Forest Policy and Economics 9 (2007) 704 – 712
www.elsevier.com/locate/forpol
Farmers' perceptions towards forests: A case study from Haiti
Frito Dolisca ⁎, Josh M. McDaniel, Lawrence D. Teeter
School of Forestry and Wildlife Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, United States
Received 23 January 2006; received in revised form 14 June 2006; accepted 6 July 2006
Abstract
Integrated conservation and development projects in the recent years view local people's support for protected areas
management as an important element of biodiversity conservation. Increased knowledge about the interaction between
conservation of natural resources and the development needs of local people is an essential part of understanding sustainable
protected areas management in Haiti. This paper investigates farmers' perceptions on the impact of the Forêt des Pins Reserve
on the economic, social, and environmental status of local people using factor analysis and linear structural models. Data from
243 farmers inside the Reserve are used in the empirical analysis. The results suggest that farmers most value economic and
environmental objectives, such as tourism and tree planting activities, in promoting forestry programs inside the Reserve.
Respondents who believe that their farming activities would benefit from forestry programs through soil protection tended to be
more positive.
© 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Farmers' perceptions; Forest conservation; Linear structural modeling; Forêt des Pins Reserve
1. Introduction
Local communities traditionally exploit natural
systems for their everyday needs (fuelwood, timber for
shelter, non-timber forest products) (Kramer et al., 1992;
Dixon and Sherman, 1990) as well as resources that are
used for more abstract and psychological reasons
(wilderness areas for spiritual purposes and for stress
relief) (Stein et al., 1999). Until recently, conservationists have ignored traditional exploitation as a way to
conserve biological diversity, preferring instead to pro⁎ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: fdolisca@hotmail.com (F. Dolisca).
1389-9341/$ - see front matter © 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.forpol.2006.07.001
tect natural systems by excluding people from parks and
reserves and, in doing so, denying them access to vital
natural resources. The key feature of this strategy is that
local community resource use is assumed to conflict
with conservation (Weeks and Packard, 1997). Although useful as a way of protecting many natural areas,
the protectionist approach had failed to take into account
the interest of rural communities and did not involve
them in making resource-related decisions (Gbadegesin
and Ayileka, 2000).
More recently, many conservationists have suggested a different approach, arguing that integrating
local people is the most effective means of conserving
protected areas. Proponents argue that by increasing
F. Dolisca et al. / Forest Policy and Economics 9 (2007) 704–712
local people's involvement into protected areas,
conservation objectives are easier to achieve (Nepal
and Weber, 1995). Although this approach may
provide greater justification for promoting sustainable
management practices, rarely does it provide positive
economic incentives for adopting more costly practices nor does it provide a mechanism of revenue
generation for farm households (Gillis, 1992).
In Haiti, the rate of deforestation and the extent of
environmental degradation have required new approaches towards protected area management and
conservation problems. As land placed under cultivation has increased in many protected areas of rural
Haiti, conflict over natural resource use has become an
increasingly important issue for protected area managers, conservationists, and local populations (Paryski,
1996). A number of development projects have
recently been initiated to address the complex issues
of environmental degradation and protected areas
management. Their success depends not only on the
understanding of biophysical conditions, but also on
the socioeconomic and cultural contexts within which
they operate (Urgessa, 2003). A key component of this
attention to the cultural context of deforestation has
been increased efforts at environmental education.
Environmental education is described as “a learning
process of developing a world population that is aware
of and concerned about the total environment and its
associated problems, and which has the knowledge,
skills, perceptions, attitudes, motivation and commitment to work individually and collectively toward solutions of current problems and the prevention of new
ones” (United Nations Educational, Scientific, and
Cultural Organization [UNESCO], 1978). Perceptions
are then an important component of environmental education according to this definition; and understanding
rural farmers' perceptions about the environment may
provide a framework for forest conservation, and inform
future efforts in forest education. Consequently, several
studies have been conducted to investigate environmental perceptions worldwide (Napier and Napier, 1991;
Hartup, 1994; Colchester, 1996; Jacobson and Marynowski, 1997; Furman, 1998; Hill, 1999). A common
finding following from these studies is that conservation
attitudes reflect resource-use benefits.
