arte ac moderatione tractetur. hi sunt actori, ut pictori, expositi ad variandum colo-
res. aliud enim vocis genus iracundia sibi sumat, acutum, incitatum, [] LVIII. aliud misera-
tio ac maeror, flexibile, plenum, interruptum, flebili voce [] aliud metus, demissum et hae-
sitans et abiectum [] aliud vis, contentum, vehemens, imminens quadam incitatione gravi-
tatis [] aliud volumtas effusum et tenerum, hilaratum ac remissum [] aliud molestia, sine
commiseratione grave quoddam et uno pressu ac sono abductum []. LIX. Omnis autem hos
motus subsequi debet gestus, non hic verba exprimens scaenicus, sed universam rem et sen-
tentiam non demonstratione sed significatione declarans, laterum inflexione hac forti ac virili,
non ab scaena et histrionibus, sed ab armis aut etiam a palestra. Manus autem minus arguta,
digitis subsequens verba, non exprimens; bracchium procerius proiectum quasi quoddam
telum orationis; supplosio pedis in contentionibus aut incipiendis aut finiendis.
12
S I C A N TA S , M A L E C A N TA S
6
QUINTILIANO, Institutio oratoria, XI, III, 61-65: [] sonatque vox ut feritur; sed cum sint
alii veri adfectus, alii ficti et imitati; veri naturaliter erumpunt, ut dolentium, irascentium, indi-
gnantium, sed carent arte ideoque sunt disciplina et ratione formandi. Contra qui effinguntur
imitatione, arte habent; sed hi carent natura, ideoque in iis primum est bene adfici et concipe-
re imagines rerum et tamquam veris moveri. Sic velut media vox, quem habitum a nostris
acceperit, hunc iudicum animis dabit: est enim mentis index ac totidem quot illa mutationes
habet. Itaque laetis in rebus plena et simplex et ipsa quodam modo hilaris et velut omnibus ner-
vis intenditur. Atrox in ira aspera ac densa et respiratione crebra: neque enim potest esse lon-
gus spiritus cum immoderate effunditur. Paulum <in> inuidia facienda lentior, quia non fere
ad hanc nisi inferiores confugiunt; at in blandiendo, fatendo, satisfaciendo, rogando lenis et
summissa. Suadentium et monentium et pollicentium et consolantium grauis; in metu et uere-
condia contracta, ad hortationibus fortis, disputationibus teres, miseratione flexa et flebilis et
consulto quasi obscurior; at in egressionibus fusa et securae claritatis; inexpositione ac ser-
monibus recta et inter acutum sonum et grauem media. Attollitur autem concitati adfectibus,
compositis descendit, pro utriusque rei modo altius uel inferius. Dellopera di Quintiliano ho
utilizzato ledizione MARCO FABIO QUINTILIANO, La formazione delloratore, trad. dei libri I-
IV di Michael Winterbottom, note di Stefano Corsi, trad. e note dei libri IX-XI di Cesare
Marco Calcante, Milano, Rizzoli, 1997 (Classici della BUR).
7
QUINTILIANO, Institutio oratoria, XI, III, 65: [] ut de gestu prius dicam, qui et ipse uoci
consentit et animo cum ea simul paret.
13
F R A N C E S C O FA C C H I N
8
MARCO VITRUVIO POLLIONE, De Architettura, in I dieci libri dellarchitettura di M. Vitruvio,
tradotti et commentati da Mons. Daniel Barbaro eletto Patriarca dAquileia, da lui riveduti et
ampliati; et hora in pi commoda forma ridotti, Venezia, Francesco de Franceschi e Giovan-
ni Chrieger Allemanno Compagni, 1567, Libro V, capp. III-V. Edizione consultata VITRUVIO,
I dieci libri dellarchitettura tradotti e commentati da Daniele Barbaro 1567, con un saggio
di Manfredo Tafuri e uno studio di Manuela Morresi, Milano, Polifilo, 1987.
9
Si veda in BILANCIONI, A buon cantor cit., pp. 296-297; VITRUVIO, I dieci libri dellarchitet-
tura, pp. 227-247 e 274-277; Il Vitruvio Magliabechiano di Francesco di Giorgio Martini, a
cura di Giustina Scaglia, Firenze, Gonnelli, 1985, pp. 162-164.
14
S I C A N TA S , M A L E C A N TA S
10
Un esempio di alterazione delleloquio da stress stato osservato in bambini di et presco-
lare che reagiscono con il mutacismo totale o parziale. In questo caso vi una riduzione impor-
tante dellampiezza del suono.
11
AMLETO BASSI, I disturbi della voce in et evolutiva, Rivista di psicologia, LVII, 1973, pp.
3-12: 5.
12
PIO ENRICO RICCI BITTI, Le emozioni e la loro esteriorizzazione, in Regolazione delle emo-
zioni e arti-terapie, a cura di Pio Enrico Ricci Bitti, Roma, Carrocci, 1998, pp. 15-28: 21.
15
F R A N C E S C O FA C C H I N
verbalit e dalla mimica facciale, questo aspetto, assieme alle diverse postu-
re del corpo, rappresenta un mezzo di segnalazione delle emozioni e parteci-
pa alla comunicazione dello stato emotivo. Esistono gesti che non sono pro-
dotti allo scopo di comunicare, bens di regolare lo stato emotivo provato:
sono i gesti di adattamento. La postura, sebbene da sola non possa esprimere
unemozione, partecipa associandosi agli altri indici e lungo la dimensione
tensione/rilassamento, segnala lintensit del grado di attivazione emoziona-
le.13
Scopo di queste osservazioni da parte dei retori quello di indicare al
discente proprio le diverse modalit di comunicazione, rinviando per la tec-
nica allesempio di maestri che sappiano riprodurre ad arte tali espressioni.
Il fine di raggiungere unefficace esposizione (actio) che manifesti le emo-
zioni, perch queste, le emozioni, sono uguali per tutti, e si riconoscono
negli altri in base agli stessi segni con cui si manifestano in ognuno di noi.14
Tra gli aspetti legati alleducazione della voce oggi noi riconosciamo
unimportante distinzione tra voce e parola, ossia tra la realt fisico-sonora e
quella generata dalla possibilit di articolare il suono prodotto dalla laringe
per realizzare strutture dotate di significato, ma tale distinzione non fu
coscientemente manifesta fino agli studi di Galeno. Egli comp i primi impor-
tanti studi anatomici e di fisiopatologia attorno al fenomeno voce con esperi-
menti in vivo attraverso i quali scopr non solo i nervi che permettono i vari
movimenti della laringe, e tra questi il nervo ricorrente, ma anche il loro
decorrere dallencefalo.
Discorso a parte meriterebbe unanalisi pi approfondita sulluso della
maschera (persona)15 da parte degli attori nella tragedia greca. A tale riguar-
do Cicerone avverte che gi gli antenati, avevano capito che nella comuni-
cazione era fondamentale lespressione del viso, giacch essi non applaudi-
vano molto neppure Roscio se portava sul viso la maschera.16 A tale riguar-
do possibile rilevare che se questo elemento, nel coprire il volto dellatto-
re, toglie da una parte forza allespressione attraverso la mimica facciale e
13
PIO ENRICO RICCI BITTI - MICHAEL ARGYLE - DINO GIOVANNINI, JEAN GRAHAM, La comunicazio-
ne di due dimensioni delle emozioni attraverso indici facciali corporei, Giornale italiano di psi-
cologia, VI, 1979, pp. 341-350. Cfr. anche EMANUELA MAGNO CALDOGNETTO, La gestualit
coverbale in soggetti normali e afasici, in ISABELLA POGGI - EMANUELA MAGNO CALDOGNETTO,
Mani che parlano. Gesti e psicologia della comunicazione, Padova, Unipress, 1997, pp. 107-120.
14
CICERONE, De Oratore, III, 223: Actio, quae prae se motum animi fert, omnis movet; isdem
enim omnium animi motibus concitantur et eos isdem notis et in aliis agnoscunt et in se ipsi indi-
cant.
15
Gi letimo della parola: (per-sonare) chiarifica la sua funzione di emettere suoni per suo tra-
mite.
16
CICERONE, De Oratore, III, 221: [] quo melius nostri illi senes, qui personatum ne Roscium
quidem magno opere laudabant.
16
S I C A N TA S , M A L E C A N TA S
Tuttavia gli aspetti delleducazione della voce qui indagati non si esaurisco-
no, n sono limitati al rapporto con i diversi atteggiamenti che consentono ed
enfatizzano lespressione delle emozioni; anzi questi costituiscono il momen-
to di inizio nel rappresentare il grado di interesse primario per lo sviluppo
delle abilit vocali.
Il fine delleducazione vocale del giovane nel mondo greco-romano era,
in quanto acquisizione del linguaggio e della comprensione delle frasi, non
separabile dallesercizio orale della recitazione dei testi e leloquenza era
parte necessaria per il successo politico e quindi sociale. Cos il lavoro sulla
propria voce era parte della formazione scolare e dellesercizio del retore,
domestica exercitatio che permette di sperimentare lo charme della voce
sugli uditori,17 perch cosa pi piacevole per le nostre orecchie e pi con-
veniente a rendere gradevole lactio, dellalternanza, della variet e del muta-
mento di tono?.18
Tra gli studi relativi allargomento qui trattato, interessanti approcci si
devono ad Aline Rousselle che ha investigato gli aspetti inerenti larte orato-
ria19 e a Emiel Eyben alla quale si deve invece un contributo relativo alla
visione della pubert nellantichit.20 Gi nel ginnasio il giovane greco
accompagnava gli esercizi con la voce, con lemissione del suono. Erano noti
gli aspetti fisiologici dellemissione vocale: dalla chiusura della glottide per
sviluppare maggior forza e la ritenzione dellaria, allestremo dellespressio-
ne vocale; il grido o il canto spinto, di forza, cos come il ruolo di questo
sistema per facilitare tutti gli aspetti biologici legati allespulsione. Per tale
17
CICERONE, De Oratore, I, 157: Educenda deinde dictio est ex hac domestica exercitatione
et umbratili medio in agmen, in pulverem, in clamorem, in castra atque in aciem forensem,
subendus visus omnium et periclitandae vires ingenii, et illa commentatio inclusa in veritatis
lucem proferenda est.
18
CICERONE, De Oratore, III, 225: Quid, ad aures nostras et actionis suavitatem quid est vicis-
situdine et varietate et commutatione aptius?.
19
ALINE ROUSSELLE, Parole et inspiration: le travail de la voix dans le monde romain, History
and Philosophy of the Life Sciences, V, n. 2, 1983, pp. 129-157.
20
EMIEL EYBEN, Antiquitys View of Puberty, in Actes du colloque international sur la carto-
graphie archologique et historique (Paris, Institut Pdagogique National, 24-16 janvier
1970), Latomus, XXXI, 1972, pp. 678-697.
17
F R A N C E S C O FA C C H I N
motivo latto dellemissione del suono, o della non emissione, essendo volon-
tario, rimane strettamente legato alla forza fisica e come tale fu coltivato. Tra
le qualit di un oratore, ma pi in generale del professionista della voce, sono
indicate dai maestri romani, il possedere buoni polmoni e vigoria fisica.
Come rammenta Ivan Illich,21 per tutta lantichit anche la lettura, essendo
unattivit vocale eseguita ad alta voce, stata considerata un vigoroso eser-
cizio fisico, tanto che i medici dellet ellenistica lo prescrivevano in alter-
nativa alle camminate e allesercitazione ginnica.22 Inoltre, in epoca medie-
vale, nei monasteri per il medesimo motivo i deboli e gli infermi non erano
tenuti a leggere con la propria lingua. A motivo di ci lattenzione anche
verso la persona e ligiene vocale; colui che deve parlare allaperto per lungo
tempo dovr possedere non solo doti e buone qualit vocali ma anche tecni-
ca: lingua agile, timbro della voce, buoni polmoni, vigoria fisica, sebbene
la tecnica possa essere per alcuni uno strumento di perfezionamento;23
loratore compiuto dovrebbe avere la voce del tragedo e il gestire quasi
dellattore pi consumato.24 Ci nondimeno:
la voce sar in primo luogo, per cos dire, sana, cio non sar affetta da nes-
21
IVAN ILLICH, Nella vigna del testo. Per una etologia della lettura, Milano, Raffaello Cortina,
1994, p. 53 (ed. orig. In the Vineyard of the Text. A commentary of Hughs Didascalion, Chi-
cago, The University of Chicago Press, 1993).
22
A tale riguardo si aprirebbe un interessante capitolo relativo al canto come pratica terapeuti-
ca.
23
CICERONE, De Oratore, I, 114-115: linguae solutio, vocis sonus, latera, vires [] neque
haec ita dico ut ars aliquos limare non possit.
24
CICERONE, De Oratore, I, 128: [] vox tragoedorum, gestus paene summorum actorum est
requirendus.
25
QUINTILIANO, Institutio oratoria, XI, III, 19-20: Sed cura non eadem oratoribus quae pho-
nascis convenit; tamen multa sunt utrisque communia, firmitas corporis, ne ad spadonum et
mulierum et aegrorum exilitatem vox nostra tenuetur [] praeterea ut sint fauces integrae, id
est molles ac leves, quarum vitio et frangitur et obscuratur et axasperatur et scinditur vox.
Circa la presenza di scuole di musica si veda GIAMPIERO TINTORI, La musica di Roma antica,
Lucca, Akademos, 1996, pp. 33-43.
18
S I C A N TA S , M A L E C A N TA S
suno di quegli inconvenienti di cui ho appena fatto menzione (ossia gli accen-
ti locali ecc.), in secondo luogo se non sar sorda, confusa, esageratamente
potente, dura, rigida, roca, troppo grossa oppure sottile, priva di consistenza,
stridula, debole, molle, effeminata, se il respiro non sar corto, n durevole, n
difficile a riprendersi. 26
Ci perch:
26
QUINTILIANO, Institutio oratoria, XI, III, 32: Itemque si ipsa vox primum fuerit, ut sic dicam,
sana, id est nullum eorum de quibus modo retuli patietur incommodum, deinde non subsurda, rudis,
immanis, dura, rigida, rava, praepinguis, aut tenuis, inanis, acerba, pusilla, mollis, effeminata, spi-
ritus nec brevis, nec parum durabilis, nec in receptu difficilis.
27
QUINTILIANO, Institutio oratoria, XI, III, 40: Ornata est pronuntiatio, cui suffragatur vox facilis,
magna, beata, flexibilis, firma, dulcis, durabilis, clara, pura, secans ara et auribus sedens (est enim
quaedam ad auditum accomodata non magnitudine, sed proprietate), ad hoc velut tractabilis, utique
habens omnes in se qui desiderantur sinus intentionesque et toto, ut aiunt, organo instructa; cui ade-
rit lateris firmitas, spiritus cum spatio pertinax, tum labori non facile cessurus.
28
QUINTILIANO, Institutio oratoria, XI, III, 41-42: Neque gravissimus autem in musica sonus nec
acutissimus orationibus convenit. Nam et hic parum clarus nimiumque plenus nullum adferre ani-
mis motum potest, et ille praetenuis et inmodicae claritatis cum est ultra verum, tum neque pro-
nuntiatione flecti neque diutius ferre intentionem potest. Nam vox, ut nervi, quo remissior hoc gra-
vior et plenior, quo tensior hoc tenuis et acuta magis est. Sic ima vim non habet, summa rumpi peri-
clitatur. Mediis ergo utendum sonis, hique tum augenda intentione excitandi, tum summitenda sunt
temperandi.
19
F R A N C E S C O FA C C H I N
29
CICERONE, De Oratore, I, 251: Tamen me auctore nemo dicendi studiosus Grecorum more
et tragoedorum voci serviet, qui et annos compluris sedentes declamitant et cotidie, ante quam
pronuntient, vocem cubantes sensim excitant eandemque, cum egerunt, sedentes ab acutissi-
mo sono usque ad gravissimum sonum recipiunt et quasi quondam modo colligunt.
30
FRANOIS LE HUCHE - ANDR ALLALI, La voce, vol. I, Paris, Masson, 1993; cfr. inoltre EGLE
20
S I C A N TA S , M A L E C A N TA S
[...] la nuca deve essere eretta, non rigida o piegata allindietro. Accorcia-
re o allungare il collo sono atteggiamenti opposti, vero, ma ugualmente
brutti; ma quando esso teso c sforzo e la voce si indebolisce e si stan-
ca; il mento incollato al petto rende la voce meno chiara e, per cos dire,
pi aperta a causa della compressione della gola.33
Bisogner anche badare che la faccia di chi parla sia eretta, che le labbra
non si contorcano, che unapertura eccessiva non spalanchi la bocca, che il
viso non guardi verso lalto, che gli occhi non siano abbassati a terra, che
il collo non penda a destra o a sinistra.34
ROSSETTO, Il ruolo del logopedista nelleducazione e nella rieducazione della voce parlata nel
cantante, in Atti della giornata di studio sulla voce cantata (Este, 30 aprile 1996), a cura di
Roberto Bovo, Limena, Imprimenda, 1996, pp. 107-120: 109. Per gli aspetti posturali legati
alla verticalizzazione e al suono di proiezione si veda anche YVA BARTHLMY, La voix lib-
re. Une nouvelle technique pour lart lyrique et la rducation vocale, Paris, Laffont, 1984,
pp. 185-191.
31
MARIO DE SANTIS - FRANCO FUSSI, La parola e il canto. Tecniche, problemi, rimedi nei pro-
fessionisti della voce, Padova, Piccin, 1993, pp. 121-122.
32
JOHN R. PIERCE, La scienza del suono, Bologna, Zanichelli, 1987, pp. 132-139: 138 (ed. orig.
The Science of Musical Sound, New York, Scientific american Books, 1983).
33
QUINTILIANO, Institutio oratoria, XI, III, 82: Cervicem rectam oportet esse, non rigidam aut
supinam. Collum diversa quidem, sed pari deformitate et contrahitur et tenditur, sed tenso sub-
est et labor tenuaturque vox ac fatigatur; adfixum pectori mentum minus claram et quasi latio-
rem presso gutture facit.
34
QUINTILIANO, Institutio oratoria, I, XI, 9: Observandum erit etiam ut recta sit facies dicen-
tis, ne labra detorqueantur, ne inmodicus hiatus rictum distendat, ne supinus vultus, ne deiec-
ti in terram oculi, ne inclinata utrolibet cervix.
21
F R A N C E S C O FA C C H I N
[...] quanto pi delicati e voluttuosi sono, nel canto, i trilli e le voci in fal-
setto rispetto alle note esatte e gravi! E tuttavia, se essi sono ripetuti con
eccessiva frequenza, protestano non solo le persone dai gusti sobri, ma
anche il grande pubblico!35
35
CICERONE, De Oratore, III, 98: [...] quanto molliores sunt et delicatiores in cantu flexiones
et falsae voculae quam certae et severae! Quibus tamen non modo austeri, sed, si saepius fiunt,
multitudo ipsa reclamat.
36
QUINTILIANO, Institutio oratoria, XI, III, 23: [] illi [phonascis] omnes etiam altissimos
sonos leniant cantu oris [].
22
S I C A N TA S , M A L E C A N TA S
37
Cfr. DE SANTIS - FUSSI, La parola e il canto cit., pp. 119-121.
38
ANTONIO JUVARRA, Il canto e le sue tecniche, trattato, Milano, Ricordi, 1987, pp. 45-46.
39
JUVARRA, Il canto cit., p. 46.
40
MAGISTRUM DE GARLANDIA, Introductio musice, in Scriptorum de musica medii aevi nova
series a Gerbertina altera, 4 voll., ed. Edmond de Coussemaker, Paris, Durand, 1864-76;
ristampa Hildesheim, Georg Olms, 1963, I, pp.157-175: Sciendum est quod omnis vox huma-
na se habet in triplici differentia: aut est pectoris, aut gutturis, aut capitis. Si sit pectoris, tunc
se habet in gravibus; in fundamento cantus debet ordinari. Si sit gutturis, mediocriter se habet
ad utrasque, scilicet ad graves et ad acutas. Et sicut vox pectoris tantummodo se habet in gra-
vibus, ita vox capitis tantummodo se habet in superacutis; et sicut modi cantus, voces pectoris
debent ordinari cum suo proprio, scilicet in fundamento, et voces gutturis semper in acutis
medium locum debent obtinere.
23
F R A N C E S C O FA C C H I N
41
QUINTILIANO, Institutio oratoria, XI, III, 16: Nec causas cur quidque eorum accidat perse-
qui proposito operi necessarium est: eorumne sit differentia in quibus aura illa concipitur, an
eorum per quae velut organa meat: [an] ipsi propria natura, an prout movetur; lateris pectoris-
que firmitas an capitis etiam plus adiuvet. Nam opus est omnibus []. Si noti come in que-
sta spiegazione ritorni limmagine descritta allinizio presente nel mosaico ravennate.
42
QUINTILIANO, Institutio oratoria, XI, III, 17-18: Utendi voce multiplex ratio. Nam praeter
illam differentiam, quae est tripertita, acutae, gravis, flexae, tum intentis, tum remissis, tum
elatis, tum inferioribus modis opus est, spatiis quoque lentioribus aut citatioribus. Sed his ipsis
media interiacent multa, et ut facies, quamquam ex paucissimis constat, infinitam habet diffe-
rentiam, ita vox, etsi paucas quae nominari possint continet species, propria cuique est, et non
haec minus auribus quam oculis illa dinoscitur.
24
S I C A N TA S , M A L E C A N TA S
43
Si tratta di uno studio sulle modalit attraverso le quali i pigmei Aka acquisiscono una ter-
minologia tecnica musicale attraverso una procedura deduttiva, in particolare quando vengo-
no rilevati errori od omissioni: SIMHA AROM, Lintelligenza nella musica tradizionale, in Cos
lintelligenza, a cura di Jean Khalfa, Bari, Dedalo, 1995, pp. 117-134: 125-126 (tit. orig. Intel-
ligence in traditional music, in What is intelligence?, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press,
1994).
44
Si veda a nota 29.
45
ROUSSELLE, Parole et ispiration cit., dice che utilizzata dalla troupe del Roy Hart Theatre
che, anzi, organizza stages per insegnarla ritrovando la voce attraverso una coscienza genera-
le del s. Come tecnica impiegata anche nella rieducazione, viene citato PHILIPPE DEJONC-
KERE, Prcis de pathologie et de thrapeutique de la voix, Paris, d. J.-P. Delarge, 1980, pp.
192-194; DE SANTIS - FUSSI, La parola e il canto cit., pp. 164-165, 169-173.
46
CICERONE, De Oratore, I, 252-253: [] quod si in gestu, qui multum oratorem adiuvat, et
in voce, quae una maxime eloquentiam vel commendat vel sustinet, elaborare nobis non licet
ac tantum in utroque adsequi possumus, quantum in hac acie cotidiani muneris spatii nobis
datur, quanto minus est ad iuris civilis perdiscendi occupationem descendendum? Quod et
summatim percipi sine doctrina potest et hanc habet ab illis rebus dissimilitudinem, quod vox
et gestus subito sumi et alicunde arripi non potest, iuris utilitas ad quamque repente vel a peri-
tis vel de libris depromi potest.
25
F R A N C E S C O FA C C H I N
47
Cos stato tradotto fistula, probabilmente non si tratta di una zampogna, ma di un flauto.
48
CICERONE, De Oratore, III, 227: est quid medium sed suum cuique voci. Hic gradatim ascen-
dere vocem utile et suave est nam a principio clamare agreste quiddam est et idem illud ad fir-
mandam est vocem salutare. Deinde est quiddam contentionis extremum, quod tamen interius est
quam acutissimus clamor, quo te fistula progredi non sinet, et tamen ab ipsa contentione revoca-
bit. Est item contra quiddam in remissione gravissimum quoque tamquam sonorum gradibus
descenditur. Haec varietas et hic per omnes sonos vocis cursus et se tuebitur et ni adferet suavita-
tem.
49
Osservazione che gi era stata fatta, sebbene in ambito diverso, anche da Cicerone; si veda la
nota 5.
50
Per una disamina sintetica dei problemi relativi allintonazione e alla bibliografia didattica si
veda in FRANCESCO FACCHIN, La voce e il canto, in LUCIANO BORIN - ROSSELLA BOTTACIN - PATRI-
ZIA DALLA VECCHIA - FRANCESCO FACCHIN, Musica perch. Quaderno delle esperienze del corso
ministeriale di educazione al suono e alla musica, Padova, CLEUP, 1998, pp. 59-79: 72-74; e
LUCIANO BORIN, Creare/ri-creare: 3. Interagire, ivi, pp. 188-233: 201-209.
26
S I C A N TA S , M A L E C A N TA S
Non sempre chiaro se Cicerone si riferisca alla voce parlata o alla voce
cantata sebbene lindicare la nota pi acuta nel grido sembra non lasciare
51
CICERONE, De Oratore, III, 225: itaque et idem Graccus [] cum eburneola solitus est habere
fistula, qui staret occulte post ipsum, cum contionaretur, peritum hominem, qui inflaret celeriter
eum sonum, quo illum aut remissum excitaret aut a contentione revocaret.
52
Seconda met del II secolo a.C., fratello di Tiberio Gracco.
53
QUINTILIANO, Institutio oratoria, I, X, 27 [De musica]: [] uno interim contenti simus
exemplo C. Gracchi, praecipui suorum temporum oratoris, cui contionanti consistens post eum
musicus fistula, quam tonarion vocant, modos, quibus deberet intendi, ministrabat [].
54
CICERONE, De Oratore, I, 254-255: solem idem dicere se [] eo tardiore tibicinis modos et
cantus remissiores esse facturum. Quod si ille, adstrictus certa quadam numerorum modera-
tione et pedum, tamen aliquid ad requiem senectutis excogitat, quanto facilius nos non laxare
modos, sed totos mutare possumus?.
27
F R A N C E S C O FA C C H I N
E veniamo alla voce, al respiro, ai gesti e alla lingua stessa: per muo-
verli ed esercitarli, non c tanto bisogno di teoria quanto di assidua
fatica; e a questo riguardo vanno scelti con attenzione i modelli da imi-
tare, i modelli cui vogliamo assomigliare. Dobbiamo guardare non solo
agli oratori, ma anche agli attori, per non incorrere per effetto di abitu-
dini sbagliate in qualche imperfezione o difetto.55
Si deve quindi condurre la parola fuori dal quieto rifugio di questi eser-
cizi domestici, in mezzo alla folla, alla polvere e allo strepito, nellac-
campamento e sul campo di battaglia del foro; si deve affrontare lo
sguardo di tutti e si devono mettere alla prova le proprie capacit intel-
lettuali, e la preparazione effettuata al chiuso deve confrontarsi con la
luce della realt. 56
55
CICERONE, De Oratore, I, 156: iam vocis et spiritus et totius corporis et ipsius linguae motus
et exercitationes non tam artis indigent quam laboris; quibus in rebus habenda est ratio dili-
genter, quos imitemur, quorum similes velimus esse. Intuendi nobis sunt non solum oratores,
sed etiam actores, ne mala consuetudine ad aliquam deformatitem pravitatemque veniamus.
56
CICERONE, De Oratore, I, 157: cfr. nota 17.
28
S I C A N TA S , M A L E C A N TA S
Dunque Cicerone affronta il problema della tecnica solo per lo stretto neces-
sario, rinviando parzialmente alla prassi esercitativa di attori e cantanti e anzi,
quasi temendo che un eccesso di tecnicismo della voce-parola possa ostaco-
lare il procedere fluido del proprio pensiero e dei contenuti allinterno della
forma retorica, invita a esercitarsi pi nel discorso scritto che in tanti eserci-
zi di improvvisazione o vocalit poich nessuno avr da ridire se loratore
sar rauco di voce o non bene intonato. Si preoccupa tuttavia che la respira-
zione sia corretta e pone la respirazione come uno degli argomenti di cui
occuparsi nello studio tecnico della voce, assieme ai gesti e alla lingua, ossia
al fine di ottenere unarticolazione pronta, corretta e flessibile.
Quintiliano, a propria volta, esamina lo studio tecnico della voce nelle-
ducazione del giovane oratore e, nel delineare le componenti dellactio, voce
e gesto, d una prima importante indicazione sui parametri da considerare nel
valutare la qualit di una voce:
La natura della voce si valuta sulla base del volume e del timbro. Il pro-
blema del volume pi semplice: in termini generali la voce potente o
debole; ma tra questi livelli estremi vi sono delle specie intermedie e tra
quella che occupa il livello pi basso e quella che occupa il livello pi alto
e viceversa vi sono molti gradi. Il timbro pi vario: la voce limpida,
roca, piena ed esile, dolce e aspra, contenuta e diffusa, rigida e modulabi-
le, sonora e sorda.58
Si tratta di criteri ancora considerati validi, non smentiti neppure dalle attuali
possibilit che ci offrono gli strumenti di analisi fisica del suono con i quali
possibile misurare, allinterno dellintera estensione vocale, lambito entro il
57
CICERONE, De Oratore, I, 149-150: Sed plerique in hoc vocem modo, neque eam scienter,
et vires exercent suas et linguae celeritatem incitant verborumque frequentia delectatur. In quo
fallit eos quo audierunt, dicendo homines ut dicant efficere solvere. Vere enim etiam illud dici-
tur, perverse dicere homines perverse dicendo facillime consequi.
58
QUINTILIANO, Institutio oratoria, XI, III, 14-15: Natura vocis spectatur quantitate et quali-
tate. Quantitas simplicior: in summam enim grandis aut exigua est; sed inter has extremitates
mediae sunt species et ab ima ad summam ac retro sunt multi gradus. Qualitas magis varia:
nam est et candida et fusca, et plena et exilis, et levis et aspera, et contracta et fusa, et dura et
flexibilis, et clara et optusa.
29
F R A N C E S C O FA C C H I N
[] anche le qualit della voce, come quelle di ogni cosa, vengono poten-
ziate se si dedica loro attenzione, vengono indebolite dalla trascuratezza o
dallincompetenza.59
[...] la voce, poi, non deve essere forzata al di l delle sue possibilit, perch
spesso risulta soffocata, meno chiara per effetto di uno sforzo troppo gran-
de, e a volte, se emessa con violenza prorompe in quel suono a cui i Greci
hanno dato un nome che deriva dal canto prematuro dei galli [klogms o
kokkysms].60
Vi un tono di voce (detto dai Greci asprezza) diverso da questi [i vari altri
toni esemplificati] e che va quasi oltre lestensione della voce, la cui durezza
eccede quasi i limiti naturali della voce umana.61
59
QUINTILIANO, Institutio oratoria, XI, III, 19: Augenter autem sicut omnium, ita vocis quo-
que bona cura, [et] neglegentia vel inscitia minuuntur.
60
QUINTILIANO, Institutio oratoria, XI, III, 51: Vox autem ultra vires urgenda non est; nam et
soffocata saepe et maiore nisu minus clara est et interim elisa in illum sonum erumpit cui Greci
nomen a gallorum inmaturo cantu dederunt.
61
QUINTILIANO, Institutio oratoria, XI, III, 169: Est his diversa vox et paene extra organum,
cui Greci nomen amaritudinis dederunt, super modum ac paene naturam vocis humanae acer-
ba [].
62
QUINTILIANO, Institutio oratoria, XI, III, 167: Producenda omnia trahendequae tum voca-
les aperiendaeque sunt fauces.
30
S I C A N TA S , M A L E C A N TA S
registro acuto, vengono localizzate nella zona faringea. In questo modo, ossia
senza quelle tensioni, si rende possibile la stabilizzare la posizione della
laringe in basso in modo tale da mettere in maggiore risalto la dimensione
della voce.63 Anche il movimento della lingua interessato nel favorire que-
sta ricerca. Infatti i muscoli che provvedono ai cambiamenti di posizione
della lingua contribuiscono altres alla chiusura della gola cos come
allapertura della gola. La posizione della gola aperta, per altro, viene
impedita da ogni tensione esercitata sui muscoli del collo e da ogni tendenza
a trascinare indietro la base della lingua.64
Chiara risulta sempre la differenza e la distanza che separa latto di par-
lare da quello del cantare, sebbene le due attivit, come pi volte rimarca-
to, abbiano in comune molti aspetti e spesso si mescolino e si confondano una
nellaltra dando risultati che sia per Cicerone sia per Quintiliano sono da
rigettare. La lettura dovr essere virile e di una dolce gravit, e non somi-
gliare alla lettura della prosa:
pertanto un difetto:
63
JUVARRA, Il canto cit., p. 35.
64
Ivi, p. 27.
65
Vedi GIOVENALE, Le satire, 1, 17 ecc.
66
QUINTILIANO, Institutio oratoria, I, VIII, 2: [] quia et carmen est et se poetae canere
testantur; non tamen in canticum dissoluta, nec plasmate, ut nunc a plerisque fit, effeminata.
67
QUINTILIANO, Institutio oratoria, XI, I, 56: in quibus non solum cantare, quod vitium per-
vasit, aut lascivire [] adfectibus decet.
