Tree Planting

The 4'X4'X4' raised container (ree has been advocated as a quick, flexible, and inexpensive solution to tree planting beautification in the city. This paper evaluates the effectiveness of such containers to provide for both the physiological needs of the plant and the visual, functional, and aesthetic needs of urban design. A brief summary of the cultural problems of container trees in the midwest and north- eastern states is followed by a discussion of the effectual role of trees in urban design and the creation of successful urban spaces. The value of the beautification container in this capaci- ty is critically examined and alternatives to its use presented. Wherever possible, large shade trees planted at grade are suggested. Where conditions necessitate raised plantings, shade tree massings grouped in large planting beds are favored over the container. One of the products of the beautification move- ment of the 1960s was the free-standing con- tainer tree. The approx...

Avicennia marina saplings were established within a restoration area at Sg. Hj. Dorani, Malaysia between May and August 2010. Sapling establishment was achieved following the construction of segmented and hard breakwater as mitigating measure against coastal erosion. Geostructures known as brush faschines were installed within the restoration area as secondary sediment and seed traps. There was a steady increase in the sand content of the soil from 5% in November 2008 to 18% in May 2010. The dominant soil content was silt but it fluctuated and declined slightly over the same period, between 80% in November 2008 and 72% in May 2010. The accreting shoreline behind the breakwater had stabilised within 18 months. Subsequently, the first batch of A. marina wild seedlings or wildings was established on the mud surface in September 2009. Only about 10% of these wildings survived and showed high survival rate (90%) over the next eight months. Wildings that were naturally established near mother trees showed good growth performance. No wilding was established after the fruiting season in August 2010 as all seeds that were dispersed into the restoration area were washed away by September 2010. Tall, A. marina wild saplings (1 m) planted within the restoration area showed higher survival rate (80%) compared to planted saplings of Rhizophora apiculata (30%). Final planting of a thousand 1 m tall A. marina wild saplings was carried out from June 2010, in clumps of 20 and in 1 m  1 m spacing. By the end of September 2010 clusters of regenerating A. marina mangroves about 1.5 m tall were successfully established on the accreting coastline.

Bayesian Belief Network (BBN) modelling may be applied in rural extension in situations where program outputs are influenced by variables which are sequentially influenced by other variables. For a recently completed agroforestry extension program in Leyte the Philippines, BBN modelling of site factors, establishment practices and risk, predicted widely different program outputs for different levels of extension assistance and farmer inputs. In a situation where very little was known about how farmers would respond to offers of extension assistance, monitoring of the program over a period of three years revealed that extended extension assistance was crucial in determining the likely survival and growth of trees. Extended extension assistance was also important for the elimination of unsuitable sites and the use of appropriate establishment procedures. Where extension support was not available, farmers displayed a poor knowledge of the principles of tree growth, planting trees under...

Ce document est publié dans lintention de rendre accessibles les résultats préliminaires de la recherche effectuée au CIRANO, afin de susciter des échanges et des suggestions. Les idées et les opinions émises sont sous lunique responsabilité des auteurs, et ne représentent pas nécessairement les positions du CIRANO ou de ses partenaires. This paper presents preliminary research carried out at CIRANO and aims to encourage discussion and comment. The observations and viewpoints expressed are the sole responsibility of the authors. They do not necessarily represent positions of CIRANO or its partners. CIRANO Le CIRANO est une corporation privée à but non lucratif constituée en vertu de la Loi des compagnies du Québec. Le financement de son infrastructure et de ses activités de recherche provient des cotisations de ses organisations-membres, dune subvention dinfrastructure du ministère de lIndustrie, du Commerce, de la Science et de la Technologie, de même que des subventions et mandats obtenus par ses équipes de recherche. La Série Scientifique est la réalisation dune des missions que sest données le CIRANO, soit de développer lanalyse scientifique des organisations et des comportements stratégiques. CIRANO is a private non-profit organization incorporated under the Québec Companies Act. Its infrastructure and research activities are funded through fees paid by member organizations, an infrastructure grant from the Ministère de lIndustrie, du Commerce, de la Science et de la Technologie, and grants and research mandates obtained by its research teams. The Scientific Series fulfils one of the missions of CIRANO: to develop the scientific analysis of organizations and strategic behaviour.