Because farmers in many regions of Haiti are landowners, tenant farmers, or sharecroppers, and influence
depredation-related management decisions, understand-
705
ing their perceptions and how they vary may be critical
to managing forests and protected areas. Likewise, some
fractions of the population may firmly oppose externally-imposed forest management decisions, so their
perceptions are equally important. A better understanding of rural people's knowledge of the forest, their
awareness of deforestation and its perceived impact on
their socioeconomic and environmental welfare is fundamental to the development and implementation of
management strategies that are both sustainable in the
long term and sensitive to existing local needs. Specific
perceptions about the natural environment among
farmers in many communities may also differ according
to local cultural, economic, and environmental contexts.
Identifying the differences between local people may
reinforce conservation efforts by providing information
from which to create specific conservation programs
that emphasize issues of local concern.
The purpose of this paper is to investigate farmers'
perceptions on the impact of the Forêt des Pins Reserve
on the economic, social, and environmental status of
local people. Specifically, this study has two objectives:
(1) to describe farmers' perceptions about protected
areas; and (2) to determine if gender, age, education
level, place of birth, group membership, land tenure, and
income level in the community influence farmers'
perceptions of forests. Qualitative information collected
during focus group meetings and data gathered through
a survey of the Forest Unit 1 of Forêt des Pins Reserve
farmers are used to enhance and build empirical models
of farmer perceptions. Factor analysis and linear
structural models are used to examine the link between
farmers' age, gender, and group membership, education
level, born inside the forest, land tenure, income level;
and the perceived importance of forest benefits.
2. Study methods
2.1. Theoretical framework
The conceptual framework for this study is based on
the social exchange theory (Ekeh, 1974; Turner, 1974).
The central idea of social exchange theory is that the
exchange of social and material resources is a fundamental form of human interaction (Ingoldsby and Smith,
1995). This theoretical perspective basically asserts that
people develop attitudes toward other people and things
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F. Dolisca et al. / Forest Policy and Economics 9 (2007) 704–712
in the context of anticipated personal beliefs and costs to
be derived from contact with them. Things that generate
net benefits will tend to be perceived positively, while
those things that generate net losses will tend to be
perceived negatively (Napier and Napier, 1991).
Contemporary exchange theory stresses that farmers
seek the “best value” they can get in participating in a
reforestation, forest protection, or management program
(Napier et al., 1986). Consistent with exchange theory,
Napier and Napier (1991) argue that rural farmers tend
to contribute to an activity program that has a positive
net benefit. As each individual seeks the best value in an
activity, rural farmers will tend to choose forestry activities that offer at least as much, in terms of socioeconomic and environmental benefits as they get from
alternate activities.
Perceptions of rural farmers with regards to
protected areas, and particularly to forests may differ
among farmers according to their socioeconomic and
demographic situations (Portes, 1971). For instance,
some group members might be concerned about the
degree of deforestation of the Reserve and prefer
government and NGO intervention in putting in place
environmental policies for management of the Reserve. Others may be more concerned about the economic benefits of the Reserve.
Still other farmers or rural residents may be more
concerned about the social benefits of the Reserve and
prefer that the state pursue forestry programs that will
stabilize and strengthen local communities. Thus,
perceptions toward forests are a combination of
characteristics of individual farmers, as well as subjective
evaluations of groups, that are functions of organizational
characteristics. Because farmers' perceptions are measured multidimensionally, this model integrates several
family components that potentially influence each
dimension of farmers' perceptions. An empirical
model, which takes into account heterogeneous perceptions for protected areas, is specified as a system of linear
structural equations (Jöreskog and Goldberger, 1975;
Jöreskog, 1976; Jöreskog and Sörbom, 1986).
Service of the Ministry of Agriculture. The Reserve
covers 30,000ha and has 3150 households distributed in
51 villages (Centre de Formation et d'Encadrement
Technique [CFET], 1999). Forêt des Pins Reserve has
enormous opportunities for ecotourism because of its
microclimate, its biological and cultural richness and
represents a huge water source for different villages
within the Reserve and in the lowlands below (Dolisca,
2005). For administrative purposes, the Reserve has
been divided into two Forest Units. “Forest Unit 1”
contains 1900 households distributed in 21 villages and
“Forest Unit 2” with 30 villages (CFET, 1999). This
study was based on different samples of farmers in 15
villages of the Forest Unit 1 of Forêt des Pins Reserve.