31
F R A N C E S C O FA C C H I N
Tra i pregi che fanno di un oratore un buon oratore il possesso della voce
dunque una delle principali doti sebbene:
68
QUINTILIANO, Institutio oratoria, XI, III, 57-59: Sed quodcumque ex his vitium magis tule-
rim quam, quo nunc maxime laboratur in causis scholisque, cantandi. Quod inutilius sit an foe-
dius nescio. Quid enim minus oratori convenit quam modulatio scaenica et nonnumquam
ebriorum aut comisantium licentiae similis? [] Quod si omnino recipiendum est, nihil cau-
sae est cur non illam vocis modulationem fidibus ac tibiis, immo mehercule, quod est huic
deformitati propius, cymbalis adiuvemus.
69
QUINTILIANO, Institutio oratoria, XI, III, 13: Sed ne vox quidem [nisi] libera vitiis nem
habere optimam potest. Bona enim firmaque, ut volumus, uti licet; mala vel inbecilla et inhi-
bet multa, ut insurgere et clamare, et aliqua cogit, ut intermittere et deflectere et rasas fauces
ac latus fatigatum deformi cantico reficere.
32
S I C A N TA S , M A L E C A N TA S
70
QUINTILIANO, Institutio oratoria, XI, III, 20-21: Nam ut tibiae eodem spiritu accepto alium
clusis, alium paertis foraminibus, alium non satis purgatae, alium quassae sonum reddunt, item
fauces tumentes strangulant vocem, optusae obscurant, rasae exasperant, convulsae fractis
sunt organis similes. Finditur etiam spiritus obiectu aliquo, sicut lapillo tenues aquae, quarum
fluctus etiam si ultra paulum coit, aliquid tamen cavi relinquit post id ipsum quod offenderat.
Umor quoque vocem ut nimius impedit, ita consumptus destituit. Nam fatigatio, ut corpora,
non ad praesens modo tempus, sed etiam in futurum adficit.
71
Si veda la nota 59.
72
Cfr. le note 24 e 25.
73
QUINTILIANO, Institutio oratoria, XI, III, 22-23: Sed ut communiter et phonascis et oratori-
bus necessaria est exercitatio, quo omnia convalescunt, ita cura non idem genus est. Nam
neque certa tempora ad spatiandum dari possunt tot civilibus officiis occupato, nec praepara-
re ab imis sonis vocem ad summos, nec semper a contentione condere licet cum pluribus iudi-
ciis saepe dicendum sit. [] Ne ciborum quidem est eadem observatio; non enim tam molli
teneraque voce quam forti ac durabili opus est.
33
F R A N C E S C O FA C C H I N
Non voglio infatti che la voce del ragazzo che istruiamo a questo scopo
sindebolisca, esile come quella di una fanciulla, o tremi, come quella di
un vecchio. [] Qual dunque il compito di questo maestro? In primo
luogo, se ve ne sono, deve correggere i difetti di pronuncia, affinch le
parole escano chiare e per ogni lettera venga emesso il suono appropria-
to [];75
74
Cfr. infra 92.
75
QUINTILIANO, Institutio oratoria, De prima pronuntiationis et gestus institutione, I, XI, 1,4:
Non enim puerum, quem in hoc instituimus, aut femineae vocis exilitate frangi volo aut seniliter
tremere. [] Quod est igitur huius doctoris officium? In primis vitia si qua sunt oris emendet, ut
expressa sint verba, ut suis quaeque litterae sonis enuntientur [].
76
QUINTILIANO, Institutio oratoria. I, XI, 6-9: [] nec verba in faucibus patietur audiri, nec oris
inanitate resonare, nec, quod minime sermoni puro conveniat, simplicem vocis naturam pleniore
quondam sono circumliniri, quod Graece catapeplasmenon dicunt (sic appellatur cantus tibiarum
quae, praeclusis quibus clarescunt foraminibus, recto modo exitu graviorem spiritum reddunt).
Curabit etiam [] ut parsibi sermo sit, ut quotiens exclamandum erit, lateris conatus sit ille, non
capitis [].
77
ROUSSELLE, Parole et inspiration cit. pp. 133-134.
34
S I C A N TA S , M A L E C A N TA S
78
QUINTILIANO, Intitutio oratoria, I, XI, 8: Curabit etiam ne extremae syllabae intercidant, ut par
sibi sermo sit []. Si veda anche alla nota 40 relativamente alla necessit per la voce di salute e
corretto funzionamento dei polmoni, del torace e della testa.
79
A tale proposito JUVARRA, La realizzazione dellappoggio nel canto e Il ruolo del fiato nel-
lemissione e levoluzione dellappoggio, in Il canto cit., pp. 31-35: 35 e 36-42: 39.
80
Si vedano la trattazione della respirazione, e relativi difetti QUINTILIANO, Institutio oratoria,
XI, III, 53-56. Per gli aspetti fisiologici si veda DE SANTIS - FUSSI, La parola e il canto cit.
pp. 125-126, 131-139.
81
Il rapporto tra postura, posizione degli organi articolatori e corretta emissione vocale ben
presente nella scuola di canto, si veda a tale riguardo di BARTHLMY, La voix libre cit.
nota 29.
35
F R A N C E S C O FA C C H I N
e alla responsabilit che in questa fase hanno gli adulti ed in particolare colo-
ro che si occupano di questa prima importante fase pre-scolare:
82
QUINTILIANO, Institutio oratoria, I, I, 2-3: [] in pueris elucet spes plurimorum: quae cum
emoritur aetate, manifestum est non naturam deficisse, sed curam. [] sed plus efficiet aut
minus: nemo reperitur, qui sit studio nihil consecutus.
83
A circa 7 anni i bambini e le bambine cominciavano a frequentare la scuola elementare, dove
imparavano a leggere, scrivere e la semplice aritmetica, prima, tra i 4 e i 7 anni erano affidati
ai pedagoghi, generalmente schiavi che si occupavano della formazione morale e intellettuale
del bambino. La scuola di grammatica, che rappresentava il secondo livello di istruzione, era
frequentata fra i 9-10 e i 14-15 anni.
84
QUINTILIANO, Institutio oratoria, I, I, 18,19: [] Aut cur hoc quantulumqumque est usque
ad septem annos lucrum fastidiamus? [] Non ergo perdamus primum statim tempus, arque
eo minus quod initia litterarum sola memoria constant, quae non modo iam est in parvis, sed
tum etiam tenacissima est.
85
QUINTILIANO, Institutio oratoria, I, I, 4,5: [] Ante omnia, ne sit vitiosus sermo nutricibus
[] Has primum audiet puer, harum verba effingere imitando conabitur, et natura tenacissimi
sumus eorum quae rudis animis percepimus [].
86
QUINTILIANO, Institutio oratoria, I, I, 6: In parentibus vero quam plurimum esse eruditionis
optaverim. Nec de patribus tantum loquor: nam Gracchorum eloquentiae multum contulisse
accepimus Corneliam matrem [].
36
S I C A N TA S , M A L E C A N TA S
Vi a tale riguardo da sottolineare che sia i greci sia i romani legavano il feno-
meno della rottura91 della voce, tipico della pubert, al suono prodotto dai
capri. Aristotele descrive piuttosto estesamente il fenomeno durante il quale la
voce infantile gradualmente si abbassa di tono sviluppando le caratteristiche
della voce maschile adulta. Tale mutazione si accompagna a raucedine e ha carat-
teristiche di grande irregolarit: non pi cos acuta ma neppure ancora vera-
87
QUINTILIANO, Institutio oratoria, I, I, 8: De paedagogis hoc amplius, ut aut sint eruditi plane,
quam primam esse curam velim, aut se non esse eruditos sciat.
88
QUINTILIANO, Institutio oratoria, I, I, 20: Lusus hic [studium] sit, et rogetur et laudetur et num-
quam non fecisse se gaudeat [].
89
QUINTILIANO, Institutio oratoria. I, IV, 4: Tum neque citra musicen grammatice potest esse per-
fecta, cum ei de metris rhythmisque dicendum sit [].
90
QUINTILIANO, Institutio oratoria. XI, III, 28-29: Illud non sine causa est ab omnibus praeceptum,
ut parcatur maxime voci in illo a pueritia in adulescentiam transitu, quia naturaliter impeditur, non,
ut arbior, propter calorem, quod quidam putaverunt (nam est maior alias) sed propter umorem
potius: nam hoc aetas illa turgescit. Itaque nares etiam ac pectus eo tempore tument, atque omnia
velut germinant eoque sunt tenera et iniuriae obnoxia. Per un commento relativo il problema della
muta della voce si vedano ROUSSELLE, Parole et inspiration cit., p. 136; si veda inoltre EYBEN, Anti-
quity cit., pp. 680-682, 686-687, in particolare le pp. 688-691 per una descrizione secondo le fonti
storico-letterarie delle alterazioni del timbro vocale durante la muta della voce.
91
ARISTOTELE, De animalium generatione, V, VII, 787b, 32-788a, 1-2; ARISTOTELE, Generation
of animals, Engl. transl. by ARTHUR LESLIE PECK, Cambridge, Massachusetts, London, England,
Harvard University press-William Heinemann Ltd, 19532, pp. 550-551: E come avvengono tali
cambiamenti [nello sviluppo sessuale] cos si comporta anche la voce, pi nei maschi, ma la stes-
sa cosa accade anche alle femmine, solo che in modo meno evidente; e succede la voce come
la definiscono alcuni vada rompendosi durante la fase in cui diseguale. Dopo ci, alla debi-
ta et, si stabilizza nella tessitura grave o acuta.
37
F R A N C E S C O FA C C H I N
mente grave. Inoltre non completamente ferma e richiama il suono di corde non
perfettamente tese e fuori intonazione. A tale riguardo Aristotele aveva puntua-
lizzato che il fenomeno era pi vistoso in coloro che avevano unattivit sessua-
le, mentre in coloro che se ne astenevano, come i cantanti e i coristi, il cambia-
mento avveniva pi lentamente.92
Nella cura ed educazione vocale parte di rilievo ha la respirazione in quanto
si lega strettamente al ritmo e anzi questo si combina e determina quello. Cice-
rone ricorda come i greci cercassero che le pause nelle orazioni fossero:
92
ARISTOTELE, Historia animalium, IX (VII), I, 581a, 18-28; in ARISTOTELE, History of animals, 3
vols., ed. and Engl. transl. by David M. Balme, Cambridge, Massachusetts, London, England, Har-
vard University press, 1991, pp. 415-416: Intorno a questa stessa epoca, [allet di quattordici
anni] la voce inizia a farsi pi roca e diseguale, non pi acuta, ma non ancora grave e non ancora
completamente uniforme; che richiama anzi le corde malamente tese e stonate di uno strumento:
cosa che chiamano voce di capro. Tutto ci pi palese in coloro che praticano unattivit ses-
suale: infatti in costoro che vi si dedicano con vigore la voce muta presto in [nel registro] virile; il
contrario accade in chi vi si astiene. Quando la controllino con esercizi, come fanno coloro che si
dedicano al canto corale, la voce rimane la stessa pi a lungo e subisce una muta pi sfumata. Tale
ancora lopinione di QUINTILIANO: Institutio oratoria: XI, III, 19-20.
93
CICERONE, De Oratore, III, 173: [] interspirationis enim, non defetigationis nostrae neque
librariorum notis sed verborum et sententiarum modo interpunctas clausulas in orationibus esse
voluerunt [].
94
CICERONE, De Oratore, III, 181-182: clausulas enim atque interpuncta verborum animae inter-
clusio atque angustiae spiritus attulerunt. Id inventum ita est suave ut si cui sit infinitus spiritus
datus, tameneum perpetuare verba nolimus. Id enim auribus nostris gratum est inventum, quod
hominum lateribus non tolerabile solum, sed etiam facile esse possit. Longissima est igitur con-
plexio verborum, quae volvi uno spiritu potest. Sed hic naturae modus est, artis alius.
38
S I C A N TA S , M A L E C A N TA S
come aveva fatto Cicerone, insiste sulla necessit dellesempio pratico e pone
lattenzione sulluso del fiato affinch:
[...] il ragazzo impari dove trattenere il fiato, in quale punto fare una pausa
allinterno del verso, dove si concluda e dove inizi il pensiero, quando
alzare e quando abbassare la voce, che cosa dire con le varie inflessioni,
cosa pi lentamente, cosa pi velocemente, cosa con maggior concitazio-
ne, cosa con maggiore pacatezza [] il fanciullo deve capire ci che sta
leggendo.95
Dunque gli aspetti che vengono considerati sia da Cicerone sia da Quintilia-
no nelluso funzionale delle competenze musicali nellarte oratoria riguarda-
no la voce direttamente collegata a essa la respirazione e gli aspetti rela-
tivi al ritmo.
Quintiliano, a ulteriore chiarificazione del ruolo e dellimportanza della
respirazione per colui che usa la voce, descrive alcuni atteggiamenti respira-
tori viziati quali il respiro instabile che cagiona tremolio, il sibilo di chi inspi-
ra risucchiando il fiato tra le fessure dei denti, o chi respira ansimando o che
lo fa risuonare rumorosamente allinterno, come di alcuni che:
95
QUINTILIANO, Institutio oratoria., I, VIII,1-2: Superest lectio: in qua puer ut sciat ubi
suspendere spiritum debeat, quo loco versum distinguere, ubi concludatur sensus, unde inci-
piat, quando attollenda vel summittenda sit vox, quid quoque flexu, quid lentius, celerius, con-
citatius, lenius dicendum, demostrari nisi in opere ipso non potest. [] ut omnia ista facere
possit, intelligat.
96
QUINTILIANO, Institutio oratoria, XI, III, 53: Spiritus quoque nec crebroreceptus concidat
sententiam, nec eo usque trahatur donec deficiat. Nam et deformis est consumpti illius sonus
et respiratio sub aqua diu pressi similis et receptus longior et non oportunus, ut qui fiat non ubi
volumus, sed ubi necesse est. Quare longiorem dicturis perihodon colligendus est spiritus, ita
tamen ut id neque diu neque cum sonofaciamus, neque omnino ut manifestum sit: reliquis par-
tibus optime inter iuncturas sermonis revocabitur.
39
F R A N C E S C O FA C C H I N
La voce e il suono
97
Si veda QUINTILIANO, Institutio oratoria, XI, III, 55-56: [] etiam si non utique vocis sunt
vitia, quia tamen propter vocem accidunt potissimum huic loco subiciantur.
98
CLAUDIO GALENO, De usu partium corporis humani, in Claudii Galeni Opera omnia, hrsg.
v. C. G. Khn, 20 voll., Hildesheim, Georg Olms, 1964-1965: voll. III-IV, 1964; Lib.V: XV, e
VII: V, e VII: XI-XIII, trad. it. Opere scelte di Galeno, a cura di Ivan Garofalo e Mario Veget-
ti, Torino, UTET, 1978 (Classici della scienza, collezione diretta da Ludovico Geymonat), Lib.
V: XV, 399-343 p. 432, Lib. VII: V, 525-526, p. 492; VII: XI, 554-555, pp. 506-507; VII: XII,
557-560, p. 508; VII: XIII, 560-563, pp. 509-510.
40
S I C A N TA S , M A L E C A N TA S
Per questa medicina la capacit di emettere dei suoni gravi garanzia duna buona ven-
tilazione, dunque duna intelligenza sviluppata; e dunque ne sono evidentemente privati
i bambini, le donne e gli eunuchi.102
99
GALENO, Sui movimenti dei muscoli, in Opere scelte cit., II, IX.
100
DE SANCTIS - FUSSI, La parola e il canto cit., pp. 135-135 e segg.
101
Cfr. ROUSSELLE, Parole et inspiration cit. pp. 144-145.
102
Ivi, p. 153.
41
F R A N C E S C O FA C C H I N
Riflessioni conclusive
Ibid.
103
104
PER - GUNNAR ALLDAHL, Lintonazione del coro. Manuale teorico-pratico per direttori di
coro, coristi, cantanti, a cura di Fabio Lombardo e Silvio Segantini, Firenze, Centro di Ricer-
ca e Sperimentazione per la Didattica Musicale, 2000, p. 18.
42
S I C A N TA S , M A L E C A N TA S
Infine agli uomini muti quanto serve avere in s quello spirito divino?
Per cui, se nulla di meglio della parola abbiamo ricevuto dagli dei,
che cosa dovremmo stimare altrettanto degno di cura e fatica,
o in che cosa vorremmo eccellere fra gli uomini
pi che in ci per cui gli uomini stessi eccellono
fra tutti gli altri animali?106
105
Ringrazio lamico dott. Mario Rossi, foniatra presso il Centro di foniatria e audiologia del-
lUniversit di Padova che, coniando questa equivalenza, ha portato la mia attenzione a rive-
dere il mio modo di intendere la vocalit, i suoi principi e le sue finalit soprattutto nellam-
bito pedagogico-educativo e dellinfanzia.
106
QUINTILIANO, Institutio oratoria, II, XVI, 17: Denique homines quibus negata vox est
quantulum adiuvat animus ille caelestis? Quare si nihil a dis oratione melius accepimus, quid
tam dignum cultu ac labore ducamus aut in quo malimus praestare hominibus quam quo ipsi
homines ceteris animalibus praestant?. Tali domande sono a loro volta citazione di CICERO-
NE, De Oratore, I, 32-33.
43
FRANCESCO FACCHIN
*Augustus Caesar,
expression attributed to him
by MARCUS FABIUS QUINTILIANUS,
Institutio Oratoria, I/VIII, 2
45
F R A N C E S C O FA C C H I N
impulse of the heart, which is the principle of life, as the voice is its mani-
festation. Guglielmo Bilancioni explains the significance of this represen-
tation, within the framework of the huge mosaic: God holds the heart of
man in His power; He possesses his soul, and thus represents the will,
which rules despotically over our senses, the faculty of the soul and every
member of our body. Thus the gesture of the hand of the Almighty which
emerges from the clouds the of heaven in the the great basilica would be
mute if it were not supplemented by the schematised design which shows
the motion of the hand as following the Divine voice/word, indicating the
sublime Son to the faithful.1 Later on, Dante, in the Divine Comedy, was
to describe only one category of the damned as absolutely mute: the divin-
ers and sorcerers, condemned to climb a hill, twisted round 180, so that not
only can they not see before them, but they are also barred from speech. On
this subject, Bilancioni again specifies that if we assume a twist of 180, the
laryngo-tracheal tube would suffer from strong stenosis. This would thus
produce a restricted passage of air which would make breathing difficult.
This not only results in the need for these damned souls to proceed slow-
ly, but is also the cause of the functional impotence of the voice, mainly
because of the lack of air pressure: the physio-pathological phenomenon
has its equivalent in the moral field: anyone who utters prophetic words and
takes to himself the prerogative of foreseeing and predicting, will be pun-
ished in sight and speech.2
Certainly in the age of Dante, the knowledge of the anatomy and physi-
ology of the voice and its organs was not much advanced over that handed
down by Galens studies. We should not forget that studies of autopsy results
was very difficult; the doctor Mondino de Liuzzi, a contemporary of Dante
and teacher in the Bolognese studium, mentions the autopsy of a pig (1305)
and two women. (1315).3 However, the subtle attention that Dante too dedi-
cated to the sound phenomenon of vocal sound and the respiration which
accompanies it was considerable.
1
GUGLIELMO BILANCIONI, A buon cantor buon citarista, Roma, Formiggini, 1932, pp. 282-284;
ID., Lorgano della voce in uno dei mosaici di S. Apollinare in Classe, Il Valsalva, VI, 1928,
pp. 85-90.
2
BILANCIONI, A buon cantor, pp. 294-295.
3
Ibid., pp. 295-303.
46
S I C A N TA S , M A L E C A N TA S
mainly through the writings of Cicero (106-43 B.C.) and Quintilian (c. 35-96
A.D.).
We must first of all congratulate ourselves on having the voice and
then take care of it, whatever it may be like:4 with this determined statement,
Cicero reasserts, if we ever had any doubt on the matter, the importance of
the voice and the determining role which it plays in the act of communica-
tion. One element of this process is close relationship existing between word
and emotion through the characteristics of the fluency of eloquence and of
the small variations of timbre with which the word is uttered and through
respiration and reading, or the emission of the word. These traits of verbal
expression acquired meaning in the handling of the semantic content of the
text, further emphasised by the use of gesture. On the other hand, both Cicero
and Quintilian stress the pedagogical and technical aspects linked to the
voice, above all separation of the activity of the orator from that of the the-
atrical artist, whether actor or musician.
Respiration, vocal speech and gesture, technical study of speech and of
law are the instruments of the rhetorician: they also constitute stages in his
preparation.
4
I have used: MARCO TULLIO CICERONE, Loratore. Con un saggio introduttivo di Emanuele
Narducci, Milano, BUR, 19995, in the translation edited by Mario Martina, Marina Ogrin, Ilar-
ia Torzi e Giovanna Cettuzzi; CICERONE, De Oratore, III, 224: [] quae primum est optanda
nobis; deinde, quaecumque erit, ea tuenda.
47
F R A N C E S C O FA C C H I N
ferent low but without appealing for compassion, and uniform in the
articulation of its sounds [].
LIX. All these emotions must be accompanied by gesture, but not the the-
atrical gesture which gives expression to every word; rather a gesture
which throws light on the situation and the thinking in general; not with
mime, but with simple indications; and this comportment of the vigorous
and manly figure is to be taken not from the stage and the actors but from
those who exercise with arms and in the gymnasium.
The movements of the hands must be less expressive, with the fingers
accompanying the words, not substituting for them; the arm, almost as it
were the weapon of the speech, must be projected well forward; in the
moments of greatest tension, at the beginning or the end, the feet may be
stamped.5
Quintilian seems to make a better distinction between the two factors present
in verbal communication: the one being sonority, the emission of sound as a
physical reality and the other the word, the product of the emission of the
sounds produced. This aspect was, however, to remain confused until the
studies made by the medical scientist, Claudius Galenus (Galen) (129-199
A.D.).
[] and the sound of the voice is conditioned by the way in which its
chords are plucked; but just as the emotions are real in some cases and
fake in others, and the product of imitation, the real ones like sorrow
and anger and indignation arise spontaneously, but are devoid of art,
5
CICERO: De Oratore, III, 216-217, 218, 219, 220-221: [...] omnis enim motus animi suum
quendam a natura habet voltum et sonum et gestum; corpusque totum hominis et eius omnis
voltus onmesque voces, ut nervi in fidibus, ita sonant, ut motu animi quoque sunt pulsae. nam
voces ut chordae sunt intentae, quae ad quemque tactum respondeant, acuta, gravis, cita, tarda,
magna, parva; quas tamen inter omnis est suo quaeque in genere mediocris. atque etiam illa
sunt ab his delapsa plura genera leve, asperum, contractum, diffusum, continenti spiritu, inter-
misso, fractum, scissum flexo sono extenuatum, inflatum. nullum est enim horum generum,
quod non arte ac moderatione tractetur. hi sunt actori, ut pictori, expositi ad variandum col-
ores. aliud enim vocis genus iracundia sibi sumat, acutum, incitatum, [] LVIII. aliud miser-
atio ac maeror, flexibile, plenum, interruptum, flebili voce [] aliud metus, demissum et hae-
sitans et abiectum [] aliud vis, contentum, vehemens, imminens quadam incitatione gravi-
tatis [] aliud volumtas effusum et tenerum, hilaratum ac remissum [] aliud molestia, sine
commiseratione grave quoddam et uno pressu ac sono abductum []. LVIII. Omnis autem hos
motus subsequi debet gestus, non hic verba exprimens scaenicus, sed universam rem et sen-
tentiam non demonstratione sed significatione declarans, laterum inflexione hac forti ac virili,
non ab scaena et histrionibus, sed ab armis aut etiam a palestra. Manus autem minus arguta,
digitis subsequens verba, non exprimens; bracchium procerius proiectum quasi quoddam
telum orationis; supplosio pedis in contentionibus aut incipiendis aut finiendis.
48
S I C A N TA S , M A L E C A N TA S
and for this reason must be shaped by teaching and method. On the other
hand those produced by imitation do possess art, but they are devoid of
naturalness, and thus in such cases it is essential to test them intensely, to
conceive the images of reality to be struck as though they were real. Thus
the voice as an intermediary will communicate the emotion received from
our own soul to the soul of the judges, for it is the revealer of the mind and
shows as many changes as the mind does. Thus in lightweight subjects it
runs full, simple and in a sense, easefully; on the other hand in verbal con-
tests it struggles with all its force and, as it were, strains every nerve. In
wrath it is terrible, bitter, harsh and disquieting, because the breathing can-
not be long when it is emitted without measure. In answering hostility it
must be a little slower, because it is almost exclusively the inferior who
will have recourse to this; in flattery, on the other hand, in confession, in
seeking forgiveness, in asking for something, it is sweet and submissive.
The voice of one who persuades, warns, promises, or comforts is serious;
in fright and shame it is contained; it is strong in exhortation, even in dis-
pute, modulated, sorrowful and intentionally a little subdued in commis-
eration: on the other hand in digression it is diffused, sonorous and even;
in exposition and in conversation it presents a uniform tone, and an inter-
mediary level between high and deep. It is raised, again, when the emo-
tions are intense; lowered when they are calm, more or less according to
their degree.6
Verbal expression is thus linked with gesture, which too must accord with
6
From the works of Quintilain I have used the edition: MARCO FABIO QUINTILIANO, Institutio
oratoria, Italian trans., La formazione delloratore, Milano, Rizzoli, 1997 (Classici della
BUR): trans. Books I-IV by Michael Winterbottom, notes by Stefano Corsi, trans. and notes
of Books IX-XI by Cesare Marco Calcante. QUINTILIANO, Institutio oratoria, XI, III, 61-65:
[] sonatque vox ut feritur; sed cum sint alii veri adfectus, alii ficti et imitati; veri naturaliter
erumpunt, ut dolentium, irascentium, indignantium, sed carent arte ideoque sunt disciplina et
ratione formandi. Contra qui effinguntur imitatione, arte habent; sed hi carent natura, ideoque
in iis primum est bene adfici et concipere imagines rerum et tamquam veris moveri. Sic velut
media vox, quem habitum a nostris acceperit, hunc iudicum animis dabit: est enim mentis
index ac totidem quot illa mutationes habet. Itaque laetis in rebus plena et simplex et ipsa quo-
dam modo hilaris et velut omnibus nervis intenditur. Atrox in ira aspera ac densa et respira-
tione crebra: neque enim potest esse longus spiritus cum immoderate effunditur. Paulum <in>
inuidia facienda lentior, quia non fere ad hanc nisi inferiores confugiunt; at in blandiendo,
fatendo, satisfaciendo, rogando lenis et summissa. Suadentium et monentium et pollicentium
et consolantium grauis; in metu et uerecondia contracta, ad hortationibus fortis, disputation-
ibus teres, miseratione flexa et flebilis et consulto quasi obscurior; at in egressionibus fusa et
securae claritatis; inexpositione ac sermonibus recta et inter acutum sonum et grauem media.
Attollitur autem concitati adfectibus, compositis descendit, pro utriusque rei modo altius uel
inferius.
49
F R A N C E S C O FA C C H I N
7
QUINTILIAN: Institutio oratoria, XI, III, 65: [] ut de gestu prius dicam, qui et ipse uoci con-
sentit et animo cum ea simul paret.
8
MARCUS VITRUVIUS POLLIO, De Architettura, in I dieci libri dellarchitettura di M. Vitruvio,
Tradotti et commentati da Mons. Daniel Barbaro eletto Patriarca dAquileia, da lui riveduti
et ampliati; et hora in pi commoda forma ridotti, In Venetia, Appresso Francesco de
Franceschi Senese, et Giovanni Chrieger Allemanno Compagni, 1567, Libro V, chs. III-V. Edi-
tion consulted: VITRUVIUS, I dieci libri dellarchitettura tradotti e commentati da Daniele Bar-
baro1567, con un saggio di Manfredo Tafuri e uno studio di Manuela Morresi, Milano, Polifi-
lo, 1987.
9
See in BILANCIONI, A buon cantor, pp. 296-297; VITRUVIO, I dieci libri dellarchitettura, pp.
227-247 and 274-277; Il Vitruvio Magliabechiano di Francesco di Giorgio Martini, edited
by Giustina Scaglia, Firenze, Gonnelli, 1985, pp. 162-164.
50
S I C A N TA S , M A L E C A N TA S
the theory and practice of music), even in their naivety give us further reason
for attention to this important instrument of communication which belongs to
us and is a constituent element and special prerogative of the human race.
From the descriptions by Cicero and Quintilian on the communicative
functions of the voice come some reflections concerning the properties of
mimicry and imitation in the artistic use of the voice, its nature in relation to
breathing, and the function of gesture not only in emphasising the key
moments of expression, but also in increasing the quality of communication
or compensating for certain emotional tensions which particular states and
situations may cause. These are always observations which reflect direct
experience and mirror the normal physiological behaviour in non-pathologi-
cal conditions of human verbal communication in relation to different emo-
tional states. As far as the voice is concerned, today studies of different
expressive vocal patterns have taken not only the modifications in sound due
to the activation of the facial mimic muscles, and of the sound-producing
organs and articulation and resonance, but also the relation between the cen-
tral nervous system and the response coming from the autonomous nervous
system (such as salivation). Positive emotions thus generally involve a
stretching of the mouth muscles, provoking a smile and a dilation of the lar-
ynx, with the synergical result of an increase in the extension of the vocal
tone, similar to when we pass from a forced emission to a smooth one. This
situation of muscular relaxation and stretching of the mouth muscles pro-
duces the typical relaxed, warm timbre of voice. In contrast, negative emo-
tions generally involve mimical modifications affecting the oral cavity, which
are translated into a tense and sharp voice.10 Emotion, in terms of verbal com-
munication, can express itself in various modes: on the phonematic plane, it
produces less precision in articulation, and on the semantic plane, the omis-
sion or momentary forgetting of words, and through intonation, the increas-
ing or lowering of frequency or of the pitch. Moreover the respiratory
group (a chain of sounds produced in a release of breath) can be excessive-
ly prolonged or broken up.11 Pio Enrico Ricci Bitti12 has classified vocal
expression of the individual emotions in relation to acoustic parameters in
summary form, around three different characteristics of the voice and its
emotional content: a) hedonic valency, or the degree of pleasing/unpleasing
10
An example of the change in utterance caused by stress can be observed in children of pre-
school age, who react with total or partial muteness. In this case there is an important reduc-
tion in the amplitude of the sound.
11
AMLETO BASSI, I disturbi della voce in et evolutiva, Rivista di psicologia, LVII, 1973, pp.
3-12:5.
12
PIO ENRICO RICCI BITTI, Le emozioni e la loro esteriorizzazione, in Regolazione delle
emozioni e arti-terapie, ed. by Pio Enrico Ricci Bitti, Roma, Carrocci, 1998, pp. 15-28: 21.
51
F R A N C E S C O FA C C H I N
13
PIO ENRICO RICCI BITTI - MICHAEL ARGYLE - DINO GIOVANNINI, JEAN GRAHAM, La comuni-
cazione di due dimensioni delle emozioni attraverso indici facciali corporei, Giornale ital-
iano di psicologia, VI, 1979, pp. 341-350. Cfr. also EMANUELA MAGNO CALDOGNETTO, La
gestualit coverbale in soggetti normali e afasici, in ISABELLA POGGI - EMANUELA MAGNO
CALDOGNETTO, Mani che parlano. Gesti e psicologia della comunicazione, Padova, Unipress,
1997, pp. 107-120.
14
CICERO: De Oratore, III, 223: Actio, quae prae se motum animi fert, omnis movet; isdem
enim omnium animi motibus concitantur et eos isdem notis et in aliis agnoscunt et in se ipsi
indicant.
52
S I C A N TA S , M A L E C A N TA S
The education of the voice, including physical exercise and vocal technique.
However, these aspects of the education of the voice that we have noted so
far are not exhaustive, nor are they limited to the relationship to the different
attitudes which make it possible to emphasise the expression of the emotions.
Indeed these are the starting point in representing the degree of primary inter-
est in the development of vocal ability.
The aim of vocal education of the young in the Graeco-Roman world, in
terms of acquisition of language and comprehension of phrases, could not be
separated from the oral exercise of recitation of texts, and eloquence was a
necessary part of political success and hence also of social advancement. In
this way, the work on ones voice was part of the school programme of train-
ing, and of the exercise of the rhetorician, domestica exercitatio which made
it possible to experiment with the charm of the voice on the hearers,17 since
nothing is more pleasing to our ears and more suited to render the actio
acceptable than the alternation, variation and changing of the tone.18
Among the studies relating to the subject dealt with here, we owe
some interesting insights to Aline Rousselle who has investigated the
aspects inherent in the art of oratory19 and to Emiel Eyben to whom we
15
The etymology of the word (per-sonare) already throws light on its function of emitting sounds
through it!
16
CICERO: De Oratore, III, 221: [] quo melius nostri illi senes, qui personatum ne Roscium qui-
dem magno opere laudabant.
17
CICERO: De Oratore, I, 157: Educenda deinde dictio est ex hac domestica exercitatione et umbratili
medio in agmen, in pulverem, in clamorem, in castra atque in aciem forensem, subendus visus omnium
et periclitandae vires ingenii, et illa commentatio inclusa in veritatis lucem proferenda est.
18
CICERO: De Oratore, III, 225: Quid, ad aures nostras et actionis suavitatem quid est vicissitudine
et varietate et commutatione aptius?.