We collected data from 243 heads of households in
the summer of 2003 through formal and informal
survey techniques with the heads of the farm household living in the different villages. The interviewees
were selected randomly from the list of the households
provided by the Forest Resource Service of the
Ministry of Agriculture.
The purpose of this survey was to collect all information regarding the socio-economic aspects of the
household in the area such as demography, education,
income, land tenure, and attitudes to the environment.
Detailed crop input–output data were collected for the
households. Income from farm households was computed by adding incomes from crops, livestock, and
off-farm wages. The income from crops is calculated
by multiplying the crop yields with respective prices.
The questionnaire was pre-tested with three research assistants, in a randomly selected village. As a
result, some questions were deleted and some modified
to improve their clarity. All the interviews were conducted in Creole in order to ensure locally relevant
answers to the questionnaire. Local words were often
used wherever possible to avoid technical terminology.
Picture cards were used for perception questions; respondents selecting from a pre-determined list of
response categories. We often provoked informal
follow-up discussions and made use of our observations to assure the validity of our findings.
2.2. Sampling selection
2.3. Measuring farmers' perceptions toward forests
Forêt des Pins Reserve was created in 1937 in response to the continuous pressures from farmers, squatters and international agencies (Dolisca, 2001). The
Reserve is administrated by the Forest Resources
For measuring farmers' perceptions of the Forêt des
Pins Reserve, the respondents were asked a set of
questions, which addressed farmers' perceptions toward
F. Dolisca et al. / Forest Policy and Economics 9 (2007) 704–712
the Reserve. Perception statements were derived from a
two-phase approach to gather data (Creswell, 1994). The
first phase consisted of focus group interviews with
Forêt des Pins Reserve farmers (Dolisca, 2001). Two
focus group meetings were conducted throughout the
Reserve. Each meeting consisted of 20 participants who
were selected from two different villages inside the
Reserve using purposive sampling. They were asked
about their perceptions and the benefits received from
the Reserve. The qualitative nature of focus groups
allowed for a good understanding of farmers' perceptions of the Reserve.
The results of the meetings allowed us to identify lists
of benefits which were used to build the questionnaire.
The second phase expanded the first phase and took a
quantitative approach to understanding the values Forêt
des Pins Reserve farmers have for the “nature
ecosystem”. Respondents in 15 villages of the Forest
Unit 1 of the Forêt des Pins Reserve were presented a list
of benefits from the Reserve. Using a six-point scale
with “0” indicating I do not know and “5” indicating
very important, participants indicated how important
each statement should be in the process of preserving
this Reserve.
2.4. Data analysis
A combination of descriptive and inferential statistics
was used to address stated research objectives. Descriptive statistics were used to describe farmers' perceptions
about protected areas. Factor analysis was used to
identify latent dimensions underlying the different
variables that measured farmers' perceptions. Linear
structural equation modeling was used to analyze the
differences in perceived importance of forests among
farmers in Forêt des Pins Reserve based on gender, age,
educational level, born inside or outside the forest, group
membership, land tenure, and income level.
3. Results and discussions
About two hundred men (82%) and forty-two women
(18%) were interviewed during the survey. The number
of female-headed households, which was 6.7%, was
lower than the 11% that the Centre de Formation et
d'Encadrement Technique [CFET] found in 1999. The
gender of head of household seems to be affected by
changes in marital status, death of the husband, and male
707
migration. The practice of ‘polygamy’ may also affect
women since they might be de facto heads of household
(Latortue, 1998). The age of respondents ranged from 24
to 75 years; the respondents were relatively middle age
with an average age being 49 years. The largest proportion of respondents was in the (41–50) year-old
category (35.4%).
The years of education range from 0 to 12, with an
average of 2.1. About fifty-four percent of the respondents were illiterate and twenty percent had completed
primary school. Women had less education than men
and female-headed households tended to have less
education than wives. Forty-three percent of the males
had attended school, compared to 3.3% of the wives and
1.2% of the female household heads. Only 1.6% of the
females had completed primary school, compared to
with 18% of the male head of households. About half of
the respondents (50.6%) are local group members
(group of people who regularly come together to discuss
issues in their community).