19
ALINE ROUSSELLE, Parole et inspiration: le travail de la voix dans le monde romain, History and
Philosophy of the Life Sciences, 5/2, 1983, pp. 129-157.
53
F R A N C E S C O FA C C H I N
20
EMIEL EYBEN, Antiquitys View of Puberty, in Actes du colloque international sur la car-
tographie archologique et historique (Paris, Institut Pdagogique National, 24-16 January
1970), Latomus, XXXI, 1972, pp. 678-697.
21
IVAN ILLICH, In the Vineyard of the Text. A commentary of Hughs Didascalion, Chicago, The
University of Chicago Press, 1993.
22
In relation to this an interesting discussion might be opened on singing as a therapeutic prac-
tice.
23
CICERO, De Oratore, I, 114-115: linguae solutio, vocis sonus, latera, vires [] neque haec
ita dico ut ars aliquos limare non possit.
24
CICERO, De Oratore, I, 128: [] vox tragoedorum, gestus paene summorum actorum est
requirendus.
54
S I C A N TA S , M A L E C A N TA S
the voice must be, in the first place, so to speak, healthy i.e. not affect-
ed by any of those problems which I have already mentioned (or by local
accents, etc.); secondly it should not be dull, confused, exaggeratedly
potent, hard rigid, raucous, too great or too refined, lacking consistency,
strident, weak, soft or effeminate, if the breathing is not short, nor long-
lasting nor difficult to recover.26
This is because:
[...] in oratory neither the flattest nor the sharpest musical sounds are suit-
25
QUINTILIAN, Institutio oratoria, XI, III, 19-20: Sed cura non eadem oratoribus quae
phonascis convenit; tamen multa sunt utrisque communia, firmitas corporis, ne ad spadonum
et mulierum et aegrorum exilitatem vox nostra tenuetur [] praeterea ut sint fauces integrae,
id est molles ac leves, quarum vitio et frangitur et obscuratur et axasperatur et scinditur vox.
About the musical school cf. GIAMPIERO TINTORI, La musica di Roma antica, Lucca,
Akademos, 1996, pp. 33-43.
26
QUINTILIAN: Institutio oratoria, XI, III, 32: Itemque si ipsa vox primum fuerit, ut sic dicam,
sana, id est nullum eorum de quibus modo retuli patietur incommodum, deinde non subsurda,
rudis, immanis, dura, rigida, rava, praepinguis, aut tenuis, inanis, acerba, pusilla, mollis,
effeminata, spiritus nec brevis, nec parum durabilis, nec in receptu difficilis.
27
QUINTILIANo, Institutio oratoria, XI, III, 40: Ornata est pronuntiatio, cui suffragatur vox
facilis, magna, beata, flexibilis, firma, dulcis, durabilis, clara, pura, secans ara et auribus
sedens (est enim quaedam ad auditum accomodata non magnitudine, sed proprietate), ad hoc
velut tractabilis, utique habens omnes in se qui desiderantur sinus intentionesque et toto, ut
aiunt, organo instructa; cui aderit lateris firmitas, spiritus cum spatio pertinax, tum labori non
facile cessurus.
55
F R A N C E S C O FA C C H I N
able. In fact the former are less clear and too sonorous, and are not capa-
ble of conveying any emotion, while the latter are too thin and excessive-
ly clear, and are not only unnatural but cannot receive modulations of tone,
nor can they maintain tension for any length of time. In fact the voice, like
the chords, is deeper and fuller when it is least tense, and more feeble the
more tense it is. Thus the lowest voice is devoid of strength and the high-
est risks cracking. So it is necessary to use the intermediary sounds, and
they must be sometimes raised by an increase of tension, and sometimes
modulated by lowering it.28
Cicero speaking through Crassus, and after having admitted that an orator
should have all the abilities of an actor, provides us with the first information
of a technical kind about the vocal training of tragic actors, but perhaps we
may assume that this same discipline was also followed by singers and in
general by all who used the voice as their craft:
[] no aspiring orator will receive from me the advice to take care of his
voice in the way that the Greeks and the tragic actors are wont to do, for
they practice exercises of declamation for years, both standing and every
day before speaking in public, they lie down and raise the voice little by
little, and after having pronounced their speech, they sit down and raise it
from the lower tone to a higher one, and in some way, so to speak, make
it return into themselves.29
In the first of these last three quotations, Quintilian calls our attention to that
vocal quality which allows it to cross the air, and penetrate deeply into
our ears. In other words, to the extension of the singing voice which includes
those deeper and higher sounds that the orator will exclude because they are
at the limits of extension: the former because they are not very clear and too
sonorous, and the latter because, on the contrary, they are too clear but lack
sonority. Significantly, these statements are centred on the qualitative char-
28
QUINTILIAN: Institutio oratoria, XI, III, 41-42: Neque gravissimus autem in musica sonus
nec acutissimus orationibus convenit. Nam et hic parum clarus nimiumque plenus nullum
adferre animis motum potest, et ille praetenuis et inmodicae claritatis cum est ultra verum, tum
neque pronuntiatione flecti neque diutius ferre intentionem potest. Nam vox, ut nervi, quo
remissior hoc gravior et plenior, quo tensior hoc tenuis et acuta magis est. Sic ima vim non
habet, summa rumpi periclitatur. Mediis ergo utendum sonis, hique tum augenda intentione
excitandi, tum summitenda sunt temperandi.
29
CICERO: De Oratore, I, 251: Tamen me auctore nemo dicendi studiosus Grecorum more et
tragoedorum voci serviet, qui et annos compluris sedentes declamitant et cotidie, ante quam
pronuntient, vocem cubantes sensim excitant eandemque, cum egerunt, sedentes ab acutissi-
mo sono usque ad gravissimum sonum recipiunt et quasi quondam modo colligunt.
56
S I C A N TA S , M A L E C A N TA S
acteristics of the voice: noted categories of which we all have direct experi-
ence, but which despite this, even today still prove difficult to grasp, and are
ambiguous in their character because of the complexity and dynamism of the
elements which make them up. In particular, quantifying, and thus measur-
ing, them remains a problem. The language used both by Cicero and Quintil-
ian is already equivocal in itself. The existence of a voice capable of cross-
ing the air perceptively refers to, and is characterised by, two classes of intrin-
sic constituents: one of a quantitative type such as the pitch, duration and
power, and volume of the voice, and the other qualitative, or the characteris-
tics of the timbre and its modifications. To this must be added the detail of
the space within which the vocal act is performed in contributing to render-
ing the voice more or less penetrating. All these prerequisites intervene in
facilitating the process which determines the voice of projection, which
then obeys four preconditions: intention (proper to all acts of communica-
tion), direction of the gaze; vertical position of the body, and abdominal res-
piration.30 Nor should the correlations between projection of sound and
articulation to convey the phono-articulatory emission, in which lies the
meaning of the text and with which the emotions are transmitted to the fur-
thest point of the auditorium31 be forgotten. The timbre of the voice, product
of the formanti or the frequency bands which are created in the resonator
of the vocal tract when they are excited by the glottal source is of no less
value in giving the maximum energy to the vocal sound, thus boosting the
voice in case another source of sound creates masking phenomena.32 The
function of the formante (or formanti) of the singer is also known to be to
give energy and intensity to the singing with a corresponding increase in the
volume of the voice and modification of the timbre.
Turning to the vertical positioning of the body, it is Quintilian himself
who suggests the correct posture:
[...] the neck must be erect, not rigid or leaning back. Shortening or length-
ening the neck are opposite attitudes, it is true, but both equally ugly; but
30
FRANOIS LE HUCHE - ANDR ALLALI, La voce, vol. 1, Paris, Masson, 1993, cf. EGLE ROS-
SETTO, Il ruolo del logopedista nelleducazione e nella rieducazione della voce parlata nel
cantante, in Atti della giornata di studio sulla voce cantata (Este, 30 aprile 1996), edited by
Roberto Bovo, Limena, Imprimenda, 1996, pp. 107-120:109. For aspects of posture linked to
the vertical position and the sound of projection, see also YVA BARTHLMY, La voix libre.
Une nouvelle technique pour lart lyrique et la rducation vocale, Paris, Laffont, 1984, pp.
185-191.
31
MARIO DE SANTIS - FRANCO FUSSI, La parola e il canto. Tecniche, problemi, rimedi nei pro-
fessionisti della voce, Padova, Piccin, 1993, pp. 121-122.
32
JOHN R. PIERCE, The Science of Musical Sound, New York, Scientific American Books, 1983
(Ital. trans. La scienza del suono, Bologna, Zanichelli, 1987, pp. 132-139: 138).
57
F R A N C E S C O FA C C H I N
when it is stretched there is effort and the voice is weakened and tires; the
chin declined towards the chest makes the voice less clear and so to speak,
more open because of the compression of the throat.33
It should also be ensured that the face of the person speaking is erect, that the
lips are not contorted, that excessive opening doesnt stretch the mouth too
wide, that the gaze doesnt look (directly) at the other, that the eyes are not
cast downwards, and that the neck does not lean to left or to right.34
The second statement, in which Quintilian points out how musical sounds
used in song embrace a broader range in contrast to the speaking voice where
the orator excludes all the high sounds of the head register as well as the
deeper sounds of the chest register, leads us to presume that he did not know
the technique of passing from one register to another, i.e. of the problem of
the passage notes and the consequent need to standardise the various vocal
registers; or perhaps the non-necessity of the use of this technique in the con-
text of the voice in oratorical practice. Moreover some doubt arises whether
this could also mean a use of the singing voice within a medium extension to
be placed in the central register. Again, the warning that the highest sounds
risk cracking the voice would seem to confirm the doubt, or at least to sug-
gest, that the vocal technique required of orators favours the chest and medi-
um registers, as these have to avoid both the musical sounds and sing-
songing, in other words mixing the two modes of expression.
The phenomenon of the cracking of the voice takes place, as Mario de
Santis and Franco Fussi have shown, when the speaker does not yet possess
a perfect technique for the passage, above all from the middle tones to the
high ones of the head register. When this condition arises, or in the moment
of the passage from the middle register to the head register, if the muscular
mechanism for compensating the tensions is imperfect, there will be real
vocal sudden accompanied by brisk changes of timbre. This occurs when the
activity of the crico-thyroid muscles suddenly intervenes to substitute the
action of the thyro-arithnoidic muscles. On the other hand, an aesthetic obser-
vation by Cicero tells us of the use of the falsetto register in singing, and thus
of the high (male) voices:
33
QUINTILIAN: Institutio oratoria, XI, III, 82: Cervicem rectam oportet esse, non rigidam aut
supinam. Collum diversa quidem, sed pari deformitate et contrahitur et tenditur, sed tenso
subest et labor tenuaturque vox ac fatigatur; adfixum pectori mentum minus claram et quasi
latiorem presso gutture facit.
34
QUINTILIAN: Institutio oratoria, I, XI, 9: Observandum erit etiam ut recta sit facies dicentis,
ne labra detorqueantur, ne inmodicus hiatus rictum distendat, ne supinus vultus, ne deiecti in
terram oculi, ne inclinata utrolibet cervix.
58
S I C A N TA S , M A L E C A N TA S
How much more delicate and voluptuous, in singing, are the trills and the
falsetto voices in contrast to the precise and deeper notes! And yet, if they
are repeated with excessive frequency not only those of sober tastes
protest, but also the public at large!35
In order to point to the difference in the use of the voice between the singer
and the orator, he stresses that: the singing masters sweeten all the sounds,
even the sharpest ones, by singing.36
We are thus able to divine that the singing masters were aware not only
of the existence of vocal registers or the different zones of the vocal texture
in which the sound if naturally emitted is characterised by a different quality
of the timbre, with areas of dissimilarity in the passage from one to the other,
but they were equally aware of the problems which they created by passing
from the chest voice to the falsetto. We ought to point out, however, that it is
not possible to understand the present day range by these terms, as we only
possess very rare musical documentation. Quintilians use of the verb lenire
remains surprising, especially when it is coupled with altissimos sonos:
modes of vocal emission adopted by the singing masters? Another source of
doubt in this matter is whether it is not Quintilian himself who is ignorant of
the technical vocal problem. What meaning, if so, should we give to the
expression sweeten even the sharpest sounds? The terminology adopted
today to describe the technique of the passage from one register to another
the subject is still delicate, and discussed in many different contexts makes
use of expressions such as open sound and covered sound. By open
sound is understood the sound of the excessively clear timbre (to the point
of stridency) which derives from the non-use of the correct mechanism of
production in the various registers. This is a passage as has already been
mentioned a mechanism of the larynx related to the various activities of the
crico-thyroid and thyro-arithenoid muscles.37
In connection with this Antonio Juvarra38 clearly shows the impossibility
of singing open vowels after the passage and also how poorly adapted
aspiring voice students are to learn such technique if they are not supervised
by their teachers, and the emphasis that is unconsciously given to the need for
uniformity of emission and the melodic legato to avoid the break. The
35
CICERO: De Oratore, III, 98: [...] quanto molliores sunt et delicatiores in cantu flexiones et
falsae voculae quam certae et severae! Quibus tamen non modo austeri, sed, si saepius fiunt,
multitudo ipsa reclamat.
36
QUINTILIAN: Institutio oratoria, XI, III, 23: [] illi [phonascis] omnes etiam altissimos
sonos leniant cantu oris [].
37
Cfr. DE SANTIS - FUSSI, La parola e il canto, pp. 119-121.
38
ANTONIO JUVARRA, Il canto e le sue tecniche, trattato, Milano, Ricordi, 1987, pp. 45-46.
59
F R A N C E S C O FA C C H I N
student is thus advised that to make the voice lighter in proximity to the
critical area of an ascending scale is a necessary condition, but unfortunately
not unique.39 Thus it seems possible to understand leniat as the listening
interpretation of the quality of voice consequent upon the use of a technique
aimed at creating standardisation of timbre in the whole vocal range.
In the 13th century, the theorist Johannes de Garlandia was to describe the
three registers: chest voice, throat voice and head voice, and their use in
emission, but without giving further indications relating to emission when
singing.40
But it is again Quintilian who gives some emphasis to the argument,
though without dealing with the problem of what it is, and on what the voice
depends:
It is not essential for the task which we have set ourselves to review the
reasons why all this happens: whether the difference depends on the
organs in which the air breathed is received or on those sorts of tubes
through which it passes; whether it has its own intrinsic nature or varies
according to the impulse received; whether it is assisted more by the
robust character of the lungs or of the thorax or even of the head. In fact,
there is a need for all these organs [].41
The mode of using the voice varies. In fact, apart from the well-known tri-
partite division into sharp, deep and modulated, there is a need for a tone
which is sometimes intense and sometimes attenuated; sometimes high
and sometimes low, and also for tempi that are more or less rapid. But
39
JUVARRA, Il canto, p. 46.
40
MAGISTRUM DE GARLANDIA, Introductio musice, in Scriptorum de musica medii aevi nova
series a Gerbertina altera, 4 vols., ed. Edmond de Coussemaker, Paris, Durand, 1864-76;
reprint by Hildesheim, Olms, 1963, 1, pp.157-175: Sciendum est quod omnis vox humana se
habet in triplici differentia: aut est pectoris, aut gutturis, aut capitis. Si sit pectoris, tunc se
habet in gravibus; in fundamento cantus debet ordinari. Si sit gutturis, mediocriter se habet ad
utrasque, scilicet ad graves et ad acutas. Et sicut vox pectoris tantummodo se habet in grav-
ibus, ita vox capitis tantummodo se habet in superacutis; et sicut modi cantus, voces pectoris
debent ordinari cum suo proprio, scilicet in fundamento, et voces gutturis semper in acutis
medium locum debent obtinere.
41
QUINTILIAN, Institutio oratoria, XI, III, 16: Nec causas cur quidque eorum accidat persequi
proposito operi necessarium est: eorumne sit differentia in quibus aura illa concipitur, an
eorum per quae velut organa meat: [an] ipsi propria natura, an prout movetur; lateris pec-
torisque firmitas an capitis etiam plus adiuvet. Nam opus est omnibus []. Note how in this
explanation we find a return to the image of the Ravenna mosaic described at the beginning.
60
S I C A N TA S , M A L E C A N TA S
there are many intermediary levels, and just as the face, though made
up of very few traits, possesses an infinite possibility of differentia-
tion, so too the voice, even though it includes few species which pos-
sess a verbal designation, is peculiar to each person and it is recog-
nised by the ears to no less a degree than the face is recognised by the
eyes.42
In this passage the statement about the lack of any nomenclature, or termi-
nology to describe all the possible differentiations of the voice, is worthy of
note. Few species which possess a verbal designation; in other words,
Quintilian shows his awareness by confessing that he does not possess an
abstract term usable to verbalise all vocal capacities. In this regard a parallel
comes to mind, which arises from the studies relating to technical musical
linguistic competence, carried out in an ethno-musical context by Simha
Arom among an African population whose culture, including music, had an
oral transmission, and in which the same problem arose, even consciously, on
the part of medical experts.43
With regard to the practice of vocalisation in the whole extension of
the voice, Cicero had already informed us that it is cultivated particular-
ly as a discipline to render the voice flexible, but above all to keep alive
the abilities and motor automatisms activated so as to ensure that the
voice always has the right inflexion at different heights. For this issue, the
expression et quasi quodam modo colligunt is of some importance; by
this he indicates the sensation of reunifying the voice in the fullness of
emission. The exercise of using the voice seated and lying down which
Cicero describes and says is in use in the schools, and practised by the
Greek orators and tragic actors44 has the primary aim of freeing the mus-
cles from the fatigue of standing erect, and is still practised today as an
exercise in dorsal decubitus in vocal training, since it facilitates the pro-
jection of sound. Thus it is one of the methods followed both in certain
schools of singing and, for different purposes, in the re-educative treat-
42
QUINTILIAN, Institutio oratoria, XI, III, 17-18: Utendi voce multiplex ratio. Nam praeter
illam differentiam, quae est tripertita, acutae, gravis, flexae, tum intentis, tum remissis, tum
elatis, tum inferioribus modis opus est, spatiis quoque lentioribus aut citatioribus. Sed his ipsis
media interiacent multa, et ut facies, quamquam ex paucissimis constat, infinitam habet dif-
ferentiam, ita vox, etsi paucas quae nominari possint continet species, propria cuique est, et
non haec minus auribus quam oculis illa dinoscitur.
43
This refers to a study on the ways by which the Aka pygmies acuire a technical musical ter-
minology through a deductive procedure, in particolar when errors or omissions are revealed.:
SIMHA AROM, Intelligence in traditional music, in What is intelligence?, ed. by Jean Khalfa,
Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1994, pp. 137-160.
44
See note 29.
61
F R A N C E S C O FA C C H I N
In every voice there is a middle tone, but each voice has its own: gradual-
ly raising the voice from the middle tone is useful and pleasurable (begin-
ning to speak with a shout in fact has something crude about it), and it is
also beneficial to confer strength on the voice itself. There is an extreme
point of forcing the voice, which however is found lower down than the
sharper notes, to which the bagpipe47 will not allow you to rise, calling you
back, rather. On the contrary, there is similarly a point of lowest depth,
which is reached by descending, so to speak, a scale of tones. This variety
45
ROUSSELLE, Parole et inspiration, says that it is used by the troupes of the Roy Hart The-
atre which in fact organises stages to teach it, rediscovering the voice through a general aware-
ness of the self. As a technique it is also employed in reeducation, quoted in the above-men-
tioned PHILIPPE DEJONCKERE, Prcis de pathologie et de thrapeutique de la voix, Paris, d. J.-
P. Delarge, 1980, pp. 192-194; DE SANTIS - FUSSI, La parola e il canto, pp. 164-165, 169-173.
46
CICERO, De Oratore, I, 252-253: [...] quod si in gestu, qui multum oratorem adiuvat, et in
voce, quae una maxime eloquentiam vel commendat vel sustinet, elaborare nobis non licet ac
tantum in utroque adsequi possumus, quantum in hac acie cotidiani muneris spatii nobis datur,
quanto minus est ad iuris civilis perdiscendi occupationem descendendum? Quod et summa-
tim percipi sine doctrina potest et hanc habet ab illis rebus dissimilitudinem, quod vox et ges-
tus subito sumi et alimuno arripi non ptest, iuris utilitas ad quamque repente vel a peritis vel
de libris depromi potest.
47
This is how the word fistula, has been translated; probably it was not a bagpipe but a sort of
flute.
62
S I C A N TA S , M A L E C A N TA S
and these passages of the voice through all the tones will safeguard the
voice and will add fascination to the actio. Thus you will leave the flautist
behind, and bring with you to the forum the sensitivity acquired by this
exercise.48
As can be seen, here we have described the technique of dealing with vocal-
isation, beginning from the context of the voices own texture, the medium
tone, in which it is not possible to exercise the voice without effort, even in
potency. With regard to the notion that a medium tone is present in every-
one,49 in terms of teaching and rehabilitation it finds a complement and mean-
ing in the recent assertion relating to the stabilisation of the tonic, under-
stood as the actual ordinating central tone, with the aim of modelling and
self-organisation of ones own tonal field.50
The practice of using a wind-instrument to assist the orator to maintain
his sound level seems to have been widely used, as the following quotes from
Cicero and Quintilian show, and further clarification is to be found in the fact
that such expedients would have served above all to stabilise the tone of the
oration; was it still difficult for most people to maintain constant control of
the intonation and rhythm that they were seeking? Even a famous actor such
as Roscius confirms that not only did he entrust himself for the regulation of
rhythm and intonation to an instrument which followed him around, but also
that he indicated in advance to the instrumentalist what variations were nec-
essary to adapt the execution to his own changed capacities.
[...] when he gave a speech, Gracchus was accustomed to keep with him,
hidden behind him, an expert assistant who, with a small bagpipe (again,
probably a flute in fact) of ivory, rapidly played a note to cause him to
48
CICERO, De Oratore, III, 227: [...] est quid medium sed suum cuique voci. Hic gradatim
ascendere vocem utile et suave est nam a principio clamare agreste quiddam est et idem
illud ad firmandam est vocem salutare. Deinde est quiddam contentionis extremum, quod
tamen interius est quam acutissimus clamor, quo te fistula progredi non sinet, et tamen ab ipsa
contentione revocabit. Est item contra quiddam in remissione gravissimum quoque tamquam
sonorum gradibus descenditur. Haec varietas et hic per omnes sonos vocis cursus et se tuebitur
et actioni adferet suavitatem.
49
An observation which had already been made, though in another context, by Cicero: see note
5.
50
For a summary study of the problems relating to intonation and to the didactic bibliography
on the subject, see in FRANCESCO FACCHIN, La voce e il canto, pp. 59-79:72-74 and LUCIANO
BORIN, Creare/ri-creare: 3. Interagire, pp. 188-233:201-209, in LUCIANO BORIN - ROSSELLA
BOTTACIN - PATRIZIA DALLA VECCHIA - FRANCESCO FACCHIN, Musica perch. Quaderno delle
esperienze del corso ministeriale di educazione al suono e alla musica, Padova, CLEUP, 1998.
63
F R A N C E S C O FA C C H I N
raise the tone of his voice when it dropped too low, and to cause him to
lower it when it was too high.51
[] for now, let us just take into account the single example of Gaius
Gracchus,52 a leading orator of his times; when he spoke in an assembly a
musician would stand behind him with a reed instrument (flute) called the
tonarion, who gave him the tones for which he should strive with his
voice.53
Roscius [] likes to repeat that the older he gets the more he will slow
down the flautists accompaniment and make the songs with a more mod-
erated speed. And if he, conditioned as he is by a strict law of rhythm and
metre, is still thinking even now of something that will give him a bit of
rest in his old age, how much more so will it be possible for us not only to
slow down the pace but also to change it completely?54
It is not clear whether Cicero is referring to the spoken or the singing voice,
even though indicating the highest notes seems not to leave any doubt:
however, the reference in several passages to the height of the voice in rela-
tion to the instrument, or to an intonation near to the sung note, presuppos-
es that the singing voice was taken as a useful reference to make it possi-
ble to give distinction to the heights with greater precision, thus distin-
guishing the single sounds so as to refer them to the intonation of the spo-
ken voice.
It seems then that for Cicero vocal exercise had the aim of maintaining vocal
agility and flexibility, and assuring intonation, rendering itself independent of
the tonarion. Another, no less important aim is to augment the breathing
51
CICERO: De Oratore, III, 225: [...] itaque et idem Graccus [] cum eburneola solitus est
habere fistula, qui staret occulte post ipsum, cum contionaretur, peritum hominem, qui inflaret
celeriter eum sonum, quo illum aut remissum excitaret aut a contentione revocaret.
52
Second half of the 2nd century B.C., brother of Tiberius Gracchus.
53
QUINTILIAN: Institutio oratoria, I, X, 27 [De musica]: [] uno interim contenti simus
exemplo C. Gracchi, praecipui suorum temporum oratoris, cui contionanti consistens post eum
musicus fistula, quam tonarion vocant, modos, quibus deberet intendi, ministrabat [].
54
CICERO: De Oratore, I, 254-255: solem idem dicere se [] eo tardiore tibicinis modos et
cantus remissiores esse facturum. Quod si ille, adstrictus certa quadam numerorum modera-
tione et pedum, tamen aliquid ad requiem senectutis excogitat, quanto facilius nos non laxare
modos, sed totos mutare possumus?.
64
S I C A N TA S , M A L E C A N TA S
capacity with the intention of obtaining sufficient breath for long utterances.
In any case, rather than indicating a theoretical and technical study, he is
pointing to a long-term effort, without fearing exposure to more dangerous
situations which any actor or singer would undoubtedly avoid.
And let us turn to the voice, to breathing, to gestures and the tongue itself:
to move and exercise them, there is not so much a need for a theory as for
assiduous effort; and with regard to this, the models to imitate, the models
which we wish to assimilate, much be chosen with care. We must look not
only to the orators, but also to the actors, to avoid imperfections or defects
as a result mistaken habits.55
So it is necessary to bring the word forth from the quiet refuge of these
domestic exercises, into the midst of the crowd, into the dust and racket,
into the camp and the battlefield of the forum; we must face up to the gaze
of all, and put to the proof our own intellectual capacities, and the prepa-
ration made must, in the end, come face to face with the light of reality.56
But good vocal technique is not everything; for the profession of orator
advice is given as to what exercises are best for speaking correctly what is
written down, because:
the majority[] only exercise the voice, (and that not even with exper-
tise), and the lungs; they increase the speed of speech and brag about their
rich vocabulary. And in this they deceive themselves, because they have
heard say that, in speaking, one usually learns to speak. But on the con-
trary, it is truly said that, as a result of speaking in an incorrect way, one
easily becomes a poor orator.57
55
CICERO, De Oratore, I, 156: [...] iam vocis et spiritus et totius corporis et ipsius linguae
motus et exercitationes non tam artis indigent quam laboris; quibus in rebus habenda est ratio
diligenter, quos imitemur, quorum similes velimus esse. Intuendi nobis sunt non solum ora-
tores, sed etiam actores, ne mala consuetudine ad aliquam deformatitem pravitatemque venia-
mus.
56
CICERO, De Oratore, I, 157: cfr. note 17.
57
CICERO, De Oratore, I, 149-150: Sed plerique in hoc vocem modo, neque eam scienter, et
vires exercent suas et linguae celeritatem incitant verborumque frequentia delectatur. In quo
fallit eos quo audierunt, dicendo homines ut dicant efficere solvere. Vere enim etiam illud dic-
itur, perverse dicere homines perverse dicendo facillime consequi.
65
F R A N C E S C O FA C C H I N
obstruct the fluid proceeding of ones own thought and of the content within
the rhetorical form. He advocates instead that one should perform exercises
in righting rather then in word than in improvisation or vocal technique, so
that no-one will be able to protest if the orator be raucous in voice, or poor in
tone. He is concerned, however, that the breathing should be correct, and he
makes breathing one of the subjects which should take a leading place in the
technical study of the voice, together with the gestures and the tongue, for the
pur pose of obtaining a ready, correct and flexible articulation.
Quintilian, in turn, examines the technical study of the voice in the edu-
cation of the young orator, and in outlining the components of the actio, voice
and gesture, he gives a first important indication of the parameters to be taken
into account in evaluating the quality of a voice:
The nature of the voice is assessed on the basis of its volume and timbre.
The problem of the volume is simpler: in general terms the voice is strong
or weak; but between these extreme levels there are intermediary species
and between what occupies the lowest levels and what occupies the high-
est, and vice-versa, there are many degrees. The timbre is more varied: the
voice is limpid, raucous, full or feeble, sweet or bitter, contained or dif-
fused, rigid or capable of modulation, sonorous or flat.58
Here we have criteria which are still considered valid even now, not even
negated by the present-day possibilities which offer us the tools for physical
analysis of sound, with which it is possibile to measure, within the whole
vocal range, the context within which the maximum outcome, or the differ-
ence of intensity, can be obtained, and the quality of the timbre can be kept
constant. In any case, the statements on the value of exercise and the rules to
be followed for an appropriate use and control of the voice remain true and
legitimate:
The qualities of the voice, too, like those of anything else, are strengthened
if attention is dedicated to them, and are weakened if they are neglected or
handled with incompetence.59
58
QUINTILIAN, Institutio oratoria, XI, III, 14-15: Natura vocis spectatur quantitate et qualitate.
Quantitas simplicior: in summam enim grandis aut exigua est; sed inter has extremitates medi-
ae sunt species et ab ima ad summam ac retro sunt multi gradus. Qualitas magis varia: nam est
et candida et fusca, et plena et exilis, et levis et aspera, et contracta et fusa, et dura et flexibilis,
et clara et optusa.
59
QUINTILIAN:, Institutio oratoria, XI, III, 19: Augenter autem sicut omnium, ita vocis quoque
bona cura, [et] neglegentia vel inscitia minuuntur.
66
S I C A N TA S , M A L E C A N TA S
[...] then the voice must not be forced beyond its own possibilities, because
it often proves to be suffocated : it is less clear as a result of being forced
too hard, and in turn, if it is uttered with violence, it will burst out in that
sound to which the Greeks have given a name which is derived from the
early call of the cockerel: [klogms or kokkysms].60
It is equally clear that attention was also to be given to avoiding those incor-
rect and even damaging forms of vocal behaviour which alter the tone of the
voice, rendering it no longer close to the text, such as happens when the
unpleasant tone of voice characteristic of reaching the extreme limit of the
vocal range, is used:
So, some suggestions are made about other vocal behaviour and capaci-
ties, still recommended today, suited to maintaining the continuity of
sound, intelligibility of the text, and fullness and richness of tone It is
necessary to prolong all the sounds, then hold the vowels and open wide
the throat.62
In the expression open wide the throat we find one of the many
manners of speaking which the singing teachers and choirmasters use
to encourage their students and singers to free themselves from the ten-
sions which are normally localised in the zone of the pharynx, especially
when singing in the high register. In this way, without those tensions, it
becomes possible to stabilise the position of the larynx in the lower reg-
ister in such a way as to throw the dimension of the voice into greater
relief.63 The movement of the tongue, too, is involved in aiding this quest.
In fact, the muscles which provide for the changing position of the tongue
contribute as much to the closing of the throat as to the opening of the
throat. The position of the open throat, moreover, is impeded by every
60
QUINTILIAN: Institutio oratoria, XI, III, 51: Vox autem ultra vires urgenda non est; nam et
soffocata saepe et maiore nisu minus clara est et interim elisa in illum sonum erumpit cui Greci
nomen a gallorum inmaturo cantu dederunt.
61
QUINTILIAN: Institutio oratoria, XI, III, 169: Est his diversa vox et paene extra organum, cui
Greci nomen amaritudinis dederunt, super modum ac paene naturam vocis humanae acerba
[].
62
QUINTILIAN: Institutio oratoria, XI, III, 167: Producenda omnia trahendequae tum vocales
aperiendaeque sunt fauces.
63
JUVARRA, Il canto, p. 35.
67
F R A N C E S C O FA C C H I N
tension applied to the muscles of the neck, and by every tendency to drag
the base of the tongue back.64
The difference and the distance which separate the act of speech from the
act of singing always remain clear, even though the two activities, as we have
often stated, have many aspects in common and are often mixed and confused
with each other, producing results which, for both Cicero and Quintilian, are
to be rejected. The reading must be virile and of a sweet gravity, and
should not resemble the reading of ordinary prose:
[...] since this is a matter of singing, and the poets claim to sing; the sing-
song tone must not be completely eliminated, nor should it be rendered
effeminate by trilling,65 as is fashionable today.66
thus it is a defect:
[...] with which we are particularly afflicted today in all the processes, and
in the schools: that of speaking in a sing-song tone. And I do not know
whether this is more useless or more ugly. What, indeed, is less suited to
an orator that a theatrical intonation, which at times resembles the gab-
bling of one who is drunk or over-indulging? [] And if we need to accept
this practice at all, then there is no reason not to reinforce that vocal inflec-
tion with cithers, flutes [] even cymbals.68
64
Ibid., p. 27.
65
See JUVENAL, The satires, 1, 17 ecc.
66
QUINTILIAN: Institutio oratoria, I, VIII, 2: [] quia et carmen est et se poetae canere tes-
tantur; non tamen in canticum dissoluta, nec plasmate, ut nunc a plerisque fit, effeminata.
67
QUINTILIAN: Institutio oratoria, XI, I, 56: in quibus non solum cantare, quod vitium perva-
sit, aut lascivire [] adfectibus decet.
68
QUINTILIAN: Institutio oratoria., XI, III, 57-59: Sed quodcumque ex his vitium magis tuler-
im quam, quo nunc maxime laboratur in causis scholisque, cantandi. Quod inutilius sit an
foedius nescio. Quid enim minus oratori convenit quam modulatio scaenica et nonnumquam
ebriorum aut comisantium licentiae similis? [] Quod si omnino recipiendum est, nihil causae
est cur non illam vocis modulationem fidibus ac tibiis, immo mehercule, quod est huic defor-
mitati propius, cymbalis adiuvemus.
68
S I C A N TA S , M A L E C A N TA S
Among the qualities which make a good orator, the possession of his
voice is thus one of the principal gifts, even though:
[...] not even the voice, if it is not devoid of defects, can ensure the best
actio; in fact a good, powerful voice can be used as one wishes, while
a bad or weak voice does not permit one to obtain many effects, such
as intensification and the cry, and it forces us to adopt certain devices,
such as interrupting oneself, lowering the tone of the voice, and rest-
ing the irritated throat and the tired lungs with an unpleasant singsong
tone.69
Even though it is not the task of the orator to review the motives and rea-
sons for the characteristics of the voice, it is even so important that the
voice should have a sweet tone, not that of a rebuke, and since the
modes of modulating voices are so varied, its qualities should be strength-
ened if one devotes attention to it. The attention paid to the voice from the
point of view of health, or in other words as rules for maintaining its state
of health, is very interesting. The vocal apparatus, the throat is com-
pared to an instrument, the flute, and to its imperfect functioning when-
ever its maintenance is neglected. It goes without saying that by placing
the flute alongside the voice, Quintilian means to refer to the articulation
and resonance: the localisation of which in the proprioceptive sensations
is referred mainly to the throat, where certain modifications in the vocal
tract are also to be found (these were referred to in connection with the
expression a gola bene aperta:
Just as the flute, although it has received the same amount of air, pro-
duces a different sound according to whether the holes are open or
closet, or it has not been cleaned sufficiently, or there are cracks pre-
sent, so the throat, when it is swollen strangles the voice; when it is
weak, renders it fuzzy, when it is irritated, renders it raucous, when it
is spasmodically contracted, produces a sound like a broken reed. The
expired air is also interrupted by an obstacle, like a streamlet by a
stone: even if its wave is then reunited further on, this nevertheless
leaves a gap after the obstacle. Saliva, too, when there is too much of
it, is an obstacle to the voice, when it is exhausted it deprives it of its
support. In fact, as in the case of the body, fatigue strikes not only at
69
QUINTILIANo, Institutio oratoria, XI, III, 13: Sed ne vox quidem [nisi] libera vitiis actionem
habere optimam potest. Bona enim firmaque, ut volumus, uti licet; mala vel inbecilla et inhi-
bet multa, ut insurgere et clamare, et aliqua cogit, ut intermittere et deflectere et rasas fauces
ac latus fatigatum deformi cantico reficere.
69
F R A N C E S C O FA C C H I N
It is not possible to fix a time for taking a walk for someone who is
engaged in numerous public affairs, and he cannot prepare his voice to
intone all sounds, from the deepest to the highest, nor can he always
keep it free from forcing, because he often has to speak in several
processes. And the rules relating to food are different, because there is
not so much a need for a sweet and delicate voice as one that is power-
ful and durable.73
In this context I would like to stress briefly this different attention to the
activities connected with health and the food supply, and also to sexual
behaviour, between orators and singers, which throws light not only on what
their role was, but also on the question of what type of activity the vocal act
was associated with. Professional vocal activity was in fact considered on a
par with the training which the athlete gave his own physique, with the aim
of maintaining and improving his performance. But I do not wish to go fur-
ther into this; it is another interesting chapter for investigation, on how the
concept of voice and vocal activity was undergoing transformation and hence
also the technical approach to it.74
Here, then are some objectives for the training of the young. After insist-
70
QUINTILIAN, Institutio oratoria, XI, III, 20-21: Nam ut tibiae eodem spiritu accepto alium
clusis, alium paertis foraminibus, alium non satis purgatae, alium quassae sonum reddunt, item
fauces tumentes strangulant vocem, optusae obscurant, rasae exasperant, convulsae fractis
sunt organis similes. Finditur etiam spiritus obiectu aliquo, sicut lapillo tenues aquae, quarum
fluctus etiam si ultra paulum coit, aliquid tamen cavi relinquit post id ipsum quod offenderat.
Umor quoque vocem ut nimius impedit, ita consumptus destituit. Nam fatigatio, ut corpora,
non ad praesens modo tempus, sed etiam in futurum adficit.
71
See note 59.
72
Cf. notes 24 and 25.
73
QUINTILIAN, Institutio oratoria, XI, III, 22-23: Sed ut communiter et phonascis et oratoribus
necessaria est exercitatio, quo omnia convalescunt, ita cura non idem genus est. Nam neque
certa tempora ad spatiandum dari possunt tot civilibus officiis occupato, nec praeparare ab
imis sonis vocem ad summos, nec semper a contentione condere licet cum pluribus iudiciis
saepe dicendum sit. [] Ne ciborum quidem est eadem observatio; non enim tam molli ten-
eraque voce quam forti ac durabili opus est.
74
Cf. above, 92.
70
S I C A N TA S , M A L E C A N TA S
I do not wish that the voice of the boy whom we are teaching should be weak-
ened for this purpose, should become frail like that of a girl, or tremble like that
of an old man. [] What then is the task of this teacher? In the first place, if there
are defects of pronunciation, they should be corrected, so that the words come
out clear, and an appropriate sound is emitted for each letter. [],75
he also stresses the need to eliminate the defects of manner and emission, as, he
says, it is:
intolerable that words should be heard pronounced deep down in the throat, or
made to resound in the cavity of the mouth, or that the natural sound of the
voice should be altered by an effect of greater fullness an absolutely unsuit-
able artifice for a pure declamation, which the Greeks call katapeplasmenon
(this is how the sound of the flute is defined when the holes which make the
notes clear are closed, and the breath, passing exclusively from the direct exit,
produces a deeper timbre). The actor will also take care [.] that every time
that it is necessary to raise the voice the effort shall come from the lungs and
not from the head [].76
Aline Rousselle77 sees in this last statement in which it is recommended that the
vocal effort be referred to the lungs and not the head a link with a form of child-
hood vocal education aimed at the use of the chest register. On the contrary, it
seems to me more probable that it should be understood as a reference to the real-
isation of the so-called appoggio sul fiato. This interpretation would also seem to
be supported by the warnings which immediately precede it, against collapsing
the last syllable, so that the discourse shall be kept uniform.78
75
QUINTILIAN, Institutio oratoria, De prima pronuntiationis et gestus institutione, I, XI, 1,4: Non enim
puerum, quem in hoc instituimus, aut femineae vocis exilitate frangi volo aut seniliter tremere. []
Quod est igitur huius doctoris officium? In primis vitia si qua sunt oris emendet, ut expressa sint verba,
ut suis quaeque litterae sonis enuntientur [].
76
QUINTILIAN, Institutio oratoria. I, XI, 6-9: [] nec verba in faucibus patietur audiri, nec oris inani-
tate resonare, nec, quod minime sermoni puro conveniat, simplicem vocis naturam pleniore quondam
sono circumliniri, quod Graece catapeplasmenon dicunt (sic appellatur cantus tibiarum quae, praeclu-
sis quibus clarescunt foraminibus, recto modo exitu graviorem spiritum reddunt). Curabit etiam [] ut
parsibi sermo sit, ut quotiens exclamandum erit, lateris conatus sit ille, non capitis [].
77
ROUSSELLE, Parole et inspiration, pp. 133-134.
78
QUINTILIAN, Intitutio oratoria, I, XI, 8: Curabit etiam ne extremae syllabae intercidant, ut par sibi
sermo sit []. See also in note 40 concerning the need of the voice for health and correct function-
ing of the lungs, thorax and head.
71
F R A N C E S C O FA C C H I N
79
On this, see JUVARRA, La realizzazione dellappoggio nel canto e il ruolo del fiato nelle-
missione e levoluzione dellappoggio, in Il canto, pp. 31-35: 35 e 36-42: 39.
80
Compare the treatment of breathing, and its relative defects QUINTILIAN, Institutio oratoria,
XI, III, 53-56. For the phsiological aspects see DE SANCTIS - FUSSI, La parola e il canto,
pp.125-126, 131-139.
81
The relation between posture, position of the articulatory organs and correct emission of the
voice is clearly present in the school of singing: see, in this context, BARTHLMY, La voix
libre, note 29.
72
S I C A N TA S , M A L E C A N TA S
lacking but the attention of the adult world. [] there is not anyone who has
not obtained anything through serious study.82
82
QUINTILIANo, Institutio oratoria, I, I, 2-3: [] in pueris elucet spes plurimorum: quae cum
emoritur aetate, manifestum est non naturam deficisse, sed curam. [] sed plus efficiet aut
minus: nemo reperitur, qui sit studio nihil consecutus.
83
At around 7 years old, boys and girls began to attend elementary school, where they learned
reading, writing and simple arithmetic; first, between 4 and 7 years, they were entrusted to the
pedagogues, usually slaves who dealt with their moral and intellectual training. The grammar
school, which represented the secondary level of education, was attended between 9-10 and
14-15 years of age.
84
QUINTILIAN: Institutio oratoria, I, I, 18,19: [] Aut cur hoc quantulumqumque est usque
ad septem annos lucrum fastidiamus? [] Non ergo perdamus primum statim tempus, arque
eo minus quod initia litterarum sola memoria constant, quae non modo iam est in parvis, sed
tum etiam tenacissima est.
85
QUINTILIAN: Institutio oratoria, I, I, 4,5: [] Ante omnia, ne sit vitiosus sermo nutricibus
[] Has primum audiet puer, harum verba effingere imitando conabitur, et natura tenacissimi
sumus eorum quae rudis animis percepimus [].
86
QUINTILIAN: Institutio oratoria, I, I, 6: In parentibus vero quam plurimum esse eruditionis
optaverim. Nec de patribus tantum loquor: nam Gracchorum eloquentiae multum contulisse
accepimus Corneliam matrem [].
87
QUINTILIAN: Institutio oratoria, I, I, 8: De paedagogis hoc amplius, ut aut sint eruditi plane,
quam primam esse curam velim, aut se non esse eruditos sciat.
88
QUINTILIAN: Institutio oratoria, I, I, 20: Lusus hic [studium] sit, et rogetur et laudetur et
numquam non fecisse se gaudeat [].
73
F R A N C E S C O FA C C H I N
Grammar, furthermore, since it must deal with metre and rhythm, can-
not be complete, if it sets aside notions of music.89
Very rightly all have recommended saving the voice in a special way in the
period of transition from childhood to adolescence, because it is naturally
impeded [] everything, so to speak, is a seedling at this stage, and thus
more delicate and exposed to damage.90
It should be stressed in this context that both Greeks and Romans com-
pared the phenomenon of the breaking of the voice,91 typical of puberty,
to the sound produced by goats. Aristotle describes at some length the
phenomenon during which the childish voice gradually lowers in tone,
developing the characteristics of the adult male voice. But this change is
accompanied by roughness, and is characterised by great irregularity: it
is no longer so sharp and high, but not yet genuinely deep. Also, it is not
yet completely stable and recalls the sound of chords that are not per-
fectly tensed, and are out of tune. On this score, Aristotle had specified
that the phenomenon was more evident in those who had begun some
kind of sexual activity, while in those who abstained, such as singers and
89
QUINTILIAN: Institutio oratoria. I, IV, 4: Tum neque citra musicen grammatice potest esse
perfecta, cum ei de metris rhythmisque dicendum sit [].
90
QUINTILIAN: Institutio oratoria. XI, III, 28-29: Illud non sine causa est ab omnibus prae-
ceptum, ut parcatur maxime voci in illo a pueritia in adulescentiam transitu, quia naturaliter
impeditur, non, ut arbior, propter calorem, quod quidam putaverunt (nam est maior alias) sed
propter umorem potius: nam hoc aetas illa turgescit. Itaque nares etiam ac pectus eo tempore
tument, atque omnia velut germinant eoque sunt tenera et iniuriae obnoxia. For a comment
relating to the problem of the change of voice see ROUSSELLE, Parole et inspiration, p. 136;
and aslo Eyben, Antiquity, pp. 680-682, 686-687, in particolar, pp. 688-691 for a descrip-
tion accordino to the historical and literary sources of alterations in the vocal timbre durino
the change of voice.
91
ARISTOTLE: De animalium generatione, V, VII, 787b, 32-788a, 1-2; ARISTOTLE, Generation
of animals, English transl. By Arthur Leslie Peck, Cambridge, Massachusetts, London, Eng-
land, Harvard University press-William Heinemann Ltd, 19532, pp. 550-551: And as these
changes come about (in sexual development) so the voice also behaves, more so in the males,
but the same thing also occurs in the females, but in a less obvious way. It happens that the
voice- as some describe it is breakingduring he stage in which it is duneven. After this, at
the due age, it stabilises at a deep or a high pitch.
74
S I C A N TA S , M A L E C A N TA S
[...] should be made not in moments when the orator is tired, but in those
in which he needs to take breath; they should be indicated not by punctu-
ation marks made by the copyists, but by the rhythm of words and
thoughts.93
[...] shortness of breath and the need to breathe have made pauses between
one sentence and another and intervals between words, necessary. But this
invention is so pleasing that, even if someone were gifted with inex-
haustible breath, we would not wish him to pronounce his words without
pausing: in fact it is pleasing to our ears not only to listen to what the lungs
can sustain, but also what they can undertake with ease. Consequently,
while the longest sentence may be the one pronounced with a single emis-
sion of breath, this is the rule of nature, different from that of art.94
92
ARISTOTLE, Historia animalium, IX (VII), I, 581a, 18-28; in ARISTOTLE, History of animals,
3voll., ed. and Engl. transl. by David M. Balme, Cambridge, Massachusetts, London, England,
Harvard University press, 1991, pp. 415-416: Around this age [the age of fourteen years], the
voice begins to become more raucous and uneven, no longer high-pitched, but not yet deep
and not yet completely uniform, which reminds us of strings of an instrument which are poor-
ly tensed and out of tune: something which is termed goat-voice. All this is more evident in
those who undertake sexual activity: in fact in those who devote themselves to it with ener-
gy, the voice changes quickly into the virile register; the opposite occurs in the case of those
who abstain. When they control it with exercises, as do those who devote themslves to choral
singing, the voice remains the same for longer, and undergoes a more subtle change. This is
also the opinion of QUINTILIAN: Institutio oratoria: XI, III, 19-20.
93
CICERO: De Oratore, III, 173: [] interspirationis enim, non defetigationis nostrae neque
librariorum notis sed verborum et sententiarum modo interpunctas clausulas in orationibus
esse voluerunt [].
94
CICERO: De Oratore, III, 181-182: [...] clausulas enim atque interpuncta verborum animae
interclusio atque angustiae spiritus attulerunt. id inventum ita est suave ut si cui sit infinitus
spiritus datus, tameneum perpetuare verba nolimus. Id enim auribus nostris gratum est inven-
tum, quod hominum lateribus non tolerabile solum, sed etiam facile esse possit. Longissima
est igitur conplexio verborum, quae volvi uno spiritu potest. Sed hic naturae modus est, artis
alius.
75
F R A N C E S C O FA C C H I N
Thus, already in dealing with reading exercise, Quintilian insists, as Cicero had
done, on the need for practical example, and points the attention to the use of the
breath, so that:
[...] the boy can learn when to hold his breath, at what point he should make
a pause within the verse, where he should conclude and where to begin a pas-
sage or a thought when to raise and when to lower the voice, what to say with
the various inflections, what to say more slowly and what more quickly, what
with greater excitement and what with greater calm [] the child must
understand what he is reading.95
So the aspects which are considered both by Cicero and Quintilian in the func-
tional use of musical skills in the art of the orator concern the voice and direct-
ly linked to it, the breathing and those aspects that are connected with rhythm.
To give greater clarity to the role and importance of the breathing for any-
one who uses the voice, Quintillian describes certain defective respiratory
actions, such as uneven breathing, which causes a tremolo, the whistling sound
of those who suck in their breath between the teeth, or those who breathe anx-
iously or make their breath resound noisily internally, as is the case with some
who:
95
QUINTILIAN: Institutio oratoria., I, VIII,1-2: Superest lectio: in qua puer ut sciat ubi sus-
pendere spiritum debeat, quo loco versum distinguere, ubi concludatur sensus, unde incipiat,
quando attollenda vel summittenda sit vox, quid quoque flexu, quid lentius, celerius, conci-
tatius, lenius dicendum, demostrari nisi in opere ipso non potest. [] ut omnia ista facere pos-
sit, intelligat.
96
QUINTILIAN: Institutio oratoria, XI, III, 53: Spiritus quoque nec crebroreceptus concidat
sententiam, nec eo usque trahatur donec deficiat. Nam et deformis est consumpti illius sonus
et respiratio sub aqua diu pressi similis et receptus longior et non oportunus, ut qui fiat non ubi
volumus, sed ubi necesse est. Quare longiorem dicturis perihodon colligendus est spiritus, ita
tamen ut id neque diu neque cum sonofaciamus, neque omnino ut manifestum sit: reliquis part-
ibus optime inter iuncturas sermonis revocabitur.
76
S I C A N TA S , M A L E C A N TA S
[...] actually affect this practice, to give the impression of being over-
whelmed by the abundance of the ideas they have conceived [].
While both Cicero and Quintilian describe the events and the gestures of the
voice, neither of them makes a basic distinction between voice, the physical
reality of the vocal sound, and word the semantic element produced by the
articulation of the laryngeal sound. Galen, following his anatomical and
physiological observations, was to distinguish in the vocal product between
the physical characteristics: intensity (great and small voice), pitch (deep and
high) roughness and dryness, and also its capacity for modulation: broken
sound, plaintive and so on, and the distinction between fast and slow. Galen
thus traces the reality of the voice as a sonorific element back to its produc-
tive instrument, the larynx, with the muscles that move it and all the nerves
which carry the commands from the brain to the muscles, and the driving
force of the lungs acting as bellows. The word, on the other hand, is the artic-
ulatory reality, which depends on the organs designed to modify the flow of
air and sound, the principal of which is the tongue, but also the action of the
nose (the nasal cavity) lips and teeth.
Galens studies in this context led to important discoveries such as that of
the recurrent nerve (which innervates, and thus controls, the muscles of the
larynx) and of the intercostal muscles in the breathing action of inspiration
and respiration.98 Hence the constant movement between two poles: phonation
97
See QUINTILIAN: Institutio oratoria, XI, III, 55-56: [] etiam si non utique vocis sunt vitia,
quia tamen propter vocem accidunt potissimum huic loco subiciantur.
98
CLAUDIUS GALEN: De usu partium corporis humani, in Claudii Galeni Opera omnia, hrsg.
v. C.G. Khn, Hildeshein, Georg Olms Verlagsbuchhandlung, 20 voll., 1964-1965: voll. III-
IV, 1964; Lib.V: xv, e VII: v e VII: xi-xiii, Italian trans. Opere scelte di Galeno, edited by Ivan
Garofalo e Mario Vegetti, Torino, UTET, 1978 (Classici della scienza, collezione diretta da
Ludovico Geymonat), Lib. V: xv, 399-343 pag. 432, Lib. VII: v, 525-526, p. 492; VII: xi, 554-
555, pp. 506-507; VII: xii, 557-560, p. 508; VII: xiii, 560-563, pp. 509-510.
77
F R A N C E S C O FA C C H I N
and respiration.
In examining how the increase in the tempi of vocal emission after an inspi-
ration does not depend simply on calm respiration but on deep respiration, typi-
cal of the winebag blowers or flute or trumpet players,99 Galen also anticipated
the observations on the respiratory mechanism of singers, whose intake of breath
tends to be deep and rapid. But in order not to be devoid of strength it is advan-
tageous that one should be capable of using the efficiency of the diaphragm and
of the external intercostal muscles to the maximum, thus rendering the use of
other muscles minimal. This is done through appropriate respiratory exercises, to
be practised in a vertical position, but also in a horizontal position, lying supine
or on one side.100 The discovery that traumas of various kinds to the lungs harm
the respiratory system with consequent diminution of the respiratory volume
and the voice, causing a lessening of the intensity of phonation reminds us once
again of two important concerns: the social role of the voice and the voice as
symptom of essential, vital activity.101 The sound which human beings articulate
into language is intimately linked with life: the voice is not an additional asset
given to man but a fundamental element of the structure of living beings.
Among the exercises for the health of the voice, it is advised that one should
not emit air strongly (as the athletes do) because this causes cooling and dry-
ing of the parts; thus the deepest possible notes are to be emitted or sung. One
should definitely refrain from emitting high notes, but the exercise always con-
sists in rising little by little from the deeper notes, and slowly reinforcing the
voice on the higher notes. It is the deeper notes which thus constitute the princi-
pal and most important source of the well-uttered voice: as much air as possible
must be conveyed within by inspiration. It is through the deep and soft notes that
it is possibile to obtain greater dispersion of humidity. So this healthy exercise
for the voice acts as the gymnastics of the intellectual and the politician; it is part
of school and post-school education, and is intended to introduce air into the body
and emit humidity.
99
GALEN, Sui movimenti dei muscoli, in Opere scelte, II, ix.
100
DE SANCTIS - FUSSI, La parola e il canto, pp. 135-135ff.
101
Cfr. ROUSSELLE, Parole et inspiration, pp. 144-45.
78
S I C A N TA S , M A L E C A N TA S
Concluding observations
Once again the continuity of a culture of care for the voice is being renewed;
today, despite the many suggestions made, it seems to have been lost in
favour of a practice which is sometimes over-strenuous and at other times
over intellectualised. Vocal activity is above all a psycho-motor practice in
which the action of several systems (the nervous, respiratory, phonatory,
articulatory and auditory-perceptive) must be concerted or must take place
according to a quite delicate synchrony. The organised work of the muscles
which govern posture, respiration, phonation and articulation, etc., has as its
ultimate aim the integration of the voice itself with the general notion of the
body. Even simple unison intonation requires a set of operations in which not
only the productive mechanism, but also the perceptive and proprioceptive
mechanisms are involved directly; in other words the mechanisms of obser-
vation and memorisation of all the internal, tactile and muscular sensations
which allow the gradual construction of the corporeal-vocal scheme. They
can be summed up, as Per-Gunnar Alldahl, notes, in attention, interior listen-
102
Ibid., p. 153.
103
Ibid.
79
F R A N C E S C O FA C C H I N
ing and active concentration; attention to ones own voice, and also in rela-
tion to others, and towards the mechanisms of control of the intonation,
which is influenced by the vocal register, the chosen dynamics, and the tim-
bre.104 Thus this is a question of abilities which can be used not simply with-
in the musical context (even if this does exploit them and in didactic terms
care is taken of their greater development), but also in extra-musical contexts,
by improving and (when occasion permits) providing better maintenance of
our perceptive capacities on the one hand, and communicative abilities on the
other.
One often has the feeling today that in musical teaching attention is main-
ly given to the material used, to overall musical activities to be undertaken,
and naturally to the question of whether they are more or less demanding or
motivating. On the other hand, the interest of those involved with vocal
training seems to underestimate childhood vocal education, in order to devote
greater attention to the already formed, adult voice, The impression that one
gets is that it is still taken for granted that singing together, in chorus, is moti-
vating in itself, and represents a sufficient vocal practice, setting aside the
value of an adequate vocal education from the earliest years, primary as
health education, and indeed education for the voice as a model of health.105
In the end, what does it serve mute men to have that divine spirit in them?
For this reason, if we have received no greater gift from the gods than the gift of words,
What should we esteem as equally worthy of care and effort,
or in what should we wish to excel among men
more than in what men themselves excel amid all the other animals?106
104
PER-GUNNAR ALLDAHL, Lintonazione del coro. Manuale teorico-pratico per direttori di
coro, coristi, cantanti, edited by Fabio Lombardo and Silvio Segantini, Firenze, Centro di
Ricerca e Sperimentazione per la Didattica Musicale, 2000, p. 18.
105
I am grateful to my friend Dr. Mario Rossi, phoniatrician at the Centro di foniatria e audi-
ologia of the University of Padova who, in pointing out this equivalence, called my attention
to rethinking my own way of understanding vocalit, its principles and aims, above all in the
context of pedagogy and education and infancy.
106
QUINTILIAN: Institutio oratoria, II, XVI, 17: Denique homines quibus negata vox est quan-
tulum adiuvat animus ille caelestis? Quare si nihil a dis oratione melius accepimus, quid tam
dignum cultu ac labore ducamus aut in quo malimus praestare hominibus quam quo ipsi
homines ceteris animalibus praestant?. See also CICERO: De Oratore, I, 32-33.
80
IVANO CAVALLINI
Molto stato scritto negli ultimi tempi su Jakob Handl Gallus e le mie paro-
le non aggiungeranno quasi nulla di nuovo alla conoscenza della sua opera.1
Ciononostante, le assidue ricerche condotte sulla biografia del compositore
sloveno, in Austria Boemia Moravia e Slesia, non hanno contribuito del tutto
a fare luce su alcuni aspetti fondamentali della sua personalit artistica. Man-
cano, per esempio, le risposte agli interrogativi pi volte sollevati circa la sua
dimestichezza con i circoli intellettuali di Praga, citt ove il maestro si trasfe-
r intorno alla met del 1586 dopo essere stato choro praefectus a Olomouc
(Olmtz) e in altri luoghi della Moravia. Inoltre, limpiego presso la chiesa di
Svati Jan na Brzehu in qualit di regens chori fa di Gallus una figura di secon-
do piano se confrontata con Philippe de Monte e Charles Luython, i quali ope-
ravano alle dirette dipendenze dellimperatore Rodolfo II. Il maestro, tuttavia,
trov conforto al suo probabile isolamento nellamicizia con i poeti e con gli
accademici praghesi. Tra questi Jakob Chimarrhaeus, cappellano di corte e
cantore che favor lattivit di Gallus, e fu da questi ricambiato con la compo-
sizione dellode a sei voci Chimarrhaee tibi io,2 Jan Sequenides Cernovicky, il
cui sostegno fu indispensabile per la pubblicazione dei Moralia (1596),3 e gli
scrittori che pi o meno direttamente hanno contribuito con i loro testi alla
confezione di una parte di questa raccolta.4
La scelta di Gallus di dare alle stampe nel pieno della sua maturit artisti-
ca opere profane in lingua latina, e le suggestioni cui fu sottoposto quando
pervenne a tale decisione, sono i motivi sui quali si pu ancora ragionare,
senza la pretesa di offrire una soluzione definitiva del problema.
Prima di affrontare tale argomento utile gettare uno sguardo alla tradi-
zione della polifonia scolastica e ai mutamenti avvenuti dopo la met del XVI
1
Lultimo ponderoso contributo il volume di EDO SKULJ, Clare vir. Ob 450 letnici rojstva
Iacobusa Gallusa [Clare vir. a 450 anni dalla nascita di Iacobus Gallus], Ljubljana, Sloven-
ska Akademija Znanosti in Umetnosti, 2000, in particolare, per il tema qui affrontato, cfr. il
cap. Gallusovi madrigali [I madrigali di Gallus], pp. 245-297.
2
DRAGOTIN CVETKO, Iacobus Handl Gallus vocatus carniolanus, Ljubljana, Slovenska Akade-
mija Znanosti in Umetnosti, 1991, p. 33.
3
JACOB HANDL, The Moralia of 1596, ed. by Allen Bennet Skei, Madison, A-R, 1970.
4
Alcune testimonianze sui contatti di Gallus con gli umanisti di Praga sono state raccolte da
JITKA SNIZKOV, Jacobus Handl Gallus und Prag in drei Dokumenten, in Jacobus Gallus and
his Time, ed. by Dragotin Cvetko and Danilo Pokorn, Ljubljana, The Slovene Academy of
Sciences and Arts, 1985, pp. 134-141.
81
I VA N O C AVA L L I N I
secolo nella media Europa, in virt della graduale affermazione delle lingue
nazionali a discapito del latino.
Anzitutto va rilevato che la grande diversit tra lItalia e i paesi dellEu-
ropa centrale costituita in questi ultimi dalluso estensivo del latino, non
solo come lingua dellamministrazione e della chiesa cattolica, ma anche
della letteratura e in special modo della lirica. La forza del latino promanava
dalle scuole e dalle universit e la sua codificazione era avvenuta anche in
senso poetico, quale veicolo dellespressione personale degli autori, in quan-
to mancava qualsiasi unit linguistica tra polacchi tedeschi ungheresi ruteni
slovacchi cechi sloveni e croati, e non sussistevano le condizioni per motiva-
re un legame analogo a quello con il volgare reclamato dai letterati di casa
nostra ( necessario essere latino chi vuol essere buon toscano afferma Cri-
stoforo Landino).5 Alla cospicua tradizione scolastica si contrappongono,
comunque, le tendenze dei maestri tedeschi e francofiamminghi operanti in
quel vasto territorio, che iniziarono a privilegiare i nuovi generi profani
madrigale chanson villanella e Lied riservando la lingua morta quasi esclu-
sivamente al settore della musica sacra. In questo quadro lopera di Gallus si
distingue da quella dei coetanei, soprattutto olandesi, i quali, con la tipica abi-
lit di chi abituato a pensare in varie lingue, si adattarono presto a musica-
re pezzi in italiano, francese e tedesco. Con una singolare inversione di rotta
il carnolianus, nelle Harmoniae morales6 e nei Moralia, opt invece per i
versi di Lilio, Vitale, Asmenio, Virgilio, Catullo, Massimiano, Ovidio e Mar-
ziale, al cui fianco volle collocare 37 componimenti di autori cechi anonimi,
riuniti nellantologia Carmina proverbialia (1576), e alcuni segmenti dei Pro-
verbia dicteria di Andreas Gartner (1575), come si pu vedere nella lista che
segue, frutto dei minuziosi confronti attuati da Allen Bennet Skei, Heinz Wal-
ter Lanzke e Edo Skulj:7
5
BOJAN BUJIC, Humanist Tradition, Geography and the Style of Late Sixteenth-Century Music,
in Gallus carniolus in evropska renesansa [Gallus carniolus e il rinascimento europeo], I, ur.
Dragotin Cvetko in Danilo Pokorn, Ljubljana, Slovenska Akademija Znanosti in Umetnosti,
1991, pp. 7-22.
6
Le edizioni pi accreditate di questopera sono: JACOBUS GALLUS CARNIOLUS, Harmoniae
morales quatuor vocum, ur. Dragotin Cvetko in Ludvik ZEPIC, Ljubljana, Slovenska Matica,
1966; e ID., Harmoniae morales, ur. Edo Skulj, Ljubljana, Slovenska Akademija Znanosti in
Umetnosti, 1995 (Monumenta Artis Musicae Sloveniae, 26).
7
ALLEN BENNET SKEI, Jakob Handl Moralia, I, Ph.D. diss., University of Michigan, 1965, pp.
76-78; ID., Jakob Handl Moralia, The Musical Quarterly, LII, 1966, pp. 431-447; HEINZ
WALTER LANZKE, Die weltlichen Chorgesnge Moralia von Jacobus Gallus, Doktorwrde
Diss., Universitt zu Mainz, 1964, pp. 13-16; JACOBUS GALLUS, Harmoniae morales, ur. Edo
Skulj cit.
82
LE HARMONIAE MORALES DI J. H. GALLUS
83
I VA N O C AVA L L I N I
8
GIUSEPPE VECCHI, Lirica di Catullo e umanesimo musicale, in ID., Dulce melos, IV, Bologna,
AMIS, 1982, pp. 9-19, cfr. anche lintroduzione a Petri Tritonii Melopoiae sive harmoniae
tetracenticae, a cura di Giuseppe Vecchi, Bologna, AMIS, 1967.
9
Il rapporto paradigmatico tra le Harmoniae morales e i circoli intellettuali di Praga stato
indagato anche da HARTMUT KRONES, Musik und Humanismus im Prag Rudolfs des II. am
Beispiel der Moralia von Iacobus Gallus, Wiener humanistische Bltter, XXXIII, 1992,
pp. 57-74.
84
LE HARMONIAE MORALES DI J. H. GALLUS
10
Dora in avanti al titolo dei singoli brani dellopera di Gallus far seguito la sigla H. m.
(= Harmoniae morales), con il numero ordinale indicante il volume di appartenenza e il cardi-
nale riferito alla posizione del brano nellintera collezione comprendente tre libri.
11
CVETKO, Iacobus Handl Gallus vocatus carniolanus cit., pp. 102-103.
85
I VA N O C AVA L L I N I
12
EMIL VOGEL - ALFRED EINSTEIN - FRANOIS LESURE - CLAUDIO SARTORI, Bibliografia della
musica italiana vocale profana pubblicata dal 1500 al 1700 [Il nuovo Vogel], Pomezia, Min-
koff, 1977, 3014.
13
ROBERT LINDELL, Music at the Court of Rudolf II, in Gallus carniolus in evropska renesansa
[Gallus carniolus e il rinascimento europeo], II, ur. Dragotin Cvetko in Danilo Pokorn, Ljubl-
jana, Slovenska Akademija Znanosti in Umetnosti, 1992, p. 160.