Land for agricultural purposes was acquired
through landownership (purchase, inheritance, gift,
and illegal forest clearing), tenant farming, or by
sharecropping. Tenant farming and landownership
were the main sources for the different farmers in the
Reserve. About fifty-seven percent of the respondents
acquired land through tenant farming, 5.3% got land
illegally. The size of land holdings in the Reserve
ranges from 0.7 to 16.1 ha. The average monthly
family income of the 243 respondents was US dollars
64, with 24 of them (10.2%) earning a monthly family
income in the range of US dollars 533 and 1546.
3.1. Farmers' perceptions toward forests
Results indicated that Forêt des Pins Reserve
residents have good knowledge of the Reserve (overall
mean score = 3.65). Their preferences for management
center on economic and environmental benefits.
Twenty perception statements were used to describe
farmers' perceptions toward the Reserve (Table 1). The
overall mean scores of importance range from a high
mean of 4.15 to a low mean of 3.01. Farmers strongly
believe that promoting tourism activities (mean = 4.15)
should be the most important concern in protecting this
Reserve, followed by road maintenance inside forest
creates jobs (mean = 4.09), and forest increases income
from silvicultural operations (mean = 4.09).
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F. Dolisca et al. / Forest Policy and Economics 9 (2007) 704–712
Table 1
Descriptive statistical summary of the perceptions of farmers
Statements
Mean rating of
importance
Forest attracts tourists (Forat)
Road maintenance inside forest
creates jobs (Road)
Forest increases income from
silvicultural operations (Forin)
Forest increases availability in
drinking water (Forinc)
Forest controls flood (Forcof )
Forest improves soil quality (Forim)
Forest reduces soil erosion (Fored)
Tree planting increases property values (Trinc)
Forest increases productivity of
agricultural lands (Forac)
Tree planting develops a sense of
ownership (Trplde)
Tree planting promotes
environmental responsibility (Trplco)
Trees supply lumber (Trsup)
Tree planting increases the number of children
sent to school (Nchill)
Tree planting strengthens
rural community (Trplst)
Trees enhance recreation (Trenhr)
Forest improves air quality (Foria)
Forest is a good place to observe nature (Forpl)
Participation of adults influences the
effectiveness of forest activities (Parad)
Forest provides habitat for plants
and animals (Forha)
Non-timber forest products
increase income (NTFPi)
4.15
4.09
4.09
4.03
4.01
3.85
3.78
3.74
3.70
3.65
3.65
3.61
3.60
3.47
3.40
3.39
3.39
3.33
3.09
3.01
Statements that specifically addressed the natural
environment received three of the seven highest mean
scores. These results imply that farmers placed a high
priority on the environmental attributes of the Reserve.
This is not surprising; farmers are acutely aware of the
fatal consequences of deforestation of the Reserve. In
the late 1990s, hurricanes Georges and Gordon
destroyed hundreds of homes and killed at least two
thousand people in Fonds-Verrettes, a town below the
Reserve. Moreover, various sites where they used to
grow cabbages and potatoes are no longer suitable for
these crops. Along with tree planting strengthens rural
community and trees enhancing recreation, farmers
gave high score to trees supply lumber, tree planting
promotes environmental responsibility, and tree planting
increases the number of children sent to school.