14
JAN KOUBA, Od husitsv do Bil hory [Dagli hussiti alla Montagna bianca], in Hudba v
ceskych dejinch od streedoveku do nov doby [La musica nelle storia dei cechi dal medioe-
vo ai tempi moderni], Praha, Supraphon, 1989, pp. 83-146: 98-100.
15
ALLEN BENNET SKEI, Handl, Jacob, in The The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musi-
cians, ed. by Stanley Sadie, London, Macmillan, 1980, VIII, pp. 140-142: 141. Sulloda si
legga il recente contributo di CLAUDIO GALLICO, Oda canto. Livelli musicali di umanesimo,
Rivista italiana di musicologia, XXXIV, n. 2, 1999, pp. 207-229.
16
SNIZKOV, Prispevek k odnosom Jacobusa Gallusa Handla do Prage [Contributo sul rap-
porto di Jacob Gallus Handl con Praga], Muzikoloski Zbornik, VI, 1970, pp. 12-19; ID.,
Jacobus Handl Gallus und Prag in drei Dokumenten cit.
86
LE HARMONIAE MORALES DI J. H. GALLUS
17
SNIZKOV, Jacobus Handl Gallus und Prag in drei Dokumenten cit., pp. 135-137. Il proble-
ma della messa studiata dalla Snizkov va inquadrato non tanto nellottica della specialit o
delleccezione, quanto di un uso strumentale di una tradizione comune anche alla chiesa catto-
lica. Per esempio, allepoca di Franchino Gaffurio a Milano era invalsa la prassi di intervenire
sullordinario con i mottetti missales per questioni di carattere devozionale, ossia in relazione
alle festivit previste dal calendario liturgico della diocesi. Queste deroghe, visibili nella cosid-
detta missa brevis, rispondono a criteri diversi da quelli che regolano gli adattamenti della
messa utraquista, che sono invece il frutto di una scelta dogmatica. La precisazione, al fine di
evitare qualsiasi fraintedimento, mi stata suggerita dal professor Giulio Cattin, cui va il mio
sentito ringraziamento.
18
SNIZKOV, Jacobus Handl Gallus und Prag in drei Dokumenten cit., pp. 137-139.
19
Cfr. ledizione moderna di Cvetko e Zepic cit. a nota 6.
20
Come attestano anche le provenienze pi disparate nellelenco dei riconoscimenti: SKEI,
Jakob Handl oralia, The Musical Quarterly, LII, 1966, pp. 431-447: 432, 438.
87
I VA N O C AVA L L I N I
21
DANILO POKORN, Animal Pictures in Gallus Moralia, in Jacobus Gallus and his Time cit.,
pp. 118-133; oltre al contributo di Pokorn si pu leggere lanalisi formale relativa alla musica
per il distico elegiaco di Catullo Odi et amo, proposta da PETER ANDRASCHKE, Textwahl und
Sprachbehandlung in den Moralia von Jacobus Gallus, in Gallus in mi - Gallus und Wir,
Ljubljana, Slovenski Glasbeni Dnevni, 1991, pp. 71-79.
22
POKORN, Animal Pictures in Gallus Moralia cit., pp. 122-123.
88
LE HARMONIAE MORALES DI J. H. GALLUS
23
Archadelt realizza il madrigalismo con una formula simile, ma di segno opposto, mediante
linversione dei termini. Mentre Gallus attua il passaggio dallimitazione allomoritmia, ribat-
tendo a lungo e in modo percussivo le medesime note alla parola mille (Archipoeta facit
versus pro mille poetis), il maestro fiammingo, nel testo di Giovanni Guidiccioni, antepone il
passo omoritmico allimitazione per conferire il senso di eco alla medesima parola; cfr. tra le
varie edizioni: JACQUES ARCADELT, Venti madrigali a quattro voci dal I libro, a cura di Luigi
Lera, Udine, Pizzicato, 1989, pp. 42-43.
24
Su cui CVETKO, Iacobus Handl Gallus vocatus carniolanus cit., p. 79.
89
I VA N O C AVA L L I N I
razione per il bel poetare e per la forza della logica (su cui i versi di Barbara
Celarent usati in chiave mnemotecnica), e quale strumento di elezione per il
libero dibattito tra uomini di cultura.25 La scelta di rinnovare la tradizione
accademica sfruttando uno stile variamente atteggiato, si configura come un
esercizio erudito e seducente, ma anche solitario e retrospettivo al cospetto
del nuovo corso impresso alla polifonia e degli eventi politici che di l a poco
sconvolgeranno la media Europa. La reazione degli Asburgo non lascer trac-
cia di quellumanesimo che a Praga aveva inglobato le istanze del verbo hus-
sita, coinvolgendo anche luniversit carolina, dalle cui fila furono allontana-
ti tutti i cattolici per formare una classe borghese compattamente evangelica
e ceca.26 A queste idee potrebbe essersi fugacemente accostato Gallus, se,
come credo, sono da reputare valide prove lamicizia con il rettore dellate-
neo Jan Plzenus, con il musico utraquista Turnovsky e con gli umanisti delle
societ dei santi Michele ed Enrico. Frequentazioni alle quali si aggiungono
la citata messa del Graduale latino-bohemicum e il contributo alla composi-
zione dei Christliche Psalmen, Lieder und Kirchgesange del teologo prote-
stante Nicolaus Selnecker (Leipzig, Beyer, 1586) con la musica per O Herre
Gott in meiner Noth ruff ich zu dir.27
25
LANZKE, Die weltlichen Chorgesnge Moralia von Jacobus Gallus cit., p. 33.
26
Ricavo queste notizie dal documentato saggio di ANNA SKYBOV, Le ordinazioni dei sacer-
doti utraquisti a Venezia nella prima met del XVI secolo, in Italia e Boemia nella cornice del
rinascimento europeo, a cura di Sante Graciotti, Firenze, Olschki, 1999 (Civilt veneziana, 49),
pp. 51-65: 67.
27
CVETKO, Iacobus Handl Gallus vocatus carniolanus cit., pp. 103, 121.
90
LE HARMONIAE MORALES DI J. H. GALLUS
Es. / Ex. 2 J. H. GALLUS, Quam gallina suum parit ovum, miss. / bars. 24-28.
91
I VA N O C AVA L L I N I
92
LE HARMONIAE MORALES DI J. H. GALLUS
Es. / Ex. 4 J. H. GALLUS, Heroes, pugnate viri fortissimi!, miss. / bars. 29-37.
93
I VA N O C AVA L L I N I
94
IVANO CAVALLINI
Much has recently been written on the Slovenian composer Jakob Handl
Gallus, so the present contribution will add hardly anything new to our
knowledge of his work.1 Nonetheless, despite assiduous research (in Austria,
Bohemia, Moravia and Silesia) on his life, there are still some fundamental
aspects of his artistic personality that need further illumination. One fre-
quently raised question awaiting an answer concerns his links with the intel-
lectual circles of Prague, the city where he settled around the middle of 1586
after serving as choro praefectus at Olomouc (Olmtz) and elsewhere in
Moravia. Then there is the matter of his job as regens chori at the church of
Svati Jan na Brzehu, a position that makes him a less important figure than
Philippe de Monte and Charles Luython, both of whom were directly
employed by the emperor Rudolph II. In his probable isolation, however, Gal-
lus found comfort in the friendship of the poets and academicians of Prague.
Among these were Jakob Chimarrhaeus, court chaplain and kantor, who sup-
ported Gallus activities and was duly rewarded with the composition of the
six-voice ode Chimarrhaee tibi io,2 Jan Sequenides Cernovicky, whose back-
ing was vital to the publication of the Moralia (1596)3 and the various writers
whose texts contributed (more or less directly, as the case may be) to the real-
ization of a part of this collection.4
Another issue on which there is room for further debate and on which
we do not pretend to offer a definitive solution here is that of Galluss deci-
sion to publish a collection of secular works in Latin at the peak of his artis-
tic maturity, and of the influences that lay behind that decision.
Before tackling this subject it is worth taking a quick glance at the tradi-
tion of scholastic polyphony and at the changes that occurred in central
1
The most recent substantial contribution is that of EDO SKULJ, Clare vir. Ob 450 letnici rojst-
va Iacobusa Gallusa [Clare vir. 450 years after the birth of Iacobus Gallus], Ljubljana, Sloven-
ska Akademija Znanosti in Umetnosti, 2000; on the subject dealt with here, see in particular
the chapter Gallusovi madrigali [The madrigals of Gallus], pp. 245-297.
2
DRAGOTIN CVETKO, Iacobus Handl Gallus vocatus carniolanus, Ljubljana, Slovenska
Akademija Znanosti in Umetnosti, 1991, p. 33.
3
JACOB HANDL, The Moralia of 1596, ed. by Allen Bennet Skei, Madison, A-R, 1970.
4
Evidence of Galluss contact with the Prague humanists has been collected by JITKA SNIZKOV,
Jacobus Handl Gallus und Prag in drei Dokumenten, in Jacobus Gallus and his Time, ed. by
Dragotin Cvetko and Danilo Pokorn, Ljubljana, The Slovene Academy of Sciences and Arts,
1985, pp. 134-141.
95
I VA N O C AVA L L I N I
Europe after the middle of the 16th century in connection with the gradual
affirmation of the national languages over the use of Latin.
In the use of Latin we observe above all a great diversity between Italy
and the central European countries, for in the latter areas Latin was widely
used not only in the administration and in the Catholic Church, but also in the
literature and, particularly, in the poetry. In the absence of any linguistic unity
binding Poles, Germans, Hungarians, Ruthenians, Slovaks, Czechs, and Croa-
tians, and in the absence of conditions justifying a link with the vernacular (as
had been claimed by the Italian literati: necessario essere latino chi vuol
essere buon toscano, was Cristoforo Landinos slogan), Latin was assidu-
ously cultivated in the schools and universities and the language was codified
as the medium for personal and poetic expression.5 Working against this
established scholastic tradition, however, was the growing tendency of the
German and Franco-Flemish musicians operating in that vast area to prefer
the new secular genres (madrigal, chanson, villanella and Lied) and to rele-
gate the dead language almost exclusively to the domain of sacred music.
Against this background Galluss work distinguishes itself from that of his
contemporaries, above all the Dutch, who (with the typical ability of those
accustomed to thinking in various languages) rapidly adapted to setting Ital-
ian, French and German texts. By a singular departure from this mainstream
Gallus opted, in both his Harmoniae morales6 and the Moralia, for the poet-
ry of Lilius, Vitalis, Asmenius, Virgil, Catullus, Maximianus, Ovid and Mar-
tial, together with 37 works by anonymous Czech authors collected in the
anthology Carmina proverbialia (1576), and other fragments of Andreas
Gartners Proverbia dicteria (1575). The following list (the result of meticu-
lous research carried out by Allen Bennet Skei, Heinz Walter Lanzke and Edo
Skulj) offers a more detailed picture:7
5
BOJAN BUJIC, Humanist Tradition, Geography and the Style of Late Sixteenth-Century
Music, in Gallus carniolus in evropska renesansa [Gallus carniolus and the European Renais-
sance], I, ur. Dragotin Cvetko in Danilo Pokorn, Ljubljana, Slovenska Akademija Znanosti in
Umetnosti, 1991, pp. 7-22.
6
The most reliable editions of this work are: JACOBUS GALLUS CARNIOLUS, Harmoniae morales
quatuor vocum, ur. Dragotin Cvetko in Ludvik ZEPIC, Ljubljana, Slovenska Matica, 1966; and
ID., Harmoniae morales, ur. Edo Skulj, Ljubljana, Slovenska Akademija Znanosti in Umetnos-
ti 1995 (Monumenta Artis Musicae Sloveniae, 26).
7
ALLEN BENNET SKEI, Jakob Handl Moralia, I, Ph.D. diss., University of Michigan, 1965, pp.
76-78; ID., Jakob Handl Moralia, in The Musical Quarterly, LII, 1966, pp. 431-447; HEINZ
WALTER LANZKE, Die weltlichen Chorgesnge Moralia von Jacobus Gallus, Doktorwrde
Diss., Universitt zu Mainz, 1964, pp. 13-16, GALLUS, Harmoniae morales, ur. Edo Skulj.
96
THE HARMONIAE MORALES OF J. H. GALLUS
97
I VA N O C AVA L L I N I
8
GIUSEPPE VECCHI, Lirica di Catullo e umanesimo musicale, in ID., Dulce melos, IV,
Bologna, AMIS, 1982, pp. 9-19; see also the introduction to Petri Tritonii Melopoiae sive har-
moniae tetracenticae, a cura di Giuseppe Vecchi, Bologna, AMIS, 1967.
9
The paradigmatic relationship between the Harmoniae morales and the literary circles of
Prague has also been investigated by HARTMUT KRONES, Musik und Humanismus im Prag
Rudolfs des II. am Beispiel der Moralia von Iacobus Gallus, in Wiener humanistische Bltter,
33, 1992, pp. 57-74.
98
THE HARMONIAE MORALES OF J. H. GALLUS
Dragotin Cvetko has justly supposed that while the composer as a true
carniolanus (as he liked to describe himself) certainly knew both German
and Czech, he perhaps failed to identify with any of the secular musical gen-
res that had recently emerged.11 In those years the Slavic languages had made
their appearance only in collections of devotional songs and in the liturgy of
the reformed churches, or among the Bohemian Utraquists and the Slovenian
and Croatian followers of Luther. Most likely it was Galluss remoteness from
the languages commonly used in the secular repertory that made him resort to
Latin. In other words, as a Slovenian unable to employ his mother tongue he
inevitably turned to Latin. If that were not the case, he wouldnt have used the
madrigal form as his manner of setting the scholastic texts, thus breaking with
an old custom observed at the cities he had frequented in Austria, Silesia,
Bohemia and Moravia. In this connection we must not be deceived by the fact
that secular works in Latin were also composed by other composers active in
Prague at about the same time. For example, the five- and six-voice Madri-
galia, tam italica, quam latina by Camillo Zanotti (Nuremberg, Gerlach,
10
Hereafter the title of Galluss individual works is followed by the letters H. m. (= Harmoni-
ae morales), a roman numeral indicating the volume number and an arabic numeral indicating
its place in the three-volume collection.
11
CVETKO, Iacobus Handl Gallus vocatus carniolanus, pp. 102-103.
99
I VA N O C AVA L L I N I
12
EMIL VOGEL ALFRED EINSTEIN FRANOIS LESURE- CLAUDIO SARTORI, Bibliografia della
musica italiana vocale profana pubblicata dal 1500 al 1700 [The new Vogel ], Pomezia,
Minkoff, 1977, 3014.
13
ROBERT LINDELL, Music at the Court of Rudolf II, in Gallus carniolus in evropska rene-
sansa [Gallus carniolus e il rinascimento europeo], II, ur. Dragotin Cvetko in Danilo Pokorn,
Ljubljana, Slovenska Akademija Znanosti in Umetnosti, 1992, p. 160.
14
JAN KOUBA, Od husitsv do Bil hory [From the Hussites to the White Mountain], in
Hudba v ceskych dejinch od streedoveku do nov doby [Music in the history of the Czechs
from the Middle Ages to modern times], Praha, Supraphon, 1989, pp. 83-146: 98-100.
15
ALLEN BENNET SKEI, Handl, Jacob, in The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians,
ed. by Stanley Sadie, London, Macmillan, 1980, VIII, pp. 140-142: 141. About the oda see
CLAUDIO GALLICO, Oda canto. Livelli musicali di umanesimo, in Rivista italiana di musi-
cologia, XXXIV, n. 2, 1999, pp. 207-229.
16
SNIZKOV, Prispevek k odnosom Jacobusa Gallusa Handla do Prage [Contribution on Jacob
Gallus Handl s relationship with Prague], in Muzikoloaki Zbornik, VI, 1970, pp. 12-19; ID.,
Jacobus Handl Gallus und Prag in drei Dokumenten.
100
THE HARMONIAE MORALES OF J. H. GALLUS
lows an Utraquist version divergent from the Roman liturgy, lacking the Sanc-
tus, Benedictus and Agnus Dei, replaced by the motets Laus tibi Christe, Mit-
tit ad Virginem and Beata es Virgo Maria, with the interpolation of chants
from the Bohemian Gradual in the tenor and discantus.17
Finally, the printed sheet entitled In tumulum Iacobi Handelii Carnioli
insignis musicae practicae Artificis, embellished with the emblem of Pax et
concordia and an effigy of the deceased, collects epicedia by Jan Khernerus
Plzenus, rector of the Carolinum University from 1585, Martin Galli, Jan
Matthiolus Vodniansis and Jan Sequenides Cernovicky, respectively rector,
succentor and gentleman on the staff at the school of St Henry.18
The Harmoniae morales are published in three books and total 53 pieces.
The first book, with 14 pieces, is entitled Quatuor vocum liber I harmoniarum
moralium quibus heroica, facetiae, naturalia, quodlibetica, tum facta fictaque
poetica & c. admixta sunt (Prague, Nigrin [=Cerny], 1589).19 The second and
third, printed in 1590 again by Nigrin in Prague with an imperial privilege,
contain 19 and 20 pieces respectively. The work is dedicated to the friends
and admirers who convinced Gallus to publish it (Iacobus Handl suis musi-
caeque amicis). There is nothing at all rhetorical about the dedication, as
there is cause to believe that he had been criticized for his work as a composer
entirely dedicated to sacred music.
The pieces collected by Gallus do not all belong to the genre of the
moralia. In other words, they do not always pursue didactic designs. His
typology has a broader ethical scope than that laid down by the humanists. As
for the use of sources, his recourse to the classical lyric is utterly free of con-
straint (hence the term quodlibetica in the title) and he freely unites lines dis-
tant from one another or juxtaposes new lines to original lines, as means of
improving the correspondence between text and polyphonic setting.20
Galluss modernity is expressed through a varied use of counterpoint and
an equally impressive use of harmonic elements; rarely, however, do we find
17
SNI KOV, Jacobus Handl Gallus und Prag in drei Dokumenten, pp. 135-137. The mass
studied by Snizkov must be seen not so much as a special or exceptional phenomenon, but
rather in relation to its functional use in a tradition common also to the Catholic church. In
Milan in Franchinus Gaffuriuss day, for example, motetti missales were introduced either for
devotional reasons or in connection with the festivities of the dioceses liturgical calendar.
These departures, which can be observed in the so-called missa brevis, respond to different cri-
teria from those governing the adaptations of the Utraquist mass, which are rather the result of
dogmatic choice. The importance of clarifying this point was recommended to me by Profes-
sor Giulio Cattin, whom I warmly thank.
18
SNIZKOV, Jacobus Handl Gallus und Prag in drei Dokumenten , pp. 137-139.
19
See the modern edition by Cvetko and Zepic (cited above, fn. 6).
20
As is also attested by the wide range of sources in the list of identifications: SKEI, Jakob
Handl Moralia , in The Musical Quarterly, LII, 1966, pp. 431-447: 432, 438.
101
I VA N O C AVA L L I N I
the sort of chromaticism that was then an emerging trait of the avant-garde
music. Imitatio naturae is also strongly featured. Gallus applies the principles
of mimesis while observing the rhythmic stresses of the lines (that sensitive-
ly translate the metre into note values) and uses madrigal techniques to rep-
resent the pictorial value of the words. The procedure is striking in the pieces
with animals as a subject. Currit parvus lepulus (H. m., I, 4), a contrafactum
of an earlier motif by Jan Campanus Vodniansky set by the students of Prague
(Flevit lepus parvulus), employs a madrigalism on ascendo to depict the
running of the hare.21 As in the prefaces to other works the composer makes
ironic play with his own name in Gallus amat Venerem (H. m., III, 36), though
here the cock is not zoomorphically represented, but suffers the agonies of
human love; the onomatopoeia at the words cucuri curit, stated in scalar
succession by all four voices, throws a satirical light on the model of the
amorous lament typical of the contemporary madrigal (Ex. 1).
The hen, on the other hand, is the subject of the seventh piece of the Har-
moniae, Quam gallina suum parit ovum, in which the rapid succession of
chords is reminiscent of the clucking of Ein Hennlein weiss by Antonio Scan-
dello (Neue und lustige weltlichen deutsche Liedlein, 1570).22 Compared to
the homophony of the Lied, however, the texture of Galluss madrigal draws
on a greater variety of expressive resources. Particular emphasis is given to
the shift from triple to duple time and the imitation of cackling at glo-glo,
gloc-ci-nat: here, with the last syllable, the soprano rises by a fourth, at
which all the voices suddenly make the leap from C to G major. Likewise, for
the cuckoo call in Permultos liceat cuculus (Moralia, 27), drawn from the
Carmina proverbialia, Gallus makes the relevant voices leap by a fifth and
fourth. In Anseris est giga it is the goose, cuckoo and crow that make an
appearance, while in Linquo coax ranis (H. m., III, 46) the stupidity of the
magpie is likened to the foolishness of those who speak without anything to
say, with a probable reference to the musicians detractors, pica sibi propria
garrulitate placet (Ex. 2).
The two elegiac distichs of Dulcis amica veni (H. m., II, 21), inspired by
the 11th-century De Philomela, exalt the vocal skills of the nightingale.
Instead of attempting an improbable onomatopoeia, the composer prefers to
insist on the word mille, thereby alluding to the multiple nuances expressed
by the bird in question. The same syntagma, a standard feature of the madri-
21
DANILO POKORN, Animal Pictures in Gallus Moralia, in Jacobus Gallus and his Time,
pp. 118-133; in addition to Pokorns contribution, see also the formal analysis of the music for
Catulluss elegiac distich Odi et amo by PETER ANDRASCHKE, Textwahl und Sprachbehand-
lung in den Moralia von Jacobus Gallus, in Gallus in mi Gallus und Wir, Ljubljana, Sloven-
ski Glasbeni Dnevni, 1991, pp. 71-79.
22
POKORN, Animal Pictures in Gallus Moralia, pp. 122-123.
102
THE HARMONIAE MORALES OF J. H. GALLUS
gal ever since Arcadelts day (cf. di mille morti in Il bianco e dolce cigno),
is again proposed by Gallus in Archipoeta facit versus (H. m., III, 36), where
the intention is to scoff at writers in the habit of reeling off encomiums for all
their colleagues and hence resorting to an interchangeable phraseology
devoid of emotional involvement (Ex. 3).23
Again in relation to corrupt culture, Doctus ait se scire (H. m., III, 37)
describes the imaginary erudition of the culture-less man.24 The dynamic ten-
sion resulting from the distribution of attacks (the technique of making the
voices enter one by one) makes this one of the boldest pieces in the collec-
tion; it also rules out all comparison with those Italian canzonette that
describe either pedants or poets that indulge in radical forms of linguistic
experimentation in the name of anti-Petrarchism.
Equally complex is Heroes, pugnate viri fortissimi! (H. m. I, 12), which
begins like a motet (largo and maestoso) and then evokes the atmosphere of
the battle through a denser and more nervous compositional style, also
employed to represent the explosions of the bombardae (exemplary is the
conduct at bom, bidi, bidi-bom and the analogous fam, fari, fari-ron).
While the descriptive element emerges very strongly, as it does in certain
pieces by Matteo Flecha (a Spanish musician employed at Rudolph IIs
chapel), Gallus still observes the teaching of the former magistri and employs
a pseudo-quantitative scheme that correctly translates the poetic metre into
note values (Ex. 4).
The examples reproduced suggest that the Harmoniae morales circulated
in Pragues intellectual environment during the fertile period when the Habs-
burg court was committed to important artistic patronage in the city. This,
then, must have been the ideal milieu for performing these Latin madrigals,
which are as moralizing in tone as the consilia of Johannes Murmelius (Sen-
tentiae et proverbia ex Plauto, Terentio, Virgilio, Ovidio, Horatio, 1534),
Johannes Anysius (Sententiae morales, 1529) or Johannes Camerarius (Opus-
cula quedam moralia, 1583), all of which draw on quotations from the clas-
sical auctores to preach the vanity of man and of love and the transience of
all things. In Galluss Harmoniae ancient knowledge reverberates not only as
an inspiration to fine poetic creation and for its strength of logic (see the
23
Arcadelt uses a similar formula to achieve his madrigalism, but in an opposite way, by invert-
ing the musical textures. While in Galluss work the passage moves from imitation to
homorhythm and introduces an extended, percussive reiteration of the same notes at mille
(Archipoeta facit versus pro mille poetis), the Flemish master, at the same word in his text
by Giovanni Guidiccioni, places the homorhythmic passage before the imitation as a means of
expressing the idea of echo; see, among the various editions: JACQUES ARCADELT, Venti madri-
gali a quattro voci dal I libro, a cura di Luigi Lera, Udine, Pizzicato, 1989, pp. 42-43.
24
See CVETKO, Iacobus Handl Gallus vocatus carniolanus, p. 79.
103
I VA N O C AVA L L I N I
25
LANZKE, Die weltlichen Chorgesnge Moralia von Jacobus Gallus, p. 33.
26
I derive this information from the well-documented article by ANNA SKYBOV, Le ordi-
nazioni dei sacerdoti utraquisti a Venezia nella prima met del XVI secolo, in Italia e Boemia
nella cornice del rinascimento europeo, a cura di Sante Graciotti, Firenze, Olschki, 1999
(Civilt veneziana, 49), pp. 51-65: 67.
27
CVETKO, Iacobus Handl Gallus vocatus carniolanus, pp. 103, 121.
104
GABRIELE GIACOMELLI
Sino dallo storico saggio biografico di Emil Vogel apparso nel lontano
1889,1 in Marco da Gagliano (Firenze, 1582 - ivi, 1643) si sempre ricono-
sciuto essenzialmente lautore della Dafne, opera commissionatagli nel
1607 per le nozze (poi rinviate) fra Francesco Gonzaga e Margherita di
Savoia, o anche, tuttal pi, della Flora per le nozze del 1628 fra Odoardo
Farnese e Margherita de Medici). Una qualche attenzione stata invero
riservata anche ai sei libri di madrigali a cinque voci che sono stati oggetto
di studio soprattutto da parte di Einstein, Butchart e Strainchamps.2 Ma i
ruoli di maestro della cappella della cattedrale fiorentina di S. Maria del
Fiore (1608-1643), e quindi della cappella granducale di Toscana, ricoperti
dal Gagliano, lo indussero a comporre, soprattutto, una gran mole di musi-
ca sacra, tuttora per lo pi ignota. Questa vasta produzione che lautore
dette alle stampe soltanto in minima parte consta di composizioni appar-
tenenti alle pi varie tipologie, dalla messa al mottetto, dal responsorio
allinno. Un repertorio del quale impossibile per il momento definire con
esattezza i contorni mancando un censimento del corpus che, fino a quando
non usciranno i cataloghi degli archivi musicali dellOpera di Santa Maria
del Fiore e della basilica fiorentina di S. Lorenzo, sar assai arduo mettere
in atto. Frattanto, dobbiamo dunque limitarci a registrare singoli repechages
musicologici e concertistici che, quanto meno, datano allinizio degli anni
Ottanta del Novecento, quando Mario Fabbri cur la ristampa anastatica dei
Responsori della Settimana Santa a quattro voci pari.3
Pi recente, invece, la prima ripresa in tempi moderni di una messa
a sei voci, eseguita in Santa Maria del Fiore nel 1997 in occasione della
prima edizione dei concerti O flos colende. Musica sacra a Firenze,
manifestazione a cadenza annuale in cui sono stati riproposti anche
1
Cfr. EMIL VOGEL, Marco da Gagliano. Zur Geschichte des florentiner Musiklebens von 1570-
1650, Vierteljahrsschrift fr Musikwissenschaft, V, 1889, pp. 396-442 e 509-568.
2
Cfr. ALFRED EINSTEIN, The Italian Madrigal, 3 voll., Princeton NJ, Princeton University Press,
1949, II, pp. 729-742 (rist. 1971); DAVID S. BUTCHART, I madrigali di Marco da Gagliano,
Firenze, Olschki, 1982; EDMOND STRAINCHAMPS, Theory as Polemic: Mutio Effrems Censu-
re... sopra il sesto libro de madrigali di Marco da Gagliano, in Music Theory and the Explo-
ration of the Past, ed. by Christopher Hatch and David W. Bernstein, Chicago, The University
of Chicago Press, 1993, pp. 189-216.
3
Cfr. MARCO DA GAGLIANO, Responsori della settimana santa a 4 voci pari, Venezia, Bartolomeo
Magni, 1630; cfr. ID., Responsori della settimana santa a 4 voci pari. Ristampa anastatica delle-
dizione originale del 1630 con note introduttive di Mario Fabbri, Bologna, Forni, 1982.
105
GABRIELE GIACOMELLI
molti altri brani del medesimo autore, in parte editi nellomonima anto-
logia.4 A questa messa da non confondere con quella pubblicata nella
silloge del 1614, avente il medesimo organico 5 intendo dunque rivol-
gere lattenzione in questa sede, prendendo anche spunto dalla recentis-
sima registrazione in compact disc.6 Per le sue caratteristiche stilistiche
essa si inscrive a pieno titolo nel particolare contesto culturale e artisti-
co della cappella fiorentina, rappresentando senza dubbio uno dei verti-
ci della produzione musicale locale in epoca secentesca. Ma prima di
affrontare questioni di natura stilistica mi preme mettere in luce alcuni
problemi di tipo filologico inerenti lattribuzione e la datazione del com-
ponimento.
Copiata in unicum nel manoscritto II-18 (cc. 89-105) dellArchivio
musicale dellOpera di Santa Maria del Fiore di Firenze, possibile
inscrivere questa messa con certezza nel catalogo delle opere di Marco da
Gagliano, grazie a una serie di riscontri documentari incrociati. La prima
evidenza costituita dallattribuzione che compare nella pagina dellin-
dice del codice, in cui si legge: Messa a sei di M. M. a c. 89, abbre-
viazione da sciogliere in M[esser] M[arco] (da Gagliano). Nel medesimo
codice sono copiate infatti molte altre composizioni del fiorentino, attri-
buitegli mediante la medesima sigla. Anzi, il redattore dellindice ha
attribuito ancor pi esplicitamente a M. Marco la prima di esse (la
messa a sei voci pubblicata nel 1614, citata nellindice subito prima della
messa che qui oggetto dindagine), intendendo evidentemente riferire al
medesimo compositore anche tutte le composizioni successivamente
indicizzate sotto la pi laconica sigla M. M..
Inoltre, grazie alle annotazioni contenute in alcuni inventari secente-
schi, possibile ricostruire almeno in parte le vicende del codice fino alla
sua strutturazione definitiva, certificando definitivamente la paternit
della messa, della quale rimangono tuttavia ignote la data e loccasione
per la quale essa fu composta. Nel pi antico di questi preziosi inventari7
redatto il 15 marzo 1651 in occasione della consegna al provveditore
dellOpera da parte di Giovanni Cilandri (erede del defunto maestro di
cappella Giovanni Battista da Gagliano, fratello minore di Marco) dei
4
Cfr. O flos colende. Musica per Santa Maria del Fiore (1608-1788), a cura di Gabriele Gia-
comelli e Francesco Luisi, Roma, Torre dOrfeo, 1998. Vi figurano la messa a otto voci in dop-
pio coro e i mottetti Iubilate Deo e Elisabeth Zachariae.
5
Cfr. Rpertoire International des Sources Musicales, A/I, Kassel-Basel-Tours-London, Bren-
reiter, 1971-81 (dora in poi RISM) G 105.
6
Cfr. MARCO DA GAGLIANO, Missa in Assumptione Beatae Mariae Virginis, Insieme vocale e
strumentale LHomme Arm, direttore Fabio Lombardo, Tactus, 1999 (TC 580701).
7
Cfr. Firenze, Archivio di S. Maria del Fiore (dora in poi I-Fd), V-3-30, n. 1.
106
U N I N E D I TA M E S S A D I M . D A G A G L I A N O
21. Un libro manuscritto coperta verde messa del Palestina sino a c. 20,
bianco sino a c. 36 et a c. 37 [recte 38] Et filius datus est nobis, e altri mot-
tetti, e messa, altri mottetti, altra messa Magnificat Verbum caro. Et Dies
irae opere di messer Marco da Gagliano sino 114.
8
Giovanni Battista da Gagliano, che era morto l8 gennaio dello stesso anno, in realt non
aveva mai ricevuto la nomina ufficiale a maestro di cappella pur avendone svolto tutte le fun-
zioni con relativa retribuzione sin dai tempi in cui era ancora in carica (ma fisicamente indi-
sposto) il fratello Marco. Per le vicende della cappella e dei suoi protagonisti in epoca secen-
tesca rimando a O flos colende cit., in particolare alla Cronologia e al relativo Regesto. Gli
inventari sono stati pubblicati nella loro interezza e commentati in GABRIELE GIACOMELLI,
Palestrina nel repertorio musicale della cattedrale di Firenze (1638-1677), in La recezione di
Palestrina in Europa fino allOttocento, a cura di Rodobaldo Tibaldi, Lucca, LIM, 1999, pp.
105-126 e in ID., Due granduchi in centanni (1621-1723): continuit e tradizione nel reper-
torio della cappella musicale, in Cantate Domino. Musica nei secoli per il Duomo di Firenze,
Atti del convegno internazionale di studi (Firenze, 23-25 maggio 1997), a cura di Piero Gar-
giulo, Gabriele Giacomelli, Carolyn Gianturco, Firenze, Edifir, 2001, pp.195-218.
9
Cfr. I-Fd, V-1-19, pp. 84-95.
107
GABRIELE GIACOMELLI
10
Cfr. I-Fd, II-2-20, p. 216. Ricordo che oltre alle citate due messe del Gagliano vi si trovano
alcuni mottetti, fra cui Ne timeas Maria (incluso anche nella ricordata silloge del 1614), attri-
buiti al medesimo autore anche nel codice di Firenze, Biblioteca Medicea-Laurenziana (dora
in poi I-Fl), Archivio di S. Lorenzo, ms II-5.
11
Cfr. I-Fd, IV-2-29, n. 261; documento ultimamente pubblicato in GIACOMELLI, Palestrina nel
repertorio cit., p. 111.
12
Unedizione moderna del mottetto polifonico, incluso dallautore nei Moduli quatuor voci-
bus op. I (Roma, Mascardo, 1706), adesso disponibile in O flos colende cit., pp. 77-80.
108
U N I N E D I TA M E S S A D I M . D A G A G L I A N O
13
Unanaloga tradizione melodica testimoniata da alcuni corali mantovani e cremonesi, cui dovet-
te attingere MarcAntonio Ingegneri per il mottetto Pueri Hebraeorum portantes, come messo in luce
in PAOLA BESUTTI, Ricorrenze motiviche nella produzione musicale sacra di area cremonese fra Cin-
que e Seicento, in MarcAntonio Ingegneri e la musica a Cremona nel secondo Cinquecento, Atti
della giornata di studi (Cremona, 27 novembre 1992), a cura di Antonio Delfino e Maria Teresa Rosa
Barezzani, Lucca, LIM, 1995, pp. 15-23: 19. Nelle melodie copiate nei corali del duomo sono riscon-
trabili ulteriori sporadiche similitudini, ma appartenendo a canti assolutamente secondari (che, inol-
tre, ipotizzabile avessero modellato il proprio profilo melodico sui modelli pi antichi), ritengo
improbabile un loro impiego come soggetto per un importante Ordinarium polifonico.
14
Per la cronologia cfr. soprattutto FRANK A. DACCONE, Updating the Style: Francesco Corteccias
Revisions in His Responsories for Holy Week, in Music and Context. Essays for John M. Ward, edi-
ted by Anne Dhu Shapiro, Harvard, Harvard University, 1985, pp. 32-53 e Census-Catalogue of
Manuscript Sources of Polyphonic Music 1400-1550, American Institute of Musicology, Hnssler,
1979, I pp. 238 e 241.
15
Un discreto numero di manoscritti del duomo tramandano un Pueri Hebraeorum portantes, sta-
volta attribuibile con un certo margine di sicurezza a Luca Bati, successore del Corteccia alla guida
della cappella e a sua volta maestro di Gagliano (cfr. soprattutto FRANK A. DACCONE, The Sources
of Luca Batis Sacred Music at the Opera di Santa Maria del Fiore, in Altro polo. Essays on Italian
Music in the Cinquecento, ed. by Richard Charteris, Sydney, Frederick May Foundation for Italian
Studies, 1990, pp. 159-177). Delle sei voci costituenti lorganico del brano, quella del Canto II, par-
zialmente imitata dallAlto, esordisce con un soggetto che potrebbe configurarsi come una parafrasi
fiorita dellomonima antifona gregoriana (rispetto alla quale mancano per note significative, prima
fra tutte il do grave), ma davvero troppo poco per considerare il brano come modello per la messa.
109
GABRIELE GIACOMELLI
16
Cfr. SEVERO BONINI, Discorsi e Regole sopra la Musica et il Contrappunto, Firenze, Biblio-
teca Riccardiana e Moreniana, ms. 2218, ed. moderna a cura di Leila Galleni Luisi, Cremona,
Fondazione Claudio Monteverdi, 1975, p. 83; lo scritto databile alla met del Seicento.
17
Cfr. ivi, p. 83.
18
Per le due citazioni cfr. ivi, p. 110 e p. 120.
110
U N I N E D I TA M E S S A D I M . D A G A G L I A N O
19
Cfr. ivi, p. 110.
20
Cfr. GIOSEFFO ZARLINO, Istitutioni harmoniche [...] di nuovo in molti luoghi migliorate, & di
molti belli secreti nelle cose della Prattica ampliate, Venezia, Francesco de Franceschi, 15732,
p. 239.
21
Cfr. ivi, pp. 289 e sgg.
111
GABRIELE GIACOMELLI
La Musica una di quellarti che non fa gli huomini eminenti senza lope-
razione, e si come non sar mai stimato gran medico, senza lesperienza, e
la pratica daver medicato e guarito moltissimi infermi, cos non dee sti-
marsi gran musico chi con molti componimenti, e perfetti non ha dato sag-
gio di s per le scuole degli intendenti. Nelloperare sincontron tali diffi-
cult che non simmaginaron giamai, e tal cosa si stima talor perfetta, che
praticata poi non val nulla, si come interviene anche spesso per lo contra-
rio. Interviene ancora che talvolta luscir di regola cresce non poca bellez-
za allopera, s come mi vien detto esserne molti esempli in architetture
eccellenti, e nelle musiche di quei grandhuomini che noi pi stimiamo,
son frequentissimi, le quali sregolate bellezze, a chi non savanza troppo
oltre nellesperienza, posson esser tenute grossissime inavertenze, ed erro-
ri da principianti.
Cfr. RISM G 106. Il testo integrale della postfazione stato pubblicato in VOGEL, Marco da
22
112
U N I N E D I TA M E S S A D I M . D A G A G L I A N O
23
Cfr. GIACOMELLI, Palestrina nel repertorio cit., pp. 122 e sgg. e ID., Due granduchi in cen-
tanni cit., pp. 196-197.
24
Cfr. Firenze, Archivio di Stato, Mediceo del Principato, 5877, n. 311, 26 dicembre 1690, let-
tera scritta dal granprincipe Ferdinando de Medici a Giuseppe Corso Celani, cit. in MARIO
FABBRI, Alessandro Scarlatti e il principe Ferdinando de Medici, Firenze, Olschki, 1961,
p. 106.
113
GABRIELE GIACOMELLI
Es. / Ex. 1 M. DA GAGLIANO, Messa (I-Fd, ms. II-18, cc. 89-105), Kyrie, miss. / bars. 1-22.
114
U N I N E D I TA M E S S A D I M . D A G A G L I A N O
115
GABRIELE GIACOMELLI
Es. / Ex. 3 Parte superiore: Pueri Hebraeorum portantes, antifona alla distribuzio-
ne delle palme (I-Fd, D 2.21, Graduale, c. XCVv).
Parte inferiore: Pueri Hebraeorum vestimenta, antifona alla distribuzione delle palme
(ivi, c. XCVIv).
Es. / Ex. 4 Parte superiore: Pueri Hebraeorum portantes, antifona alla distribuzio-
ne delle palme (Liber Usualis, p. 583).
Parte inferiore: Pueri Hebraeorum vestimenta, antifona alla distribuzione delle palme
(ibid.).
116
U N I N E D I TA M E S S A D I M . D A G A G L I A N O
Es. / Ex. 5 ANONIMO, Pueri Hebraeorum vestimenta, (I-Fd, ms. II-45, cc. 2-3), miss. /
bars. 1-14.
117
GABRIELE GIACOMELLI
Es. / Ex. 6 ANONIMO, Pueri Hebraeorum portantes, (I-Fd, ms. II-13, cc. 127v-128), miss. /
bars. 1-8.
118
U N I N E D I TA M E S S A D I M . D A G A G L I A N O
119
GABRIELE GIACOMELLI
Es. / Ex. 11 G. ZARLINO, Istitutioni harmoniche, Venezia, Francesco de Franceschi, 15732, p. 242.
Es. / Ex. 12 M. DA GAGLIANO, La bella pargoletta (Sesto libro de madrigali a cinque voci,
Venezia, Bartolomeo Magni, 1617; cfr. E. STRAINCHAMPS, Theory as Polemic, cit., p. 203),
miss. / bars. 3-4.
120
U N I N E D I TA M E S S A D I M . D A G A G L I A N O
121
GABRIELE GIACOMELLI
122
GABRIELE GIACOMELLI
1
See EMIL VOGEL, Marco da Gagliano. Zur Geschichte des florentiner Musiklebens von 1570-
1650, Vierteljahrsschrift fr Musikwissenschaft, V, 1889, pp. 396-442 and 509-568.
2
See ALFRED EINSTEIN, The Italian Madrigal, 3 vols., Princeton NJ, Princeton University
Press, 1949, II, pp. 729-742 (repr. 1971); DAVID S. BUTCHART, I madrigali di Marco da
Gagliano, Firenze, Olschki, 1982; EDMOND STRAINCHAMPS, Theory as Polemic: Mutio
Effrems Censure... sopra il sesto libro de madrigali di Marco da Gagliano, in Music Theory
and the Exploration of the Past, ed. Christopher Hatch and David W. Bernstein, Chicago, The
University of Chicago Press, 1993, pp. 189-216.
3
See MARCO DA GAGLIANO, Responsori della settimana santa a 4 voci pari, Venezia, Bar-
tolomeo Magni, 1630; facsimile reprint of these edition Bologna, Forni, 1982 (with introduc-
tory notes by Mario Fabbri).
123
GABRIELE GIACOMELLI
4
See O flos colende. Musica per Santa Maria del Fiore (1608-1788), ed. Gabriele Giacomelli
and Francesco Luisi, Roma, Torre dOrfeo, 1998. It includes the eight-voice mass for double
choir and the motets Iubilate Deo and Elisabeth Zachariae.
5
See Rpertoire International des Sources Musicales, A/I, Kassel-Basel-Tours-London, Bren-
reiter, 1971-81 (hereafter RISM) G 105.
6
See MARCO DA GAGLIANO, Missa in Assumptione Beatae Mariae Virginis, Insieme vocale e
strumentale LHomme Arm, directed by Fabio Lombardo, Tactus TC 580701, 1999.
7
See Firenze, Archivio di Santa Maria del Fiore (hereafter I-Fd), V-3-30, n. 1.
124
AN UNPUBLISHED MASS BY M. DA GAGLIANO
All things considered, it is clear therefore that the original section of the
manuscript which belonged to the private collection of Giovanni Bat-
tista da Gagliano is that corresponding to the present fols. 38-116,
which also include the mass in question (in the inventory only 114 folia
are counted, given that the last two are without music).
As for the musical works contained, an interesting attestation of their
value is the opinion expressed in September 1651 by the sottomaestro
Giovanni Battista Comparini, who considered them useful for the chapel
because the compositions were good, and the masters famous, and thus
8
Giovanni Battista da Gagliano, who had died on 8 January of the same year, had in fact never
received an official nomination to the post of maestro di cappella, even though he had carried
out all of its functions with respective pay ever since the period when his brother Marco still
held the post but did not perform his duties because of poor health. On the history of the chapel
and its musicians in the 17th century, see O flos colende, in particular the Chronology and
respective Regesto. The inventories, complete and with comments, are published in GABRIELE
GIACOMELLI, Palestrina nel repertorio musicale della cattedrale di Firenze (1638-1677), in La
recezione di Palestrina in Europa fino allOttocento, ed. Rodobaldo Tibaldi, Lucca, LIM,
1999, pp. 105-126 and in ID., Due granduchi in centanni (1621-1723): continuit e tradizione
nel repertorio della cappella musicale, in Cantate Domino. Musica nei secoli per il Duomo di
Firenze, Proceedings of the international congress (Firenze, 23-25 May 1997), ed. Piero
Gargiulo, Gabriele Giacomelli and Carolyn Gianturco, Firenze, Edifir, 2001, pp. 195-218.
9
See I-Fd, V-1-19, pp. 84-95.
125
GABRIELE GIACOMELLI
10
See I-Fd, II-2-20, p. 216. As well as the two masses by Gagliano the manuscript also includes
some motets, among which Ne timeas Maria (also included in the 1614 collection), attributed
to the same composer also in the manuscript of Firenze, Biblioteca Medicea-Laurenziana,
Archivio di S. Lorenzo, ms II-5.
11
See I-Fd, IV-2-29, n. 261; a document recently published in GIACOMELLI, Palestrina nel
repertorio, p. 111.
12
A modern edition of the polyphonic motet, which the composer included in the Moduli
quatuor vocibus op. I (Roma, Mascardo, 1706), is now available in O flos colende, pp. 77-80.
13
A similar melodic tradition is attested in certain Mantuan and Cremonese chant-books, to
which MarcAntonio Ingegneri must have resorted for his motet Pueri Hebraeorum portantes,
as evidenced in PAOLA BESUTTI, Ricorrenze motiviche nella produzione musicale sacra di area
cremonese fra Cinque e Seicento, in MarcAntonio Ingegneri e la musica a Cremona nel se-
condo Cinquecento, Proceedings of the day of studies (Cremona, 27 November 1992), ed. by
Antonio Delfino and Maria Teresa Rosa Barezzani, Lucca, LIM, 1995, pp. 15-23: 19. Further
sporadic similarities can be identified in other melodies copied in the cathedral chant-books,
but since they belong to chants of utterly secondary importance (which, in any case, are quite
likely to have modelled their melodic profiles on earlier models), I feel that their use as the sub-
ject of an important polyphonic Ordinarium is improbable.
126
AN UNPUBLISHED MASS BY M. DA GAGLIANO
holy branches on Palm Sunday. In this case, the reading transmitted by the
cathedrals chant-books differs from the more generally known melody given
in the books of current usage. In fact, in manuscript D 2. 21 (drawn up in the
16th century, like manuscript F 30, where the second antiphon only is copied,
on fol. CXXXV) the incipit for both antiphons differs from the traditional ver-
sion, above all by the absence of the opening D (Ex. 3 and 4).
As for the polyphonic versions of these texts transmitted in the cathedral
manuscripts, it is interesting to note the presence of subjects comparable both
to the reading of the cathedral chant-books and to the much more common
reading, which however appears in only two compositions, both anonymous.
These two works are the Pueri Hebraeorum vestimenta copied into manu-
script II-45 (immediately following a Pueri Hebraeorum portantes with a
tenor taken instead from the chant-books) and the Pueri Hebraeorum por-
tantes copied into manuscript II-13, in both cases sources that date to the mid
16th century.14 The former piece is in a contrapuntal style that is awkward and
somewhat archaic, not only compared to Gaglianos mass with which it has
nothing in common except the resemblance of the subject but also com-
pared to the polyphonic works, generally of a much higher standard, by
Francesco Corteccia, maestro di cappella at the time when the manuscript,
which also contains many of his works, was drawn up (Ex. 5). Nor does the
second piece have anything in common with the mass, except for a resem-
blance to the subject with which the two upper voices begin. In this case,
however, the contrapuntal style is much more mature that in the previous
work, and one could even conjecture an attribution to Corteccia himself, a
composer well represented in the codex (Ex. 6).
Gaglianos mass cannot, therefore, be considered as a parody of the
anonymous Pueri.15 So leaving unresolved the secure identification of the
14
For the chronology, see above all FRANK A. DACCONE, Updating the Style: Francesco
Corteccias Revisions in His Responsories for Holy Week, in Music and Context. Essays for
John M. Ward, ed. Anne Dhu Shapiro, Harvard, Harvard University, 1985, pp. 32-53 and Cen-
sus-Catalogue of Manuscript Sources of Polyphonic Music 1400-1550, American Institute of
Musicology, Hnssler, 1979, I pp. 238 and 241.
15
A fair number of manuscripts of the cathedral transmit a Pueri Hebraeorum portantes, this
time attributable with a reasonable degree of security to Luca Bati, Corteccias successor as
head of the cappella and teacher of Gagliano (see above all FRANK A. DACCONE, The Sources
of Luca Batis Sacred Music at the Opera di Santa Maria del Fiore, in Altro polo. Essays on
Italian Music in the Cinquecento, ed. Richard Charteris, Sydney, Frederick May Foundation
for Italian Studies, 1990, pp. 159-177). Of the six voices that constitute the pieces forces, that
of Canto II, partially imitated by Alto, begins with a subject that could be construed as an
embellished paraphrase of the chant of the same title (though certain significant notes, partic-
ularly the low C, are missing). But this is surely too little to justify considering the piece as a
model for the mass.
127
GABRIELE GIACOMELLI
16
See SEVERO BONINI, Discorsi e Regole sopra la Musica et il Contrappunto, Firenze, Bib-
lioteca Riccardiana e Moreniana, ms. 2218, modern edition by Leila Galleni Luisi, Cremona,
Fondazione Claudio Monteverdi, 1975, p. 83. This work can be dated to the mid 17th century.
17
Ibid., p. 83.
128
AN UNPUBLISHED MASS BY M. DA GAGLIANO
18
For the two quotations, ibid., p. 110 and p. 120.
19
Ibid., p. 110.
20
See GIOSEFFO ZARLINO, Istitutioni harmoniche [...] di nuovo in molti luoghi migliorate, & di
molti belli secreti nelle cose della Prattica ampliate, Venezia, Francesco de Franceschi, 15732,
p. 239.
129
GABRIELE GIACOMELLI
third since they cannot but make good effects as in fact happens in the
Ex. 14).21
Also worthy of note in the above example is the clash of a major seventh
produced between the crotchet passing note of the tenor and that of the sopra-
no. Now, if we consider all these cases, we in fact find that at the practical
level of composition they were all fully accepted in the early 17th century,
above all in the madrigal literature. So the above observations merely confirm
the insubstantiality of the possible theoretical criticisms and show how little
bearing they have on how the mass should be viewed within the specific cul-
tural and stylistic context of the Medicean grand-ducal chapel of the time.
Besides, Marco da Gagliano himself wrote a long and fully argued reply to
Effrems censure (introducing themes somehow reminiscent of those brought
up in the much better-known polemic between Artusi and Monteverdi, though
lacking all reference to the word-music relationship that central to Montever-
dis poetics), which he published as an appendix to the edition of Sacrae Can-
tiones of 1622 as a letter to his benevolent readers.22 The telling words cho-
sen by Gagliano (or whoever might have written the text in his stead) stand
as an excellent indicator of the profound breach between the attitude of the
music theorist and that of the composer who essentially submits his work to
the judgement of his patrons and of a public interested only in the practical
results:
Music is one of those arts that eminent men do not accomplish without
practice. Just as a doctor will never be considered great without the expe-
rience and practice of having treated and cured numerous sick, in the
same way we must not consider as great a musician who has not given
sample of his work in many excellent compositions for the schools of the
knowledgeable. In practice one encounters difficulties that were never
imagined, and sometimes one considers as perfect a thing that later turns
out to be of no value in practice; exactly as the opposite also often hap-
pens. And it also happens that the breaking of rules sometimes increases
the works beauty not a little, as Ive been told there are many examples
in the finest architecture, and as is also frequent in the music of the great
men we most esteem; though their disordered beauties, to those without
much experience, can be held to be very serious failures and the mistakes
of beginners.
See RISM G 106. The complete text of this afterword is published in VOGEL, Marco da
22
Gagliano, pp. 565-567. The passage published here is taken from the original.
130
AN UNPUBLISHED MASS BY M. DA GAGLIANO
Gaglianos mass are of such minimal importance that we are fully justified in
considering the composition in the light of its substantial respect for the
authoritative late 16th-century models. It fully belongs therefore to the very
particular cultural context in which the musical chapel of Santa Maria del
Fiore operated: a context distinguished by the rigid control exercised by an
ecclesiastical and political power that did not admit deviations from the clos-
est respect of the most classic Roman Counter-reformation tradition. The
events involving Filippo Vitali who, as maestro di cappella from 1651 to
1654, was criticised because he intended to renew a repertory by then obso-
lete is symptomatic of that climate. What for Vitali were very old works,
for the authorities were instead works customarily sung and performed in the
Chapel to universal approval, and as such could not be put on one side.23 And
so a crystallisation of the repertory was imposed from above: a repertory still
substantially made up of the compositions of Palestrina (above all) and Vic-
toria (along with the local maestri di cappella), all equally considered as
enduring models of reference for compositional work, as explicitly acknowl-
edged (in a specifically Florentine context) by Severo Bonini.
It was to this cultural environment that Marco da Gagliano belonged.
When composing the six-voice mass, he therefore had to find fertile inspira-
tion in that solid style of Palestrina that was still to be admired in late 17th-
century Florence by a sovereign as enlightened and expert on contemporary
musical styles as the grand-prince Ferdinando de Medici.24
23
See GIACOMELLI, Palestrina nel repertorio, pp. 122 ff. and ID., Due granduchi in centan-
ni, pp. 196-197.
24
See the letter of the grand-prince of 26 December 1690 to Giuseppe Corso Celani (Firenze,
Archivio di Stato, Mediceo del Principato, 5877, no. 311, quoted in MARIO FABBRI, Alessan-
dro Scarlatti e il principe Ferdinando de Medici, Firenze, Olschki, 1961, p. 106).
131
RODOBALDO TIBALDI
La musica del XVII secolo soffre ancora oggi di una situazione particolare,
dovuta a una indubbiamente strana considerazione da parte degli studiosi; il
secolo della nascita dellopera, della nascita (o rinascita) della monodia
accompagnata, nonch del diffondersi della musica strumentale, tutti campi
verso i quali si sono concentrati e si concentrano tuttora le ricerche metodo-
logicamente pi scaltrite. La musica sacra,1 viceversa, non ha ricevuto unat-
tenzione pari alla sua importanza, o anche solo alla sua reale presenza nella
realt musicale seicentesca, sia quella che intona testi latini, sia quella in lin-
gua italiana, appartenente alla sfera per cos dire devozionale (ma largomen-
to sarebbe da rivedere completamente), e per i motivi pi diversi: pregiudizi
di natura ora estetica, ora religiosa, ora addirittura confessionale, mancanza di
un numero adeguato di lavori preparatori, impostazione di stampo romantico-
idealista (lo si voglia ammettere o no) che vuole limitarsi a considerare solo
le grandi figure di unepoca. A tutto ci si aggiungono altre due ragioni, tra
loro diverse, ma entrambe determinanti. La prima, fatto elementare, talmente
ovvio che non si capisce come abbia potuto essere trascurato per tanto tempo
(e come talvolta lo sia ancora), che senza una buona competenza nel campo
della storia liturgica, della storia religiosa e degli strumenti metodologici
necessari si rischiano fraintendimenti nella comprensione di un brano, di una
raccolta, o anche di un autore. La seconda, che mancano edizioni moderne
in numero sufficiente; quelle poche esistenti, spesso disperse in collane a uso
pratico non facilmente reperibili, non bastano a colmare la lacuna esistente.2
E a tal proposito bene non dimenticare mai che unedizione, per essere tale,
sempre (o dovrebbe essere) unoperazione intellettuale che necessita di
competenze molteplici di carattere pi ampiamente culturale; se cos non ,
siamo nellambito della trascrizione, ovvero la parte preliminare del lavoro di
edizione vera e propria. Certo, in mancanza di altro, ben vengano anche le tra-
scrizioni: sempre meglio di niente. Una delle conseguenze di questa situazio-
ne, per esempio, che un lavoro assolutamente pionieristico e meritorio, le
cui premesse erano tali da scoraggiare chiunque, come North Italian Church
1
Usiamo questa terminologia per praticit, senza intendimenti polemici e senza voler parteci-
pare al dibattito sulla liceit o meno dellimpiego dellaggettivo sacra, ma solo per quello che
significa convenzionalmente.
2
Questultima considerazione, ne siamo consci, pu al contrario essere letta come causa di
quanto detto finora: un po la storia del gatto che si morde la coda.
133
RODOBALDO TIBALDI
1.
Ledizione del Vespro della Beata Vergine di Claudio Monteverdi, edita dalla
Oxford University Press, rappresenta un punto darrivo, per altro atteso da
diverso tempo, di quasi trentanni di studi dedicati al grande compositore cre-
monese e al suo capolavoro del 1610 in particolare dal curatore, Jeffrey
3
JEROME ROCHE, North Italian Church Music in the Age of Monteverdi, Oxford, Clarendon
Press, 1984.
134
L A M U S I C A S A C R A I TA L I A N A D E L X V I I S E C O L O
Kurtzman.4 Come tutti sanno, risale al 1972 la sua tesi di dottorato,5 successi-
vamente pubblicata riveduta e accresciuta del capitolo riguardante la messa In
illo tempore.6 Si tratta pertanto di un lavoro che giunge dopo moltissimi anni
di riflessione sui singoli problemi che lopera ancora oggi offre.
Ledizione ha il fine dichiarato di rivolgersi sia agli studiosi sia agli inter-
preti, e a tale scopo essa prevede un volume con ledizione del Vespro e un
secondo volume separato con lapparato critico intitolato Critical Appendix;7
ma per la verit le cose sono un poco pi complesse di quanto sembri a prima
vista. Il volume delledizione vera e propria cos strutturato:
1. una breve introduzione di carattere storico-critico, in cui sono riassun-
te le principali caratteristiche dellopera;
2. la specificazione dellorganico richiesto con relativi ambiti;
3. i criteri editoriali;
4. alcuni facsimili;
5. ledizione del Vespro comprensiva anche del Magnificat a 6 voci (nella
quale sono presentati anche il salmo Lauda Jerusalem e i due Magnificat tra-
sposti alla quarta grave; si tratta di una polemica ben nota, su cui non penso
sia il caso di ritornare);
6. antifone in canto fermo per le principali solennit mariane;
7. suggerimenti per laggiunta di abbellimenti improvvisati, compren-
denti anche una versione diminuita del Nigra sum;
8. una sorta di apparato ridotto (Performance notes): una scelta operata
allinterno dellapparato critico di situazioni ritenute of particular
interest to performers.
Il volume di apparato critico occupato in buona parte dalla trascrizione
semi-diplomatica del Bassus generalis (pp. 1-43); seguono poi i criteri edito-
riali gi presenti nel volume di edizione, con la sola aggiunta della descrizio-
ne dei testimoni (la stampa di Amadino del 1610 e lantologia di Kauffmann
del 1615 contenente il Deus in adiutorium e il Dixit Dominus), completa di
elenco delle biblioteche che possiedono esemplari, anche parziali, e lappara-
to critico vero e proprio, questa volta integrale (comprendente quindi anche le
Performance notes dellaltro volume). La divisione del materiale cos opera-
4
CLAUDIO MONTEVERDI, Vespro della Beata Vergine. Vespers (1610), Performing Score, ed. by
Jeffrey Kurtzman, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1999.
5
JEFFREY KURTZMAN, The Monteverdi Vespers of 1610 and their Relationship with Italian
Sacred Music of the Early Seventeenth Century, PhD. diss., University of Illinois at Urbana-
Champaign, 1972.
6
ID., Essays on the Monteverdi Mass and Vespers of 1610, Texas, Rice University Studies,
1978 (Monograph in Music, vol. 64, n.4).
7
CLAUDIO MONTEVERDI, Vespro della Beata Vergine. Vespers (1610). Critical Appendix. Bas-
sus Generalis. Critical Notes, ed. by Jeffrey Kurtzman, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1999.
135
RODOBALDO TIBALDI
ta, seppur concepita per il doppio uso di studio e di esecuzione, non risulta
particolarmente agevole, n forse troppo felice. Ad aumentare una certa
impressione di disagio concorre il fatto che, fin dallintroduzione, si faccia
continuo riferimento al ponderoso volume monografico che Kurtzman ha
pubblicato a parte, ovvero The Monteverdi Vespers of 1610. Music, Context,
Performance, sempre per i tipi della Oxford University Press (tra laltro biso-
gna anche notare che, mentre ledizione musicale uscita nel marzo del 1999,
il volume stato disponibile solo allinizio del 2000). Non questa la sede
per la recensione di tale saggio (a cui ci riferiremo dora in poi con il nome di
monografia); ma sar inevitabile fare spesso riferimento a esso per diverse
questioni anche editoriali, dal momento che, per avere un quadro completo
delle scelte di Kurtzman e della sua edizione, indispensabile lavorare tenen-
do sottocchio tutti e tre i volumi.
Come logico aspettarsi da uno studioso da anni dedito al repertorio della
musica sacra italiana seicentesca, moltissimi sono i meriti di questa edizione;
un controllo effettuato su tutti i testimoni superstiti, unampia visione delle
singole questioni, e soprattutto un apparato critico assai dettagliato e preciso
(a volte potrebbe sembrare ridondante, ma meglio uninformazione in pi che
una in meno), assai pi completo, per esempio, di quello presente nelledi-
zione (per altro esemplare) curata da Jerome Roche e uscita purtroppo postu-
ma nel 1994.8 Unopera complessa come il Vespro, per, difficilmente potr
avere unedizione definitiva e chiarificatrice di tutti i problemi (il curatore
stesso tiene a sottolineare nellintroduzione che No critical edition is ever
definitive, and many of the performance practice issues of the Monteverdi
Vespers may never be resolved) e alcune scelte operate da Kurtzman non
riescono infatti del tutto soddisfacenti o convincenti.
In primo luogo ledizione vera e propria. Questa edizione ha lo scopo to
serve both the performer and the scholar (p. VI), poich, come Kurtzman
giustamente sostiene, an accurate edition is only the beginning, since seven-
teenth-century notation represents only partially what Monteverdi and other
early Baroque musicians would have expected a performance of this music to
sound like (p. VI). Secondo questottica sono state concepite le versioni
abbassate del salmo 147 Lauda Jerusalem e dei due Magnificat; le appendici
recanti le antifone in canto fermo, suggerimenti per abbellimenti e diminu-
zioni, la versione diminuita del concerto Nigra sum; e in generale tutta la terza
parte della monografia (Performance practice), articolata in ben tredici capi-
toli dedicati rispettivamente a una discussione filosofica sul concetto di
prassi esecutiva storica (cap. 11, quella che i critici discografici nostrani chia-
mano esecuzione filologica), agli strumenti per il basso continuo (cap. 12),
8
CLAUDIO MONTEVERDI, Vespro della Beata Vergine, Urtext Edition, ed. by Jerome Roche,
London, Eulenburg, 1994.
136
L A M U S I C A S A C R A I TA L I A N A D E L X V I I S E C O L O
agli organi e alla loro registrazione (cap. 13), alla realizzazione del continuo
(cap. 14), alluso di voci soliste e/o di un coro (cap. 15), allo stile vocale
(cap.16), al diapason e trasposizione (cap. 17), agli strumenti obbligati
(cap. 18), alla prassi del raddoppio e/o della sostituzione da parte degli stru-
menti (cap. 19), al metro e tempo (cap. 20), allornamentazione vocale e stru-
mentale (cap. 21), al temperamento (cap. 22), e persino alla pronuncia del
latino nellItalia del primo Seicento (cap. 23, una questione per la quale si fa
riferimento a una bibliografia limitata a due o tre titoli esclusivamente in
inglese). Tutto questo materiale, considerata la finalit delledizione, avrebbe
dovuto, a mio parere, far parte del secondo volume delledizione (a questo
punto di commento e apparato), per evitare troppa dispersione nella consulta-
zione. Sempre per i medesimi scopi ledizione comprende una realizzazione
del basso continuo, i cui criteri sono enunciati nel cap. 14 della monografia
(ricordiamo che il Bassus generalis presente nella stampa, di tipologia molto
variabile, come ben noto, trascritto a parte nel volume di apparato). Nella
sua relazione di base al convegno monteverdiano tenutosi a Mantova nel
1993, e poi pubblicato nei relativi atti,9 Kurtzman teneva a puntualizzare:
Any edition of music with a basso continuo, should, in my view, also furnish
a realization of the continuo part according to seventeenth-century style (p.
7). Si tratta di unopinione meditata e assolutamente rispettabile, e tale scelta
permette certo a musicisti non professionisti o non esperti del Seicento di dare
una resa per lo meno stilisticamente corretta (anche se tante sono le cose da
considerare oltre a questo aspetto). Per altro sappiamo bene come i cembali-
sti e gli organisti non amino leggere parti realizzate per extenso, e preferisca-
no improvvisare tenendo sottocchio la partitura; e, per quanto riguarda il
significato di tale operazione in relazione alledizione in s, vorremmo ricor-
dare il parere radicalmente opposto di Dahlhaus, secondo il quale il basso
continuo da considerarsi:
una pratica che prevede tra i suoi caratteri essenziali proprio lapertura
verso molteplici realizzazioni. Nella misura in cui gli esperti che consi-
derano la realizzazione del basso come ostacolo e non come ausilio per la
fantasia diventano la tipologia predominante nella pratica esecutiva
della musica barocca, il procedimento editoriale storicamente pi corretto
(rinunciare a realizzare il basso) appare anche quello pi pratico. A una pra-
tica esecutiva che da essenzialmente amatoriale si trasformata in essen-
zialmente professionale corrisponde una filologia che, anzich dissimulare
9
JEFFREY KURTZMAN, Monteverdis Sacred Music: the State of Research, in Claudio Montever-
di. Studi e prospettive, atti del convegno (Mantova, 21-24 ottobre 1993), a cura di Paola Besut-
ti, Teresa M. Gialdroni e Rodolfo Baroncini, Firenze, Olschki, 1998 (Accademia Nazionale
Virgiliana di Scienze Lettere e Art, Miscellanea, 5), pp. 3-29: 7.