Table 2
Varimax rotation factor pattern of farmers' perceptions in Forêt des
Pins Reserve
Benefits
Factor
Economic Social
Forest provides habitat
for plants and animals
(Forha)
Forest is a good place to
observe nature (Forpl )
Forest improves soil
quality (Forim)
Forest controls flood
(Forcof )
Forest reduces soil erosion
(Fored )
Forest increase availability
in drinking water
(Forinc)
Forest improves air quality
(Foria)
Trees planting increase
property values (Trinc)
Forest attracts tourists
(Forat)
Forest increases
productivity of
agricultural lands
(Forac)
Non-timber forest products
increase income
(NTFPi)
Forest increases income
from silvicultural
operations (Forin)
Road maintenance inside
forest creates jobs
(Road)
Tree planting increases the
number of children sent
to school (Nchill)
Trees supply lumber
(Trsup)
Tree planting strengthens
rural community (Trplst)
Tree planting promotes
environmental
responsibility (Trplco)
Trees enhance recreation
(Trenhr)
Participation of adults
influences the
effectiveness of forest
activities (Parad)
Environmental
0.04858
0.37410
0.55231
0.01861
0.42410
0.53743
0.23599
0.15940
0.58535
0.24482
0.18787
0.72990
0.31344
0.11506
0.71349
0.40979
− 0.07249
0.57612
0.34510
0.15509
0.54541
0.49439
0.05228
0.34659
0.74084
0.02661
0.30020
0.67385
0.09501
0.19893
0.49693
0.35138
0.11894
0.76243
0.15976
0.12125
0.80875
0.09547
0.18447
0.69741
0.12424
0.23514
0.54387
0.28198
0.13565
0.07316
0.72087
0.07191
0.15017
0.76546
0.10871
0.01301
0.69260
0.21168
0.30966
0.63149
0.15457
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F. Dolisca et al. / Forest Policy and Economics 9 (2007) 704–712
Table 2 (continued )
Benefits
Factor
Economic Social
Tree planting develops a
sense of ownership
(Trplde)
Eigenvalue
Percentage of variance
0.20155
4.18
20.9
Environmental
0.72055
2.70
13.5
0.16531
2.56
12.8
Numbers in bold indicate the factor loadings.
3.2. Factor analysis
In this study, a 3-factor solution (termed environmental, social, and economic) was adopted and accounted for 47.2% of total variance as shown in Table 2.
A criterion cut-off loading of 0.40 is used to determine
which variables were included in a given factor (Sharma,
1996). Kaiser's overall measure of sampling adequacy
(cited in Sharma, 1996) is 0.896 suggesting that the data
are appropriate for factor analysis.
Eight perception variables (Trinc, Forat, Forac,
NTFPi, Forin, Road, Nchill and Trsup) concerning the
importance of Forêt des Pins Reserve were loaded on
factor 1 with the cross-correlation coefficients of
0.49439, 0.74084, 0.67385, 0.49693, 0.76243,
0.80875, 0.69741, and 0.54387. This factor accounted
for 20.9% of the total variance and was termed economic benefits because these variables involve improvement of the welfare of local people. Higher scores
and positive responses on this factor revealed a general
agreement for promoting economic activities inside the
Reserve.
Factor 2 had cross-correlation coefficients of
0.72087, 0.76546, 0.69260, 0.63149, and 0.72055
with the variables Trplst, Trplco, Trenhr, Parad, and
Trplde. Because these variables imply reinforcement
of the organizational structure of rural communities,
factor 2 was then labeled social benefits and accounted
for 13.5% of the total variance. Seven attributes (Forha,
Forpl, Forim, Forcof, Fored, Forinc, and Foria) were
loaded on Factor 3 with cross-correlation coefficients of
0.55231, 0.53743, 0.58535, 0.72990, 0.71349, 0.57612,
and 0.54541. Because these attributes focus on
preservation and conservation of environmental quality,
factor 3 was termed environmental benefits and accounted for 12.8% of the total variance.
3.3. Linear structural equation model
Estimation of the Confirmatory Factor Analysis
(CFA), using as input 243 observations, generated
goodness of fit (GFI), adjusted goodness of fit (AGFI),
and the standardized root mean-square error of approximation (RMSEA) values of 0.91, 0.86, and 0.072.