137
RODOBALDO TIBALDI
La Meliola si pu segnare sotto qual si voglia Tempo, & quella che manda
tre Minime nere a Battuta due in terra, & una in aria, & susa di farla come
dimostrer lessempio, & ogni volta che non seguir il tre uscir fuori di
10
CARL DAHLHAUS, I principi delle edizioni musicali nel quadro della storia delle idee, trad. it.
di Gianmario Borio, in La critica del testo musicale. Metodi e problemi della filologia musi-
cale, a cura di Maria Caraci Vela, Lucca, LIM, 1995 (Studi e Testi Musicali della Scuola di
Paleografia e Filologia Musicale di Cremona, Nuova serie, 4), pp. 6373: 68 (ed. orig. Zur
Ideengeschichte musikalischer Editionsprinzipien, Fontes Artis Musicae, XXV, 1978,
pp. 1927: 22).
138
L A M U S I C A S A C R A I TA L I A N A D E L X V I I S E C O L O
11
ANTONIO BRUNELLI, Regole utilissime per li scolari che desiderano imparare a cantare, sopra
la pratica della musica, Firenze, Timan, 1606, cap. 22, pp. 19-20.
12
ROGER BOWERS, Some Reflections upon Notation and Proportions in Monteverdis Mass and
Vespers of 1610, Music & Letters, LXXIII, 1992, pp. 347-398; risposta di JEFFREY KURTZ-
MAN in LXXIV, 1993, pp. 487-495, e controrisposta di ROGER BOWERS in LXXV, 1994, pp.
145-154.
139
RODOBALDO TIBALDI
altro studioso attento in prima istanza allaspetto notazionale come Uwe Wolf.13
Lesecutore si trova quindi ad avere, nella sua performance edition, la realizza-
zione del basso continuo, la trasposizione di alcuni brani, e suggerimenti vari sul-
lornamentazione; per tutte le altre questioni, e soprattutto per la pi importante,
ovvero quali tempi adottare per unesecuzione corretta, si rimanda alla monogra-
fia. Questa situazione avrebbe reso ancor pi necessaria una diversa distribuzio-
ne del materiale, anche perch ( forse noioso da parte mia ricordarlo, ma un
dato di fatto oggettivo) ledizione stata pubblicata il 25 marzo del 1999 come
sottolineava il catalogo della Oxford University Press, mentre la monografia, con-
tenente la spiegazione su come adoperare correttamente quelledizione, non
stata disponibile fino al gennaio del 2000. Dal momento che edizioni in cui la
notazione monteverdiana mantenuta fedelmente e correttamente esistono gi,
ovvero quelle di Bartlett14 e, soprattutto, di Roche, e che evidente (oltre che riba-
dita pi volte) la preoccupazione di Kurtzman di fornire un testo utile allese-
cutore, valeva forse la pena provare a dare un testo in cui i problemi semiografi-
ci fossero l risolti.15
So che ci troviamo di fronte a uno dei nodi cruciali riguardanti i criteri da
adottare nel pubblicare musica scritta con un sistema diverso da quello attua-
le, problema che ha portato e porta tuttora a prese di posizione radicalmente
diverse; per rimanere a Monteverdi, si pu leggere il dibattito seguito alla
relazione di Claudio Gallico tra lo stesso Gallico e Nino Pirrotta nello storico
convegno monteverdiano del 1968,16 oppure pi recentemente i manuali di
Feder,17 di Caldwell,18 di Grier,19 e la raccolta di saggi vari curata da Maria
Caraci Vela, alla cui introduzione rimandiamo per avere un quadro comples-
sivo dei problemi e dei metodi propri della filologia musicale.20 Dahlhaus, nel
13
UWE WOLF, Notation und Auffhrungpraxis. Studien zum Wandel von Notenschrift und
Notenbild in italienischen Musikdrucken der Jahre 1571-1630, 2 voll., Kassel,Verlag Merse-
burger Berlin GmbH, 1992.
14
CLAUDIO MONTEVERDI, Vespro della Beata Vergine, ed. by Clifford Bartlett, Huntingdon,
Kings Music, 1986 (revised ed. 1990).
15
Cfr. per esempio CLAUDIO MONTEVERDI, Vesperae Beatae Mariae Virginis (Marien-Vesper)
1610, hrsg. von Gottfried Wolters, Wolfenbttel, Mseler Verlag, 19662.
16
Congresso internazionale sul tema Claudio Monteverdi e il suo tempo. Relazione e comuni-
cazioni, (Venezia-Mantova-Cremona, 3-7 maggio 1968), a cura di Raffaello Monterosso [Cre-
mona], 1969.
17
GEORG FEDER, Filologia musicale. Introduzione alla critica del testo, allermeneutica e alle
tecniche di edizione, Bologna, Il Mulino, 1992 (ed. orig. Musikphilologie. Eine Einfhrung in
die musikalische Textkritik, Hermeneutik und Editionstechnik, Darmstadt, Wissenschaftliche
Buchgesellaschaft, 1987).
18
JOHN CALDWELL, Editing Early Music, Oxford, Clarendon Press, 19982.
19
JAMES GRIER, The Critical Editing of Music. History, Method, and Practice, Cambridge,
Cambridge University Press, 1996.
20
DAHLHAUS, La critica del testo musicale cit., pp. 3-35.
140
L A M U S I C A S A C R A I TA L I A N A D E L X V I I S E C O L O
21
EDWARD LOWINSKY, Laurence Feiniger (1909-1976): la vita, lopera, leredit spirituale, in
La biblioteca musicale Laurence K. J. Feininger, a cura di Danilo Curti e Fabrizio Leonardel-
li, Trento, Provincia Autonoma di Trento, Servizio Beni Culturali, 1985, pp. 8-36.
141
RODOBALDO TIBALDI
142
L A M U S I C A S A C R A I TA L I A N A D E L X V I I S E C O L O
The Pius V breviary was the sequel to the deliberations of the Council of
Trent (1545-1563) and replaced the reform breviary of Cardinal Quiones,
which had served the Roma liturgy from 1535 to 1568.
In realt, le cose non stanno affatto cos. Il breviario di Quiones, detto anche
breviario di Santa Croce, venne stampato con il placet di Paolo III nel 1535,
venne revocato da Paolo IV (1555-1559), riapprovato da Pio IV (1559-1565);
ma soprattutto, fu pensato per la recita privata, e il suo uso fu sempre facol-
tativo (e quindi non costitu mai il testo ufficiale dellufficio romano, che
rimase sempre il cosiddetto breviario curiale di derivazione francescana).
Queste essenziali informazioni sono presenti in maniera sintetica ma chiara
proprio in uno dei testi a cui Kurtzman rimanda, ovvero lormai classico La
liturgia delle ore in Oriente e in Occidente di Robert Taft. Ugualmente poco
pi avanti, nella discussione sullimpiego delle antifone mariane nelle varie
ore cos come prescritto dal breviario (p. 58 nota 3), non si comprende il rife-
rimento ai monaci, i quali seguivano il cursus regolare, non certo quello seco-
lare. Ripeto, spiace dover rilevare queste cose; forse sono il segnale di una
certa maniera un po troppo disinvolta di accostarsi alla storia della liturgia
che avremo modo, purtroppo, di osservare ancora.
2.
Ledizione del Vespro di Kurtzman stata recensita, tra gli altri, da Paul
McCreesh (Early Music, XXVIII, 2000, pp. 658-660), il che piuttosto
interessante, in quanto la recensione offre il punto di vista dellesecutore
(come ben noto, McCreesh il direttore del prestigioso Gabrieli Consort).
Egli esordisce rilevando come moltissima musica del XVII secolo continui a
143
RODOBALDO TIBALDI
144
L A M U S I C A S A C R A I TA L I A N A D E L X V I I S E C O L O
22
Ugualmente perplessi lascia la scelta di ignorare completamente la messa da requiem, par-
tendo dalla considerazione puramente quantitativa che Printed Requiem masses are few. I
requiem a stampa sono per lo meno una cinquantina, un numero certo non impressionante, ma
certo rilevante, se si pensa al ruolo che tale composizione ha rivestito nei centocinquantanni
precedenti al Seicento.
145
RODOBALDO TIBALDI
in the fourth tone, rather than in the eight, where the plainchant version is
found in the Liber Usualis (p. 1774). Indeed, in the 16th and early 17th
centuries, De profundis was often set polyphonically in the fourth tone,
which was typically associated with texts of lamentations and anguish.
23
MAURIZIO PADOAN, La musica in S. Maria Maggiore a Bergamo nel periodo di Giovanni
Cavaccio (15981626), Como, AMIS, 1983; ID., Sulla struttura degli ultimi mottetti di Ales-
sandro Grandi, Rivista internazionale di musica sacra, VI, 1985, pp. 7-66: 8-13; ID., Un
modello esemplare di mediazione nellItalia del Nord: S. Maria Maggiore a Bergamo negli
anni 1630-1657, ivi, XI, 1990, pp. 115-57; ID., Giovanni Legrenzi in Santa Maria Maggiore a
Bergamo, in Giovanni Legrenzi e la Cappella Ducale di San Marco, atti dei convegni interna-
zionali di studi (Venezia, 24-26 maggio 1990, Clusone, 14-16 settembre 1990), a cura di Fran-
cesco Passadore e Franco Rossi, Firenze, Olschki, 1994 (Quaderni della Rivista italiana di
musicologia, 29), pp. 9-27.
24
JEROME ROCHE, Music at S. Maria Maggiore, Bergamo, 1614-1643, Music & Letters,
XLVII, 1966, pp. 296-314.
146
L A M U S I C A S A C R A I TA L I A N A D E L X V I I S E C O L O
Hora ritrovandomi (si come ho detto) io col [ovvero a Verona, nel mona-
stero di Santa Maria degli Organi] fui richiesto dal M.R.P.D. Carlo Malab-
bia Abbate allhora di quel luogo, componere una Messa per tale occasione
[la cosiddetta festa della Muletta per la Domenica delle Palme], ondio pi
per obedienza, che sufficienza mi addorsai tale carico, & con la norma
datami R.D. Bastiano detto il Musico Bavierante, composi una Messa in
concerto, a quattro Chori, la quale faceva effetto di otto Chori, il primo
erano tre Violini da braccio, & una voce in tenore, secondo Choro altre
quattro Viole con voci a quelle apropriate, il terzo quattro Viole da Gamba
con altre tanti voci humane, & appresso lultimo tre Tromboni, & una voce
in contraltro.
25
ANNE SCHNOEBELEN, The Role of the Violin in the Resurgence of the Mass in the 17th Cen-
tury, Early Music, XVIII, 1990, pp. 537-542.
147
RODOBALDO TIBALDI
148
L A M U S I C A S A C R A I TA L I A N A D E L X V I I S E C O L O
3.
149
RODOBALDO TIBALDI
26
FEDERICO MOMPELLIO, Lodovico Viadana musicista fra due secoli, Firenze, Olschki, 1967.
150
L A M U S I C A S A C R A I TA L I A N A D E L X V I I S E C O L O
vento di san Luca; e sul periodo in cui fu nella citt emiliana sarebbe
stato utile consultare (e citare) il saggio di Giancarlo Casali sulla musi-
ca nella cattedrale di Reggio Emilia nei decenni a cavallo tra Cinque-
cento e Seicento, saggio che contiene interessanti osservazioni riguar-
danti Viadana.27
Sinceramente, ci sfugge il perch della scelta di non citare almeno gli
studi pi strettamente riguardanti lIntroduzione stessa e in qualche modo uti-
lizzati per la sua compilazione. Un direttore di coro potrebbe essere anche
curioso di sapere qualcosa di pi.
Passando allinquadramento dellopera nel suo esatto contesto, ovvero la
liturgia della Settimana Santa e del Triduo sacro, le imprecisioni (per cos
dire) si manifestano fin da subito. Intanto che significato ha la seguente affer-
mazione: Il testo liturgico del Triduo sacro quello proposto dal Concilio di
Trento (15481563). La versione tridentina si discosta in alcuni punti dallE-
ditio Vaticana in uso fino al Concilio Vaticano II (p. IX)? Il testo liturgico
ufficiale successivo al Concilio di Trento fu quello inserito nel Breviario pro-
mulgato da Pio V nel 1568 (del quale, tra laltro, esiste una recentissima
ristampa anastatica),28 ed eventuali modifiche o correzioni andrebbero cerca-
te nelle revisioni che il Breviario ebbe successivamente, soprattutto nelledi-
zione clementina del 1602. Il termine Editio Vaticana semplicemente rela-
tivo ai libri con canto che riportano le versioni melodiche ristabilite dai padri
solesmensi, non a un testo ufficiale (nessun libro liturgico con musica lo mai
stato); certo, i testi liturgici sono quelli presenti nel Breviario, ma in primo
luogo le due cose non vanno confuse, in secondo luogo lEditio Vaticana a cui
si fa riferimento pi comunemente, ovvero la scelta operata dal Liber Usua-
lis, basata sulla riforma dellUfficio effettuata da Pio X nel 1911.
Ancora pi perplesso il lettore davanti alla seguente osservazione
(p. IX): Dopo lorazione finale i fedeli facevano un po di rumore e strepito
disordinato per rappresentare le convulsioni della natura alla morte di Ges:
cessato il fragore, si prendeva nuovamente segno di resurrezione la can-
dela accesa dietro laltare, la si riponeva sul candelabro e la si spegneva.
Come per tutto il testo, non dato di sapere quale sia la fonte di tale infor-
mazione; il Caerimoniale episcoporum del 1600, libro II, cap. XXII, al
27
GIANCARLO CASALI, La cappella musicale della Cattedrale di Reggio Emilia allepoca di
Aurelio Signoretti (1567-1631), Rivista italiana di musicologia, VIII, 1973, pp. 181-224.
28
Breviarium romanum. Editio princeps (1568), edizione anastatica con introduzione e appen-
dice a cura di Manlio Sodi, Achille Maria Triacca, con la collaborazione di Maria Gabriella
Foti, Citt del Vaticano, Libreria Editrice Vaticana, 1999 (Monumenta liturgica Concilii Tri-
dentini, 3); Caeremoniale episcoporum (1600), edizione anastatica con introduzione e appen-
dice a cura di Manlio Sodi, Achille Maria Triacca, Citt del Vaticano, Libreria Editrice Vatica-
na, 2000 (Monumenta liturgica Concilii Tridentini, 4)
151
RODOBALDO TIBALDI
152
L A M U S I C A S A C R A I TA L I A N A D E L X V I I S E C O L O
29
Su questo fondamentale aspetto, che investe tutta la musica liturgica, ci basti rimandare alle
chiare parole di LORENZO BIANCONI, Il Seicento, Torino, EdT, 1987 (Storia della musica a cura
della Societ italiana di musicologia, 4), pp. 111-112.
30
JOHN BETTLEY, La compositione lacrimosa: musical style and text selection in north-Italian
Lamentations settings in the second half of the sixteenth century, Journal of the Royal Musi-
cal Association, CXVIII, 1993, pp. 167-202.
31
La cappella musicale nellItalia della Controriforma, atti del convegno internazionale di
studi nel IV centenario di fondazione della Cappella Musicale di S. Biagio di Cento (Cento, 13-
15 ottobre 1989), a cura di Oscar Mischiati e Paolo Russo, Firenze, Olschki, 1993 (Quaderni
della Rivista italiana di musicologia, 27).
153
RODOBALDO TIBALDI
32
GIACOMO BAROFFIO, Il concilio di Trento e la musica, in Musica e liturgia nella riforma tri-
dentina, catalogo della mostra (Trento, Castello del Buonconsiglio, 23 settembre - 26 novem-
bre 1995), a cura di Danilo Curti e Marco Gozzi, Trento, Provincia Autonoma di Trento - Ser-
vizio Beni Librari e Archivistici, 1995, pp. 9-17 (alle pp. 19-29 si pu leggere anche OSCAR
MISCHIATI, Il concilio di Trento e la polifonia. Una diversa proposta di lettura e di prospettiva
bibliografica, ugualmente utile per capire le vere problematiche della materia, anche se vizia-
to da qualche pregiudizio di fondo e un po invecchiato nella metodologia, soprattutto con-
frontato con il saggio di Baroffio).
33
Cfr., per esempio, FIORENZO ROMITA, Ius musicae liturgicae. Dissertatio historico-juridica,
Torino, Marietti, 1936, pp. 59-60.
154
L A M U S I C A S A C R A I TA L I A N A D E L X V I I S E C O L O
155
RODOBALDO TIBALDI
ghetta, con misura larga, cantando chiaro e distinto, far gran riuscita: e
dove si trovar qualche affetto di Musica, esclamare con gratia, tenendo la
misura alquanto in aria, e unitamente languire con piet la cadenza.
Non si manco usato il falso bordone, perch di gi, questo luogo
stato occupato da altri: ma anco perch non si canta mai tutte le parole
ugualmente. A questo modo dunque, son sicuro che regolandosi comho
detto di sopra, che compitamente si far il servitio di Dio, e gran gusto si
dar alli audienti, che tengono i suoi officioli in mano, in sentir distinta-
mente quelle sante parole, che invitano a piangere i suoi peccati.
I Responsorij poi che si dicono alle Lamentationi, andaranno cantati
allegri, con misura frettolosa, e strepitosamente, con accompagnar quattro,
e cinque cantori per parte. Il verso a falso bordone, andar cantato pi
largo, e da quattro soli cantori, facendo poi la replica, pur con gran fracas-
so, si perch andando da unestremallaltro, questa variet far bellissimo
sentire. Chi comprar dunque queste mie Lamentationi, sponti la lesina di
pigliar anco i miei Responsorij, quali caminano col tuono delle Lamenta-
tioni: e Dio Nostro Signore sia con voi.
156
L A M U S I C A S A C R A I TA L I A N A D E L X V I I S E C O L O
zioni presenti nella stampa originale, accanto alla nota tra parentesi tonde le
alterazioni di integrazione, di precauzione o di avvertimento, e sopra la nota
quelle di incerta applicazione. Se comprensibile il criterio di differenziare in
qualche modo i vari fenomeni dovuti spesso allaggiunta della stanghetta di
battuta, come nel caso dei pari grado a cavallo di battuta (Es. 6), non capia-
mo come possano essere ritenuti di incerta applicazione casi come quelli
riportati agli esempi 7 e 8, e perch debbano essere trattate diversamente
situazioni identiche come quelle indicate agli esempi 9 e 10.
Limpostazione pratica del lavoro ribadita anche a proposito del testo
latino, del quale vengono tacitamente corrette le sviste tipografiche e, criterio
questo assai pi opinabile, uniformate lezioni discordanti, rispetto a che
cosa non si sa (discordanti tra le singole voci? discordanti rispetto al testo
liturgico ufficiale?).
Come abbiamo detto prima, il secondo scopo del curatore stato quello
del rigore filologico, ovvero massima cura nella ricerca, nello studio e nel-
lanalisi delle fonti. Le stampe originali non vengono mai descritte, n viene
fatto alcun riferimento a repertori o cataloghi di biblioteche o, pi semplice-
mente, alle schede bibliografiche presenti nella monografia di Mompellio;
non si dice nemmeno in quale libro siano contenuti il Miserere, il Benedictus
con relative antifone e Christus factus est. Lelenco degli esemplari supersti-
ti (con specificazione del loro stato di conservazione) viene fatto solo per le
Lamentationes, non per i Responsoria, di cui rimagono due esemplari rispet-
tivamente nel Civico Museo Bibliografico Musicale di Bologna (completo) e
nella Biblioteka Uniwersytecka di Varsavia (mancante del cantus). Delle
Lamentazioni venne fatta una ristampa del 1610 (secondo il curatore segno
del buon successo di vendita che lopera aveva incontrato presso le istituzio-
ni religiose cui era destinata), ma non pare che tale riedizione sia stata col-
lazionata con la princeps; daltro canto, non vi un vero e proprio apparato
critico, ma solo occasionalmente dei rimandi a pi di pagina sotto la musica
riguardanti particolarit della semiografia rinascimentale (come il diesis
davanti al si senza alcuna alterazione in chiave per evitare lapplicazione del
fa super la e conseguente abbassamento della nota, pp. 18 e 19, unimpor-
tante informazione per lesecutore moderno che, a mio parere, dovrebbe tran-
quillamente essere messa a testo), errori (pp. 38 e 135) o casi pi discutibili,
i quali, per definizione, avrebbero richiesto una qualche spiegazione (come il
diesis ritenuto errato a p. 11, o la modifica dellaltus proposta a p. 207). In
questi casi si fa rimando sempre e solo a un Orig., e nulla possibile sape-
re sulla ristampa; pu darsi benissimo che sia in tutto e per tutto identica alla
prima edizione, ma va comunque detto (altrimenti inutile invocare uno scru-
polo filologico che non pare esserci stato).
Sfugge, infine, alla nostra capacit di comprensione lultimo paragrafo:
Le intonazioni e i versetti gregoriani, espressamente previsti dalla stampa
157
RODOBALDO TIBALDI
158
L A M U S I C A S A C R A I TA L I A N A D E L X V I I S E C O L O
quasi del plagio del gusto, possono provocare proposte esecutive di questo
genere? Tutti coloro che sono privi di competenze specifiche in materia e
dunque non sono immunizzati da siffatte epidemie interpretative, saranno
indotti a unerrata informazione e a considerare la musica antica (polifonia
rinascimentale compresa) quello che in verit proprio non .
Queste parole sono da sottoscrivere una per una (magari meno la polemica,
presente nelle parti del testo omesse, contro gli interpreti doltralpe; ma
questo un altro discorso), ma la stessa cosa non dovrebbe valere anche per
unedizione di musica antica? Per certi aspetti, unedizione di un testo inseri-
ta in una collana di ampia diffusione (come I quaderni della Cartellina)
richiede pi impegno e maggior responsabilit di unedizione scientifica, per-
ch comunque diverso il fruitore dellopera; basterebbe fare un parallelo
con quanto avviene in collane come la BUR o gli Oscar Mondadori quando si
pubblica un testo classico della letteratura, e non si vede perch un musicista
non dovrebbe avere minori pretese di un lettore di Eschilo o di Dante o di
Marino allorquando si accosta a un repertorio per lui non familiare. Per di pi,
a mio parere, la questione ancora pi seria quando si ha a che fare con la
musica sacra, a causa del radicale cambiamento liturgico provocato dal Con-
cilio Vaticano II, e dal ruolo assolutamente subalterno che la musica ha assun-
to allinterno della liturgia, la cui colpa da ascrivere non tanto alle disposi-
zioni del Concilio (per conto loro chiarissime), quanto alle cattive interpreta-
zioni di comodo che si sono volute trovare in chiave il pi delle volte populi-
stiche.
Unultima annotazione per concludere: il III e il IV paragrafo dellintro-
duzione sono gi apparsi nel n. 4 (aprile 1996, pp. 10-12) della rivista Orfeo,
un mensile di carattere divulgativo dedicato alla musica antica e barocca (con
CD allegato) e reperibile in edicola. Anche di questa prima apparizione di
parte del testo non si trova menzione alcuna.
159
RODOBALDO TIBALDI
Esemplare di
Verona / Verona
copy
Esemplare di
Berlino / Berlin
copy
160
L A M U S I C A S A C R A I TA L I A N A D E L X V I I S E C O L O
Es. / Ex. 6 L. VIADANA, Feria Quinta in coena Domini, responsorium III, bb. 18-19
Es. / Ex. 7 L. VIADANA, Feria Quinta in coena Domini, lectio I, bb. 18-20
161
RODOBALDO TIBALDI
Es. / Ex. 9 L. VIADANA, Feria Quinta in coena Domini, responsorium V, bb. 20-21
Es. / Ex. 10 L. VIADANA, Feria Quinta in coena Domini, lectio II, bb. 127-128
162
RODOBALDO TIBALDI
The music of the 17th century is currently the victim of a particular situa-
tion, due to an undeniably odd manner of thinking on the part of musical
scholars. It is the century of the birth of opera, of the birth (or rebirth) of
accompanied monody, and of the spread of instrumental music all fields
on which the most methodologically keen researches have been and still
are concentrated. Sacred music,1 on the other hand, has not received the
attention appropriate to its importance, or even just to its actual presence
in the 17th century musical scene. This applies both to the musical intona-
tion of Latin texts and to that in the Italian language, belonging to what
might be called the devotional sphere (a subject that needs complete
reviewing, in any case). There are very varying motives for this: prejudices
of an aesthetic, religious or even confessional kind stand in the way; so
does the lack of a sufficient number of preparatory works, and the roman-
tic-idealistic notions (whether admitted or not) that seek to limit study to
the great figures of an era.
Two further reasons must be added to all this. They differ from each other,
but they both have a determining effect. The first, an elementary fact, so obvi-
ous that its hard to see how it can have been overlooked for such a long time
(and still is sometimes, even now), is that without a fair competence in the
history of liturgy, the history of religion and the necessary methodological
means, there is often a risk of misunderstandings in the comprehension of a
piece, collection, or even composer. The second reason for such limited atten-
tion is that there is a lack of modern editions in sufficient numbers; those few
which exist, often scattered in collections for practical use which are hard to
track down, are insufficient to close the huge gap which exists.2 And in this
context it is just as well not to forget that an edition, in order to be such, is
always (or should be) an intellectual operation which demands multiple com-
petences of a broader cultural kind. If this is not the case, we find ourselves
in the world of transcriptions, or the preliminary part of a full-scale work of
editing. Certainly, in the absence of anything else, we should welcome tran-
1
We use this terminology for what it normally signifies, without wishing to join the dispute
over the legitimacy or otherwise of the use of the adjective sacred, and not even with any
polemical intentions, but merely for practical reasons.
2
The latter consideration, as we are aware, could on the contrary be read as a cause of what has
been said so far; to some extent it is a matter of the cat biting its own tail.
163
RODOBALDO TIBALDI
scriptions; they are always better than nothing at all. One of the consequences
of this situation is, for example, that an absolutely pioneering and deserving
work, the premises of which were enough to discourage anyone, such as
North Italian Church Music in the Age of Monteverdi3 by the insufficiently
lamented Jerome Roche, has proved to be surpassed and contradicted in many
conclusions where there has been basic concentration on a single aspect
(problem, generic group, composer, etc.). But this was inevitable, and we can
never be grateful enough to Roche for his undertaking.
The publications of this repertoire in modern editions are indispensable, but
naturally the great amount that remains to be done should not mean that the
prevalent viewpoint is reinforced and so the great masterpieces of the major
composers are forgotten, for the new research in the field of historiography and
philology must be capable of demanding more editions than the few already in
existence. This is the reason why three different editions are brought together in
this journal; three editions which seem to have in common only the period to
which they belong. The first is a new edition of the Vespers of the Blessed Vir-
gin Mary by Monteverdi, edited by one of the leading specialists of the period,
the author and the work itself: Jeffrey Kurtzman (this is an edition of a master-
piece published several times by various scholars). The second is a monumen-
tal collection of twenty-five volumes dedicated to Italian sacred music of the
17th century (and thus an edition of a largely unpublished repertoire). The third
is the edition of an unpublished work by a well-known but little-examined com-
poser, Lodovico Viadana, edited by a musician and choirmaster who is also
very knowledgeable on the problems of sixteenth- century music and didactics.
Now, we shall have an opportunity of seeing the variety of reasons that make a
less fragmentary discussion possible. Above all, these are editions, and hence
there are questions of common methodology; secondly, all three aim to be both
editions for the purposes of study and scores immediately use to performers. So
it will be interesting to see how the various problems which arise have been
resolved. We shall also see whether and how the inevitable questions of a litur-
gical kind are tackled a point we believe to be fundamental. For instead of tak-
ing such tasks lightly, it would be better to abandon them altogether and turn to
a specialist who could deal with them properly.
1.
3
JEROME ROCHE, North Italian Church Music in the Age of Monteverdi, Oxford, Clarendon,
1984.
164
I TA L I A N S A C R E D M U S I C O F T H E 1 7 T H C E N T U RY
4
CLAUDIO MONTEVERDI, Vespro della Beata Vergine. Vespers (1610), Performing Score, ed. by
Jeffrey Kurtzman, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1999.
5
JEFFREY KURTZMAN, The Monteverdi Vespers of 1610 and their Relationship with Italian
Sacred Music of the Early Seventeenth Century, PhD. dissertation, University of Illinois at
Urbana-Champaign, 1972.
6
ID., Essay on the Monteverdi Mass and Vespers of 1610, Rice University Studies, Texas, 1978
(Monograph in Music, vol. 64, n.4).
7
CLAUDIO MONTEVERDI, Vespro della Beata Vergine. Vespers (1610). Critical Appendix. Bas-
sus Generalis. Critical Notes, ed. by Jeffrey Kurtzman, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1999.
165
RODOBALDO TIBALDI
The volume of critical apparatus is for the most part concerned with the semi-
diplomatic transcription of the Bassus generalis (pp. 1-43). This is followed
by the editorial criteria already present in the edition itself, with the sole addi-
tion of the description of the sources (the print of Amadino dated 1610 and
Kaufmanns 1615 anthology, containing the Deus in adiutorium and the Dixit
Dominus), and the list of libraries which possess more or less complete
copies. Finally we have the actual critical apparatus, this time complete (thus
also including the Performance notes of the other volume). The division of
the material carried out in this way, though designed for the double use of
both study and performance, will not be found to be particularly easy, and per-
haps will not be all that satisfactory either. A certain sense of uneasiness is
added by the fact that from the introduction onward, reference is constantly
made to the ponderous monographic volume which Kurtzman part-published;
namely The Monteverdi Vespers of 1610. Music, Context, Performance, also
for the Oxford University Press (it should be noted among othere things that
although the edition was published in March 1999, this volume has only been
available since the beginning of 2000). This is not the place to review this
work (to which we shall refer from now on as the monograph). But it will
be unavoidable to make frequent reference to it over certain editorial ques-
tions, because to have a complete picture of the choices made by Kurtzman,
and of his edition, it is indispensable work with an eye on all three volumes.
As may be expected of a scholar who has dedicated many years to the
repertoire of Italian sacred music of the 17th century, this edition has very
many good qualities; in the first place, such a detailed and specific critical
apparatus (at times it seems even redundant, but better to have information
in excess than not enough!) is far more complete, for instance, than the one
present in the edition edited by Jerome Roche, which was published
posthumously, unfortunately in 1994 (in other ways an exemplary edi-
tion).8 There has been greater checking of all the surviving evidence and,
above all, a broad view of individual questions. However, it is problematic
for such a complex work as the Vespers to find a definitive edition, one
which clarifies all the problems. The editor himself stresses in the Intro-
duction that No critical edition is ever definitive, and many of the practi-
cal performance issues of the Monteverdi Vespers may never be resolved.
Certain aspects, as well as some of Kurtzmans decisions, are neither satis-
factory nor convincing.
Turning first to the edition itself: this edition has the aim to serve both
the performer and the scholar (p. VI), for, as Kurtzman rightly maintains, an
8
CLAUDIO MONTEVERDI, Vespro della Beata Vergine, Urtext Edition, ed. by Jerome Roche,
London, Eulenburg, 1994.
166
I TA L I A N S A C R E D M U S I C O F T H E 1 7 T H C E N T U RY
9
JEFFREY KURTZMAN, Monteverdis Sacred Music: the State of Research, in Claudio Mon-
teverdi. Studi e prospettive, Atti del Convegno (Mantova, 2124 October 1993), edited by
Paola Besutti, Teresa M.Gialdroni & Rodolfo Baroncini, Firenze, Olschki, 1998 (Accademia
Nazionale Virgiliana di Scienze Lettere e Arti, Miscellanea, 5), pp. 329: 7.
167
RODOBALDO TIBALDI
this operation for the edition in itself, we should remember the radically
opposing opinion of Dahlhaus, who considered that one of the essential char-
acteristic of basso continuo is precisely the:
In the same context, it is stressed that a critical edition must present an accu-
rate version of the original musical notation, altering neither note values nor
mensuration signatures (p. 7); and in fact this is done. We certainly do not
seek to question the legitimacy of this decision (though we shall come back
to this point later); what we must ask is whether in this context the is regu-
larly divided from the semibreve instead of the breve (something which is
found in the Monteverdi printed version only in the Deus in adiutorium, and
occasionally at other moments). A separation at the semibreve, with an indi-
cation , could possibly mislead the inexpert musician, who might interpret
the original indication of tempus imperfectum by the modern indication of
4/4. A deviation from this way of proceeding - the only one of its kind is
found in a famous and much-discussed passage of the Sonata sopra Sancta
Maria, when all the instruments are noted by semibreves, but above all min-
ims and blackened crotchets (which become identical to crotchets and qua-
vers in the notation) with the indication of the figure 3 for each triple-time
group, while the soprano who sings the invocatory litany is given a notation
of (bb. 130-141 of the Kurtzman edition). According to the editor, we are
faced with that situation which Brunelli, among the few (not to say the only
one) defines as a situation of meliola, and his correct interpretation obliges the
10
CARL DAHLHAUS, Zur Ideengeschichte musikalischer Editionsprinzipien, Fontes Artis
Musicae, XXV, 1978, pp. 1927: 22: zu deren Wesen gerade die Offenheit fr wechselnde
Realisierung gehrt. In dem Mae aber, wie die Kenner, die eine Aussetzung nicht als Sttze,
sondern als Hindernis der Phantasie ansehen, zum herrschenden Typus in der Auffhrung-
spraxis alter Musik werden, erscheint das historische adquatere Editionsverfahren, der
Verzicht auf Aussetzungen, zugleich als dal praktischere. Einer Praxis, die aus einer primr
hausmusikalischen zu einer primr professionellen geworden ist, entspricht eine Philologie,
welche die historische Distanz nicht verdeckt, sondern sie bewusst und gerade dadurch fr das
sthetische Gefhl berbrckbar macht.