According to Hu and Bentler's (1999) cutoff criteria, all
fit indices are well above acceptable limits providing
strong evidence of model fit. χ2 per degree of freedom is
1.92, also indicating good fit of the model. The t-values
indicate that all the estimated loadings and the variance
of the error term are significant at the 95% coefficient
Table 3
Estimated LISREL coefficients of the latent variable equations for forest perceptions
Explanatory variables
Age
Bornin
Primary
Middle
Highsch
Mlocalgr
Female
Iltenant
Sharecrop
Landowner
Renting
Lowinc: bGdes 20,000
Midinc: Gdes 20,000–40,000
Latent variables
Environmental
Social
Economic
0.01 (0.76)
0.05 (0.17)
−0.34 (− 2.98)⁎⁎
0.16 (1.62)
−0.01 (− 1.74)⁎
0.23 (0.21)
−0.13 (− 4.08)⁎⁎
0.01 (1.92)⁎
−0.02 (− 1.52)
0.04 (0.15)
−0.26 (− 0.78)
0.21 (1.76)⁎
0.18 (1.25)
− 0.01 (− 0.62)
0.21 (2.67)⁎⁎
− 0.43 (− 2.18)⁎⁎
0.06 (0.72)
0.02 (1.13)
0.24 (2.65)⁎⁎
− 0.19 (− 4.64)⁎⁎
0.04 (1.13)
− 0.05 (− 1.34)
0.18 (2.35)⁎⁎
− 0.17 (− 1.97)⁎
0.19 (1.92)⁎
0.05 (0.79)
− 0.31 (− 2.35)⁎⁎
0.01 (0.53)
− 0.41 (− 3.45)⁎⁎
0.24 (2.66)⁎⁎
− 0.04 (− 0.50)
− 0.02 (− 2.21)⁎⁎
− 0.19 (− 2.56)⁎⁎
− 0.08 (− 0.29)
− 0.07 (− 0.40)
0.01 (0.46)
− 0.08 (− 2.40)⁎⁎
0.19 (1.81)⁎
0.09 (2.41)⁎⁎
t-values are given in parentheses, ⁎ and ⁎⁎ denote significance at 10 and 5% respectively.
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F. Dolisca et al. / Forest Policy and Economics 9 (2007) 704–712
level. “Non-timber forest products increase income” has
the lowest t-value (t-value = 2.93). Thus, all indicators
are significantly related to their specified constructs
verifying the posited relationships among indicators and
constructs (latent variables).
Estimation of the structural parameters is the second
step in the linear structural model (Anderson and
Gerbing, 1988). The results of coefficient estimates are
presented in Table 3. The overall fit of the model is good
and indicates that the model's parameters differ
significantly across farmers, with χ2 = 104.78. The
statistical significance of explanatory variable coefficients estimated by the latent variable equations revealed
differences in farmers' perceptions about forests across
respondent characteristics. Results of the linear structural model revealed that respondents with a primary
degree tend to prefer all three benefits less than do
respondents who do not have a primary degree, with the
greatest difference being the preference for economic
benefits. Respondents with a high-school degree favor
environmental benefits less than do middle educated
degree respondents. The coefficient for respondents' age
is significant in the equation describing perceptions for
economic benefits, but non-significant in the environmental and social equations. This suggests that perceptions for environmental and social benefits are constant
across respondents' age, but older respondents tend to
prefer economic benefits less than younger respondents.
Female-headed households find all three benefits less
important than do male-headed households. The
coefficient for respondents born inside the Reserve is
significant in the equation describing preferences for
social benefits, but insignificant in the environmental
and economic benefits. This implies that social benefits
are most favored by people who likely had the most
social ties to Forêt des Pins Reserve. Respondents who
were born inside the Reserve favor social benefits more
than do respondents who were born outside the Reserve.
Importance of forest benefits for the conservation of
the Reserve also vary by whether or not respondents
belong to local groups. Respondents who are members
of a local group favor social benefits more and prefer
economic benefits less relative to respondents who are
not members of a local group. People who are not
members of a local organization probably are most
concerned with environmental benefits.
An examination of responses by landowners, illegal
tenants, renters, and sharecroppers revealed landowners
were more positive than illegal tenants, renters, and
sharecroppers towards promoting social benefits in
forestry programs through different strategies such as
tourism activities, tree planting, and silvicultural operations (Table 3). Renters who participated in this survey
were less likely to promote economic benefits than
landowners and illegal tenants. Sharecroppers were less
likely to understand the economic, environmental, and
social role of forestry activities. Data revealed that
farmers' perceptions vary significantly across different
income levels. Farmers with incomes less than US
dollars 533 tend to favor environmental benefits more
than farmers with incomes between US dollars 533 and
1066. Respondents with household incomes between
US dollars 533 and 1066 were more likely to promote
economic benefits than respondents in the other groups.
4. Conclusions
Findings from this study show farmers value the
Reserve in ways consistent with the social exchange
theory. Respondents who believe that their farming
activities would benefit from forestry programs
through soil protection tended to be more positive.
Past research shows people's values of protected areas
vary according to their needs (Bengston, 1994) and the
way they believe the environment should be managed
is also evolving (Vining, 1993).
Mean preference ratings suggest that tourism activities, tree planting, and road maintenance are viewed by
farmer residents of Forêt des Pins Reserve as a major
issue to promote forestry programs. Focus group
participants often saw local tourism activities as an
income generating asset and a powerful incentive for
conservation, by making traditional resource management more sustainable, and by substituting degrading
activities. This finding supports past studies regarding
people perceptions of land use which found that creating
opportunities for local people to utilize and benefit from
forests is the main incentive to stimulate local
communities to become involved in forest management
(Dolisca, 2001; Wunder, 2000; Adebisi, 1996; Pearce,
1989). However, mean ratings of importance suggest
that promoting non-timber forest products is not a major
issue in forest protection activities.
Through factor analysis we demonstrated that
economic benefits such as road maintenance inside the
F. Dolisca et al. / Forest Policy and Economics 9 (2007) 704–712
forest, increased income from cleaning operations, and
tourism activities should be the most important benefits
of a forestry conservation program. Farmers' perceptions of economic benefits differ from perceptions of
social benefits, such as strengthening rural community,
participation of adults in forest activities, and promoting
environmental responsibility. In particular, people
believe that increases in non-timber forest products
income should be the least important benefits goal in
promoting forestry programs. Farmers believe that
environmental benefits such as improving air quality
and habitat for plants and animals should not be viewed
as the most important objective of forestry programs.
We found evidence of farmers' perception differences with respect to the relationship between the
socioeconomic variables and perceived importance of
forest benefits. Socio-demographic characteristics such
as middle and low income and age groups correlated
with economic objectives in promoting forestry programs. Kellert (1980) found these groups generally hold
more negative views toward the environment. Femaleheaded households had an effect on all three identified
factors. Female-headed households reported less positive perceptions toward environmental objectives of
forestry activities than did males. This finding was
consistent with previous studies that found that males
are more likely to express positive attitudes towards
conservation (Britt and Shrestha, 1998).
Respondents who indicated that they were members
of local forest management groups were more favorable
toward the social and economic objectives in promoting
forestry activities inside the Reserve. More informed
individuals apparently were better able to assess the
potential impacts of forestry programs on their farming
operations (Portes, 1971; Gregersen et al., 1989). Farmers who are not members of a local forest management
group and not well informed about forestry programs
may overvalue the costs and underestimate the benefits.
Better understanding of the capability of forest
activities in increasing incomes, strengthening local communities, and reducing soil erosion may increase favorability toward forestry programs (Dixon and Sherman,
1990; Wunder, 2000). Respondents who were more
aware of environmental degradation associated with deforestation apparently perceived benefits resulting from
reduced off-site damage as potentially benefiting them.
The results suggest that farmers most value economic
and environmental objectives in promoting forestry
711
programs inside the Reserve. In addition to jobs and
money from the forest activities, farmers do care about
the natural environment to help them get complete lifestyle benefits. Much of the literature regarding protected
areas management argues for a focus on both economic
and non-economic values (Vining, 1993). This is very
encouraging because 45% of the forestlands are in
agriculture and highly erodible (Rousseau, 2000). Forest
managers should work through a process of participation, information, and education about the potential
benefits to be derived by local farmers. Specific methods
to engage and incorporate local communities into management planning require specific management to be
defined by forest managers and by future research.
This study provides evidence that people grant
considerable importance to economic and environmental objectives such as tourism and tree planting
activities, contrasting the official government point of
view stipulating that farmers are in opposition to forest
conservation (Dolisca, 2001). Future research should
be conducted that examines local economic alternatives for the Reserve that will have both a development
impact and serve as incentives to conservation.
Moreover, the Forest Resource Service of the
Ministry of Agriculture should continue to provide information about and demonstrate the potential benefits
to be derived by local farmers from forestry activities.
Particular attention on the impacts of forestry programs
on farm household income is recommended. If it can be
shown that forestry activities can generate substantial
benefits at the farm level without increasing the amount
of land used for agriculture, it is likely that the implementation of such programs will be much appreciated.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to acknowledge the financial
support of the Forest Policy Center. The comments of
Dr. Curtis Jolly improved the manuscript substantially.
We would also like to thank the anonymous referees for
reading through and commenting on this paper. Many
thanks to all farmers of Forêt des Pins Reserve.
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