168
I TA L I A N S A C R E D M U S I C O F T H E 1 7 T H C E N T U RY
The meliola may be assigned whatever tempo is required; that which refers
to black minims can be given two downbeats and an upbeat, and it is cus-
tomary to do this as the following example will shows, and each time it
does not follow the three escape from the meliola, which may come out
either in black or in white [a musical example follows].11
11
ANTONIO BRUNELLI, Regole utilissime per li scolari che desiderano imparare a cantare, sopra
la pratica della musica, Firenze, Timan, 1606, cap. 22, pp. 19-20.
169
RODOBALDO TIBALDI
12
ROGER BOWERS, Some Reflections upon Notation and Proportions in Monteverdis Mass and
Vespers of 1610, Music & Letters, LXXIII, 1992, pp. 347-398; reply by JEFFREY KURTZMAN in
LXXIV, 1993, pp. 487-495, and rejoinder by ROGER BOWERS in LXXV, 1994, pp. 145-154.
13
UWE WOLF, Notation und Auffhrungpraxis. Studien zum Wandel von Notenschrift und
Notenbild in italienischen Musikdrucken der Jahre 1571-1630, 2 vols., Kassel,Verlag Merse-
burger Berlin GmbH, 1992.
14
CLAUDIO MONTEVERDI, Vespro della Beata Vergine, ed. by Clifford Bartlett, Huntingdon,
Kings Music, 1986 (revised ed. 1990).
15
Cf. e.g.: CLAUDIO MONTEVERDI, Vesperae Beatae Mariae Virginis (Marien-Vesper) 1610,
hrsg. von Gottfried Wolters, Wolfenbttel, Mseler Verlag, 19662.
170
I TA L I A N S A C R E D M U S I C O F T H E 1 7 T H C E N T U RY
self and Nino Pirrotta, in the historic Monteverdi Conference in 1968.16 More
recently there have been the works of Feder,17 Caldwell,18 and Grier,19 and the
collection of various essays edited by Maria Caraci Vela. We refer readers to
the introduction of this last-mentioned work for a comprehensive picture of
the problems and the methods proper to musical philology.20 Dahlhaus, in the
essay already mentioned, starting from the idea that the simple transliteration
of ancient notation can violate not only the intended sound, but also the writ-
ten intention of the original, reached the conclusion that a modernised edi-
tion which supplements the text with a hypothesis on the tempo is in reality
nearer to the original than an edition which conceals a dimension of the orig-
inal written text for fear of taking a decision which would not be fully justi-
fied (p. 67). And this is fully understandable in the context of an edition that
is specifically aimed at the performer, while at the same time acting as a crit-
ical edition. However, it is also true that the contact with the original notation,
the actual visual aspect of the original, is a need felt by many scholars as
indispensable for the edition itself (I would point, for example, to the
exchange of letters between Feininger and Lowinsky, mentioned in Lowin-
skys obituary dedicated to of Feininger himself),21 and sometimes by some
performers. The problem for me, and I have not yet reached a conclusive
answer to it (if indeed one can ever be given), is whether an edition can
respond to the needs of both the scholar and of the performer. Or if, taking
account of the diversity of methods that these demands require, it is not nec-
essary to contemplate a plurality of editions, as happens, in the case of Clas-
sical texts the Teubner edition being one thing, and an edition for scholarly
use quite another, based though it may be on the former. This has always hap-
pened, it is true, but rarely within the same publication. I am referring to
something which could be likened to a translation with the original text (a
critical text, not a facsimile reproduction of a piece of evidence) also in front
of one. I realise that there are also financial reasons which stand in the way of
such a solution. But the new possibilities provided by computerised means,
16
Congresso internazionale sul tema Claudio Monteverdi e il suo tempo. Relazione e comuni-
cazioni, (Venezia-Mantova-Cremona, 3-7 maggio 1968), ed. by Raffaello Monterosso [Cre-
mona], 1969.
17
GEORG FEDER, Musikphilologie. Eine Einfhrung in die musikalische Textkritik, Hermeneu-
tik und Editionstechnik, Darmstadt, Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellaschaft, 1987.
18
JOHN CALDWELL, Early music, Oxford, Clarendon Press 1998.
19
JAMES GRIER, The Critical Editing of Music. History, Method, and Practice, Cambridge,
Cambridge University Press, 1996.
20
DAHLHAUS, Zur Ideengeschichte musikalischer Editionsprinzipien.
21
EDWARD LOWINSKY, Laurence Feiniger (1909-1976): la vita, lopera, leredit spirituale, in
La biblioteca musicale Laurence K. J. Feininger, edited by Danilo Curti and Fabrizio
Leonardelli, Trento, Provincia Autonoma di Trento, Servizio Beni Culturali, 1985, pp. 8-36.
171
RODOBALDO TIBALDI
172
I TA L I A N S A C R E D M U S I C O F T H E 1 7 T H C E N T U RY
pers of solemn feasts drawn from The Liber Usualis with Introduction and
Rubrics in English [].
Two questions arise immediately. First of all, one asks why it was necessary
to try to find this melody in a breviary, since that is certainly not a book which
contains music. Subsequently, when the editor adds to the edition the plain-
chant antiphons taken from an Antiphonal of 1607 (edition, pp. 255-262), we
realise that the terms breviary and antiphonal are used indiscriminately (the
antiphons given below are derived from a breviary published in Venice in
1607, with a reference in the note to the above-mentioned antiphonal)
something which leads to a certain perplexity, and cannot be put down to a
deficiency in the English language (which is well aware of the difference).
Secondly, we have to ask whether one should still use the Liber Usualis when
dealing with a musical repertoire prior to the end of the 19th century, and
above all with a liturgy differing from that present in the Liber Usualis; i.e.
the reformed liturgy introduced by Pius X in 1911 (but this, as we shall see
later, is unfortunately a constant problem, and one of the unifying motifs of
the present review).
One source of reference could, for instance, have been the Directorium
chori of Giovanni Guidetti, to which John Whenham, for one, turned in his
essay Monteverdi: Vespers (1610), published in Cambridge in nel 1997 (not
used by Kurtzman because it was, published too late, he says). Unfortunately
and I have to say this regretfully and unwillingly it it precisely on histor-
ical-liturgical questions that Kurtzman shows himself to be too hasty. For
example, if we read the chapter dedicated to the Vespers liturgy and the prob-
lem of the antiphons in the monograph, we at once come across the follow-
ing statement (p. 56):
The Pius V breviary was the sequel to the deliberations of the Council of
Trent (1545-1563) and replaced the reform(ed) breviary of Cardinal
Quiones, which had served the Roman liturgy from 1535 to 1568.
In fact this is not how things were at all. The Quiones breviary, also known
as the Breviary of Santa Croce, was printed with the authorisation of Paul III
in 1535, and revoked by Paul IV (1555-1559), then re-approved by Pius IV
(1559-1565). Above all, however, it was designed for private recitation, and
its use was also optional (hence it was never the official Roman text, which
always remained the so-called Curial Breviary of Franciscan origins). This
essential information is present in summary form in one of the texts to which
Kurtzman refers, the Liturgy of the Hours in the East and the West by
Robert Taft, which has now become a classic. Similarly, a little further on, in
the discussion of the use of Marian antiphons in the various hours as
173
RODOBALDO TIBALDI
described in the Breviary (p. 58 footnote 3), it is hard to understand the ref-
erence to the monks, who followed the cursus regolare, and certainly not that
of the secular clergy. Once again, I am sorry to have to note these things: pos-
sibly they are an indication of a certain carelessness in dealing with the his-
tory of the liturgy, which we will unfortunately encounter again later on.
2.
174
I TA L I A N S A C R E D M U S I C O F T H E 1 7 T H C E N T U RY
ed with the new styles, it seems strange, then, that the editors decided to
publish only five volumes dedicated to the motet as opposed to the twenty
dedicated to the Mass and to Vespers and Compline. The chronological con-
texts also seem to place further stress on the separation between the two
blocks: for the Masses and Vespers and Compline, the chosen composers
occupy the whole of the 17th century (1600-1700), while for the motets they
are only from the first half of the century (1600-1650). The choice of com-
posers, obviously, is purely a matter of opinion, above all for those musi-
cians who are almost completely unknown today, except for the great fig-
ures (though a major figure such as Lodovico Viadana is represented only
in some of the volumes dedicated to Vespers and Compline). Inclusions and
omissions could lend themselves to many critical observations, and this is
all part of the rules of the game, but it remains difficult to explain certain
incongruous elements which we might summarise as follows:
the volumes dedicated to motets seem to leave out (at least for the present,
unless some future change of direction occurs) the first decade of the cen-
tury thus excluding, apart from Viadana, composers such as Leone Leoni,
Antonio Burlini, Arcangelo Crotti or Severo Bonini, to mention just a few
chosen at random. Moreover, the range of musicians presented is quite
restricted (Grandi, Rigatti, Rovetta, Capello, Caprioli, Donati, Crivelli,
Merula, Marini, Tarditi, Fontei, Casati, Capuana). Again, there is a lack of
collections of motets from the Roman environment (the printed collections
of Agazzari, Giovanni Francesco Anerio, or Giovanni Bernardino Nanino);
no musician from the Milanese circle is taken into consideration (Cima,
Baglioni, Grancini etc., not to mention the important anthology of Lucino); I
would not like to think that this is a matter of reiterating the same old com-
monplace about the presumed conservatism of Milan (which, if it existed at
all and that is still to be proven only affected the Cathedral);
composers working in Rome are almost entirely absent; some of them are
considered only in the volumes dedicated to Vespers and Compline, and
almost fleetingly in the those dealing with the Mass (Graziani and Foggia, i.e.
musicians active in the second half of the century). But Benevoli, for exam-
ple, is completely absent;
more generally, there is a lack of any reference to music written and print-
ed south of Rome;
the so-called antique style (I use the term used in the general introduction,
avoiding any discussion of the legitimacy or otherwise of its use) is to a great
extent left out; in this case too I fear there may be a basic prejudice deriving
from a somewhat partial view of composition during the course of the 17th
century;
finally, we might ask why not dedicate volumes 11-20 more generally to the
music for the Divine Office, thus also including transcriptions of collections
175
RODOBALDO TIBALDI
of the Lamentations and the responsories for Holy Week, for example?22
The resulting picture is thus quite clear: the collection takes into consid-
eration sacred music in the concertato style composed by composers working
for the most part in the area of the Po Valley and the Veneto (I forgot to men-
tion that Florentine composers are also largely ignored). It is an absolutely
legitimate choice to make, and in some respects invites agreement; but it is
hard to understand why this could not have been stated clearly and honestly,
at least in the General Introduction.
The introductions to the individual volumes are divided into various points,
and contain both historical information and questions more strictly affecting the
philological aspect, as is shown by the presence of a critical apparatus (Edito-
rial Comments and Corrections) in which errors in the original editions and
questions concerning accidentals are pointed out, and the various changes of
clef in the basso continuo parts are dealt with in minute detail. The context-set-
ting is necessarily summary: a portrait of the composer and the work chosen,
some illustration of the characteristics of the composition, some analytical
notes, and some very limited bibliographical references. Unfortunately there are
also certain passages which tend to embarrass the reader (and even more the
reviewer). I will just cite a couple of emblematic cases, though we could find
many, mainly in a bibliography that is exclusively based on the sources in Eng-
lish and completely excludes studies in Italian (and, to a lesser though still sig-
nificant extent German), following a custom that is becoming increasingly
common. To ignore the works of Maurizio Padoan on Santa Maria Maggiore in
Bergamo,23 for instance, and refer exclusively to the pioneering 196624 essay of
Roche means giving a restrictive and outdated interpretation of the musical
repertoire of that important institution (cf. vol. 3, p. XV). It is also worth noting
that modern editions are hardly ever mentioned and not everything found in
these volumes is previously unpublished.
22
We are also baffled by the decision to ignore completely the Requiem Mass, motivated by
the purely quantitative assertion that Printed Requiem masses are few. There are at least fifty
printed Requiems, not all that impressive a number perhaps but certainly significant, if we
think of the role that these compositions played in the fifty years prior to the 17th century.
23
MAURIZIO PADOAN, La musica in S. Maria Maggiore a Bergamo nel periodo di Giovanni
Cavaccio (15981626), Como, AMIS, 1983; ID., Sulla struttura degli ultimi mottetti di
Alessandro Grandi, Rivista internazionale di musica sacra, VI, 1985, pp. 7-66: 8-13; ID., Un
modello esemplare di mediazione nellItalia del Nord: S. Maria Maggiore a Bergamo negli
anni 1630-1657, ibid., XI, 1990, pp. 115-57; ID., Giovanni Legrenzi in Santa Maria Mag-
giore a Bergamo, in Giovanni Legrenzi e la Cappella Ducale di San Marco, atti dei conveg-
ni internazionali di studi (Venezia, 24-26 May 1990, Clusone, 14-16 September 1990), edited
by Francesco Passadore and Franco Rossi, Firenze, Olschki, 1994 (Quaderni della Rivista ital-
iana di musicologia, 29), pp. 9-27.
24
JEROME ROCHE, Music at S. Maria Maggiore, Bergamo, 1614-1643, Music & Letters,
XLVII, 1966, pp. 296-314.
176
I TA L I A N S A C R E D M U S I C O F T H E 1 7 T H C E N T U RY
Hora ritrovandomi (si come ho detto) io col [ovvero a Verona, nel monas-
tero di Santa Maria degli Organi] fui richiesto dal M.R.P.D. Carlo Malab-
bia Abbate allhora di quel luogo, componere una Messa per tale occasione
[la cosiddetta festa della Muletta per la Domenica delle Palme], ondio pi
per obedienza, che sufficienza mi addorsai tale carico, & con la norma
datami R.D. Bastiano detto il Musico Bavierante, composi una Messa in
25
ANNE SCHOEBELEN, The Role of the Violin in the Resurgence of the Mass in the 17th Cen-
tury, Early Music, XVIII, 1990, pp. 537-542.
177
RODOBALDO TIBALDI
178
I TA L I A N S A C R E D M U S I C O F T H E 1 7 T H C E N T U RY
179
RODOBALDO TIBALDI
3.
26
FEDERICO MOMPELLIO, Lodovico Viadana musicista fra due secoli, Firenze, Olschki, 1967.
180
I TA L I A N S A C R E D M U S I C O F T H E 1 7 T H C E N T U RY
27
GIANCARLO CASALI, La cappella musicale della Cattedrale di Reggio Emilia allepoca di
Aurelio Signoretti (1567-1631), Rivista italiana di musicologia, VIII, 1973, pp. 181-224.
28
Breviarium romanum. Editio princeps (1568), facsimile reprint with introductory notes and
appendix by Manlio Sodi, Achille Maria Triacca, and Maria Gabriella Foti, Citt del Vaticano,
Libreria Editrice Vaticana, 1999 (Monumenta liturgica Concilii Tridentini, 3); Caeremoniale
episcoporum (1600), facsimile reprint with introductory notes and appendix by Manlio Sodi,
Achille Maria Triacca, Citt del Vaticano, Libreria Editrice Vaticana, 2000 (Monumenta litur-
gica Concilii Tridentini, 4).
181
RODOBALDO TIBALDI
secondly the Editio Vaticana which is commonly referred to, or the selections
made by the Liber Usualis, is based on the reform of the Divine Office car-
ried out by Pius X in 1911.
The reader is even more baffled when faced with the following observa-
tion (p. IX): After the final prayer the faithful made a certain amount of noise
and disorderly crashing to represent the convulsions of nature at the death of
Jesus: when the racket ceased the candle lit behind the altar was taken up
again, as a sign of the resurrection and placed on the altar and then snuffed
out. As in all the rest of the text, no indication is given of the source of such
information: the Caeremoniale episcoporum of 1600, Book II, ch. XXII, is
quite clear on the matter, but not exactly in the way that has just been stated:
The caeteri of which mention is made here are, naturally, those who are tak-
ing an active part in the rite (Bishop, canons, cantors, etc.) not the gathering
of the faithful present at the rite. One of the risks of Acciais statement, of
which, I repeat, the source is unknown, is that of superimposing actual prac-
tice and liturgical customs which are in fact very different and distant in time
from one another.
The apparent problem of liturgical texts in part rendered into music in
their entirety (those of the Responsories) and in part substantially
reduced, as with the Lamentations, is not tackled. The choices made by
Viadana respond to an extremely symmetrical design (for each lectio),
three solo sections introduced by the letters of the Hebrew alphabet, and
the conclusion Jerusalem, Jerusalem, apart, naturally, from the intro-
duction to the first reading of the day). But they are such as to abbrevi-
ate the original lectiones, as can be seen in the majority of the polyphon-
ic Lamentations (and this is even mentioned by Acciai himself on p. XI,
but once again basing the comparison only on the Editio Vaticana). It
should perhaps be remembered that, by a custom going back at least to
the 15th century, the nocturnal service of Mattins on the Three Days was
anticipated on the evening of the day before, in order to make the pres-
ence of the faithful possible. Chapter XXII of the previously mentioned
Caerimoniale Episcoporum is, significantly, entitled: De Matutinis
Tenebrarum quartae, quintae, & sextae feriae maioris hebdomadae,
because the bishop enters the church quarta feria hora vigesima prima,
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I TA L I A N S A C R E D M U S I C O F T H E 1 7 T H C E N T U RY
vel circa (and traces of this are also to be found in the printed music: cf.
for example, the Lamentations, Benedictus, and Miserere to be sung on
Wednesday, Thursday and Friday in Holy Week in the evening, in the
Mattins by Giovanni Francesco Capello, published in Verona in 1612).
Without entering into the complex problem of the paraliturgies of Holy
Week in Latin and in the common tongue, within which the Lamentations
and other parts of the Divine Office find a place, it is enough to note that
just for reasons of ordinary practice, it would have been fairly obvious
that the texts were not intoned musically in their entirety (a great deal of
time would have been needed); and above all it should never be forgot-
ten that polyphonic music, even when it is composed for a liturgical text,
matches it but never substitutes it.29 On this point too, one cannot help
noting the total lack of bibliographical indications, including the very
recent contribution by John Bettley specifically dedicated to these impor-
tant aspects of the text.30
I do not wish to comment on the editors observations on the music,
since these are personal opinions, though perhaps a little too general and
aesthetically based. However, it could be said that the reasons for a com-
parison with Palestrina are far from clear, since we are in quite a different
geographical, cultural, expressive and stylistic context. (Viadana mainly
uses a declamatory form of polyphony), and the question of poetic music
would deserve quite different consideration. But at least on two or three
points one may be permitted some observations.
The description of the historical context and compositional quality of
Viadana clearly presented by Mompellio is far more complex than Acciai
acknowledges on p. XIII. Among other things, after expressing a flattering
judgement on the expressive results attained in the Lamentations, (in p. 70 of
his monograph), Mompellio expresses serious doubts about the results
attained in the Responsories: in the almost absolute homorhythm of this
book, lazy writing in the fauxbourdon recurs frequently, and does not con-
tribute to diminishing its musical poverty (p. 71).
On p. X we read the following statement: This ponderous body of music
destined for the liturgy of Holy Week, for the first time gathered together in a
modern edition, was composed by Viadana following the dispositions issued
by the Council of Trent concerning sacred music. We may legitimately ask
29
On this fundamental aspect, which affects all liturgical music, it will be enough to refer to
the clear words of Lorenzo Bianconi, Il Seicento, Torino, EdT, 1987 (Storia della musica a cura
della Societ italiana di musicologia, 4), pp. 111-112.
30
JOHN BETTLEY, La compositione lacrimosa: musical style and text selection in north-Ital-
ian Lamentations settings in the second half of the sixteenth century, Journal of the Royal
Musical Association, CXVIII, 1993, pp. 167-202.
183
RODOBALDO TIBALDI
what were such dispositions but here too, there is no bibliographical refer-
ence. Without bothering to cite works which have become virtual classics
(Lockwood, Fellerer, but also Fabbri, Besutti e Borromeo in the Proceedings
of 1989),31 we limit ourselves to referring to a very recent contribution, and
one in Italian, by Giacomo Baroffio. Here the distinguished scholar, com-
menting on the very few passages in the Tridentine Decrees in which music
is mentioned, (two, in effect), clearly that it is thus necessary to distinguish
the historiographical knowledge from the collective imagination which is
always in search of scapegoats to demonise and condemn, or of heroes to
admire and in whom it sees its own ideals reflected.32 The discussion which
took place and which we know about from various sources is one thing; the
official dispositions published in the Decrees are quite another. And these
contain only deliberately general references to the dignity of sacred music,
without even the much-cited, and not always relevant, verba ab omnibus per-
cipi possint (this celebrated passage is part of the text prepared in the gener-
al meeting of 10th September 1562, but it has no place in the final decree
relating to the 22nd session of 17th September).33 Evidently we are here faced
with a commonplace which will not lie down, despite the various writings on
the matter in more or less recent times.
This volume, it should not be forgotten, is substantially a modern edition;
so it is now time to pass on to the more specifically scholarly part. The inten-
tion of the editor is twofold: practicality and scholarly rigour. In the first case
the editor has sought to render clear and comprehensible the original written
text, eliminating, as far as possible, the majority of the interpretative problems
at a semiographic level. In fact, since all the compositions are in tempus per-
fectus diminutum ( ), there are not so much problems of a semiographic type
as of a semiological or semantic type. The editor, as is his custom, has adopt-
ed indiscriminately the modern indication of 2/ (sometimes substituted by
31
La cappella musicale nellItalia della Controriforma, atti del convegno internazionale di
studi nel IV centenario di fondazione della Cappella Musicale di S. Biagio di Cento (Cento, 13-
15 ottobre 1989), ed. by Oscar Mischiati e Paolo Russo, Firenze, Olschki, 1993 (Quaderni della
Rivista italiana di musicologia, 27).
32
GIACOMO BAROFFIO, Il concilio di Trento e la musica, in Musica e liturgia nella riforma
tridentina, Catalogue of the exhibition (Trento, Castello del Buonconsiglio, 23 September - 26
November 1995), edited by Danilo Curti and Marco Gozzi, Trento, Provincia Autonoma di
Trento - Servizio Beni Librari e Archivistici, 1995, pp. 9-17; pp. 19-29. Reference can also be
made to OSCAR MISCHIATI, Il Concilio di Trento e la polifonia. Una diversa proposta di lettura
e di prospettiva bibliografica, ibid., pp. 19-29, equally useful for the understanding of the real
problems of the material, even if vitiated by some basic prejudices, and old-fashioned in its
approach, especially when compared to Baroffios essay.
33
See for example FIORENZO ROMITA, Ius musicae liturgicae. Dissertatio historico-juridica,
Torino, Marietti, 1936, pp. 59-60.
184
I TA L I A N S A C R E D M U S I C O F T H E 1 7 T H C E N T U RY
185
RODOBALDO TIBALDI
the is adopted in both the printed versions, but its significance is quite dif-
ferent. The composer gives an interesting warning before the Lamentations to
musical virtuosi, which unfortunately (and we dont know why), is hardly
considered by the editor. But, although included in the Mompellio monograph
on pages 149-151, we think that it is worth reproducing in its entirety, includ-
ing the parts omitted by Acciai in italics:
No basso continuo has been made for these Lamentations, because to speak
the truth this sort of Music which recites will always create a better effect
(with) only four good voices, which sing with gravity and without adorn-
ment, than being accompanied by instruments. But placing themselves
always at the barline with wide measure, singing clearly and distinctly, will
produce great results: and where some affect in the music is found, exclaim
with grace, holding the measure somewhat in the air, and at the same time
making the cadenza languish with pity. The fauxbourdon has not been
omitted because this place has already been occupied by others, but also
because all the words are never sung equally. In this way, therefore, I am
sure that by regulating things as I have explained above, at the same time
one will do service to God and give great feeling to the hearers, holding
their officebooks in their hand, in hearing those sacred words distinctly,
which invite them to weep for their sins.
The Responsories declaimed at the Lamentations should be sung allegro,
with a hasty measure, and clamorously, accompanied by four, and five
singers per part. The fauxbourdon verse should be sung more largo, and by
four solo singers, then making the response even with a great deal of din,
for by going from one extreme to the other, this variety will be beautiful to
the ears. So let anyone who buys these Lamentations of mine, not be nig-
gardly, and buy my Responsories as well, which run along with the tone of
the Lamentations. And the Lord our God be with you.
186
I TA L I A N S A C R E D M U S I C O F T H E 1 7 T H C E N T U RY
187
RODOBALDO TIBALDI
ratus but only occasional references in the footnotes beneath the music con-
cerning details of Renaissance semiography (such as the sharp before the G
without any alteration in clef to avoid the application of the F above A (fa
supra la), and consequent lowering of the note, pp. 18 and 19. This is an
important information for the modern performer, who in my opinion, would
require some explanation (as with the sharp wrongly retained on p. 11, or the
modification of the Alto proposed on p. 207). In these cases, reference is sim-
ply and solely made to an Orig., and it is impossible to find anything about
the reprint. It could well be that it is in every way and all respects identical to
the first edition, but this should in any case be stated (otherwise it is pointless
to invoke scholarly scruple).
Finally, the last section really defies understanding: The intonations and
the Gregorian versicles, expressly provided for by the Ludovician press, serve
the mere function of recognition of a consolidated usage, differentiated
according to places and times, and should in no way be taken as reconstruc-
tion of a specific executive performing practice (p. XVII). What does this
mean? That the psalm intonations for the Miserere, the Benedictus and the
antiphons to the canticle and, above all, the missing versicles to alternate with
the polyphony are present in the original printed version? Obviously not. In
the print there are the intonations for the antiphons, the first hemistich of the
Benedictus, and verse 2 of the psalm Miserere (which in the printed version
follows the Benedictus, since it is perhaps not viewed as the first psalm for
Lauds but more probably as its repetition at the end of the Office. But it is
obvious that both these options are possible). For practical reasons, which can
be completely comprehended, the editor has added in both all the even versi-
cles, but why does the Benedictus have the polyphonic verses in Tone I, with
differentia D, and the verses in Gregorian chant in Tone I with differentia G
(and the polyphonic versicles begin with triads of D, F and A)? Why was no
check made between the versions of the antiphons set to music by Viadana
(which can sung in full, because the melody is present in its entirety in the
bass line, according to a compositional technique of which this composer was
very fond), and the versions in use in the period (for example those transmit-
ted in the printed antiphonals from Venice)? And can simple psalm tones be
taken as models for knowledge of usages consolidated and differentiated
according to times and places?
In 1983 the C.A. Seghizzi Choral Association of Gorizia dedicated its
14th European Congress on Choral Music to the theme Renaissance Musi-
cal Semiography. Critique and practice of semantic interpretation. The pro-
ceedings of the congress were edited by Italo Montiglio and published in
1986. On that occasion, Acciai, speaking on the subject of The theory of the
tactus: differing interpretations in modern editions of the vocal semiography
of the sixteenth century, said the following (the essay can be found on pp.
188
I TA L I A N S A C R E D M U S I C O F T H E 1 7 T H C E N T U RY
The common opinion, for example, that the polyphony of the sixteenth
16th century presents, at the level of exegesis and interpretation, fewer
problems than other later musical expressions, should be firmly rejected. A
motet by Brumel or a madrigal by Marenzio are no easier than a Mozart
symphony or a Chopin prelude [...] In the same way it is simply absurd to
think that we can approach the performance of a motet or a madrigal of the
Renaissance while setting aside completely the historical, philosophical,
social and cultural climate of the times in which they were composed. The
further back we go in the course of the centuries, the more indispensable it
becomes to know in depth the cultural world, the Weltanschaung of the era,
of which the music is an expression. There is no other way of explaining
certain performances - which we will term such only by way of
euphemism - in which the language of the sound is travestied in vulgar
fashion. [] Have we ever asked ourselves what a devastating effect, I
would almost say a debasement of taste, performances of this kind can pro-
voke? All those who have no specific competence in the field, and thus not
immune from such interpretative epidemics, will be fed misleading infor-
mation and led to consider early music (Renaissance polyphony included)
as something which in reality it is not [The essay can be found on pp. 23-
45, the quotation on pp. 24-25]
Every single word here is to be welcomed (perhaps without the polemic, pre-
sent in the omitted part of the text, against interpreters from across the Alps,
but that is quite another matter). But should the same criteria not apply to an
edition of ancient music? In certain respects an edition of a text included in a
widely circulated series (such as I quaderni della Cartellina) requires
greater commitment and greater responsibility than a scientific edition,
because the user of the work is quite a different person. We could make a par-
allel with the care taken in the paperback editions of the classics of literature,
we see no reason why a musician should have less claim than a reader of
Aeschylus or Dante or Marino when he approaches an unfamiliar repertoire.
Furthermore, in my view, the question is even more serious when it concerns
sacred music, because of the radical liturgical changes brought about by the
Second Vatican Council, and by the absolutely subordinate role which music
has come to assume in the liturgy, the blame for which is not so much to be
ascribed to the Councils dispositions (which in their intention are absolutely
clear) as to the bad interpretations for the sake of convenience which have
been made, in many cases from a populist standpoint.
A final note to conclude: the 3rd and 4th paragraphs of the introduction
189
RODOBALDO TIBALDI
have already appeared in No. 4 (April 1996, pp. 10-12) of the journal Orfeo,
monthly of an informative character dedicated to ancient and baroque music
(with a CD included), which can be found on the news-stands. Again, there is
no mention of this earlier appearance of part of the text.
190
I repertori vocali monodici
e polifonici nelle riviste musicali e musicologiche
191
CECILIA LUZZI
192
LIBRI, MUSICA E SITI INTERNET
193
The monodic and polyphonic
repertories in the musical and musicological journals
195
CECILIA LUZZI
196
BOOKS, MUSIC AND WEB
Carlo Fiore. In the secular sphere, Jacques Barbier and Nicole Desgranges
offer two different perspectives to the analysis and interpretation of the 16th-
century polyphonic chanson. The former, which takes its cue from five pieces
and summarises the evolution of this form, is evidently didactic in approach.
Focusing on the poetic, cultural and social context of the polyphonic genre,
its analysis highlights the stylistic traits of the pieces concerned and outlines
the characteristics of the repertory as a whole. It also lists the contemporary
musical sources and modern editions of the music, and includes a relevant
bibliography. The second is an interview of Dominique Visse, one of the
singers of the Ensemble Clment Janequin, a group that has played a key
role in the interpretation of the 16th-century French polyphonic chanson. In
Desgranges interview, Visse outlines his own research on the manuscripts
and into the criteria of interpretation adopted.
On the problems of performance practice other papers are also worth
mentioning: as well as the above-cited articles by Cosart et al. and Page in
Early music, there are those by Giovanni Acciai in La Cartellina and Paolo
Emilio Carapezza in Analisi. All these authors, though from perspectives,
reflect processes of research and analysis accomplished prior to performance,
though designed to confer value and authority to performance.
Finally, an interesting group is that of the articles and contributions that
examine the question of vocal practice in the different ethnic traditions. A
good example is Ignazio Macchiarellas La ricerca della bella voce nel
mondo arabo-islamico, which stresses the extremely varied ways of using
the voice, the search for nuances of timbre and the care over emission found
in the vocal repertories of the Magrebian regions. Another is Paolo Scarnec-
chias Corsica: il canto dellisola dei contrasti, which presents the main
forms of vocal music (both monodic and polyphonic) of the Corsican tradi-
tion. Yet another is Grazia Magazzs description and analysis of the reperto-
ry of two-voice songs from the Messina area in Sicily.
Our final word goes to two fixed columns on vocal training and educa-
tional choral practice: they are written respectively by Ida Maria Tosto in
Musica Domani (official bulletin of the Societ italiana per leducazione
musicale) and by Bruno Raffaele Foti in La Cartellina.
197
Notizie dalla Fondazione Guido dArezzo
205
206
XLIX Concorso polifonico internazionale e
XVIII Concorso polifonico nazionale Guido dArezzo
(Arezzo, 22-26 agosto 2001)
207
FONDAZIONE GUIDO DAREZZO
208
NOTIZIE DALLA FONDAZIONE GUIDO DAREZZO / NEWS FROM THE GUIDO DAREZZO FOUNDATION
______________________
Legenda categorie - key for categories
1: Canto monodico cristiano - Christian plainchant (soppressa - cancelled)
2: Polifonia - Polyphony
3: Polifonia per voci bianche - Polyphony for childrens voices
4: Competizione straordinaria - Special Competition
5: Festival corale internazionale di canto popolare - International Choral Festival of
Folk-song
Giuria / Jury
CONCORSO INTERNAZIONALE
CONCORSO NAZIONALE
209
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originale in cui stato concepito) e in inglese.
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NORME PER GLI AUTORI / INSTRUCTIONS FOR CONTRIBUTORS
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