Regrowing forests on cleared land is a key strategy to achieve both biodiversity conservation and climate change mitigation globally. Maximizing these co-benefits, however, remains theoretically and technically challenging because of the complex relationship between carbon sequestration and biodiversity in forests, the strong influence of climate variability and landscape position on forest development, the large number of restoration strategies possible, and long time-frames needed to declare success. Through the synthesis of three decades of knowledge on forest dynamics and plant functional traits combined with decision science, we demonstrate that we cannot always maximize carbon sequestration by simply increasing the functional trait diversity of trees planted. The relationships between plant functional diversity, carbon sequestration rates above ground and in the soil are dependent on climate and landscape positions. We show how to manage 'identities' and 'complementarities' between plant functional traits to achieve systematically maximal cobenefits in various climate and landscape contexts. We provide examples of optimal planting and thinning rules that satisfy this ecological strategy and guide the restoration of forests that are rich in both carbon and plant functional diversity. Our framework provides the first mechanistic approach for generating decisionmakingrules that can be used to manage forests for multiple objectives, and supports joined carbon credit and biodiversity conservation initiatives, such as Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation REDD+. The decision framework can also be linked to species distribution models and socio-economic models to find restoration solutions that maximize simultaneously biodiversity, carbon stocks, and other ecosystem services across landscapes. Our study provides the foundation for developing and testing cost-effective and adaptable forest management rules to achieve biodiversity, carbon sequestration, and other socio-economic co-benefits under global change.

A presença de áreas verdes e da arborização viária traz diversos benefícios para as cidades e seus habitantes. Entretanto, o plantio inadequado pode trazer conflitos com estruturas urbanas e perigos para população. Conhecer a situação das árvores urbanas pode ajudar no planejamento para evitar e/ou corrigir os problemas de inadequação de espécies e as distorções de distribuição desigual da arborização no território. Além de dotar os órgãos responsáveis de informações sobre as características das árvores, para seu acompanhamento e manejo. Nesse sentido, este estudo tem como objetivo modelar a situação da arborização viária através da construção de um inventário para a cidade do Rio Grande, RS. Como área de estudo piloto foi selecionado um setor censitário no bairro Cassino. Foi realizado coleta de dados in loco e posterior sistematização em ambiente SIG, com disponibilização dos resultados prévios na web. Apesar das limitações encontradas, espera-se que a discussão proporcionada por esse estudo piloto possa auxiliar na elaboração de um inventário completo, o que trará subsídios para um melhor planejamento urbano e uma cidade mais verde.

Following a brief overview of the historical evolution of tree ordinances in the United States, this paper focuses on the devel- opment of tree ordinances in the state of Alabama to demonstrate how the tree ordinances evolve into law and the role such ordinances have on urban trees. Even though tree ordinances have a long history in the United States, they have been rapidly developing since the 1970s. Among the 100 municipalities that have some type of tree ordinance in Alabama, based on this investigation, the major respon- sibilities of tree ordinances include: having a tree commission (board), defining tree planting, removal and replacement of trees on pub- lic land, public tree protection and care, tree species selection, and dead tree removal on public and private property. Considering the broadness and complexity of urban trees, this paper indicates tree ordinances provide not only a legal framework, but also an effective tool to engage public participation and awareness of ur...

The prototype decision support system (PDSS) described within this paper represents one of the first of its kind in the urban forest/civil engineering research arena. The primary objective of this research was to develop a user-friendly, intuitive PDSS that provides users with tools for improved micro-management of the urban forest canopy. The secondary objective was to generate further discussion with

Applying mulch on and around the root ball of newly installed trees is standard practice in many locations (Watson and Himelick 1997). However, mulch usage is less common in drier locations such as the southwestern United States. Applying mulch around the base of the tree has ...

Many countries have adopted large-scale tree-planting programs as a climate mitigation strategy and to support local livelihoods. We evaluate a series of large-scale tree planting 23 programs using data collected from historical Landsat imagery in the state of Himachal Pradesh 24 in Northern India. Using this panel dataset, we use an event study design to estimate the 25 socioeconomic and biophysical impacts over decades of these programs. We find that tree plantings have not, on average, increased the proportion of forest canopy cover, and have modestly shifted forest composition away from the broadleaf varieties valued by local people. Further cross-sectional analysis, from a household livelihood survey, shows that tree planting supports little direct use by local people. We conclude that decades of expensive tree planting programs in this region have not proved effective. This result shows that large-scale tree planting may sometimes fail to achieve its climate mitigation and livelihood goals. 3 Main Many countries have begun adopting large-scale tree-planting programs based on the potential of forests to absorb carbon and support local livelihoods 1-3. As of 2015, the extent of 35 global tree cover from planted forests is estimated at 280 million hectares, and 12 million 36 hectares lie within India 4. Despite the broad appeal of planting trees, some researchers and practitioners have raised concerns about potential negative impacts of large-scale tree-planting programs on vulnerable people and diverse ecosystems 5-7. Restoration ecologists have cautioned 39 that tree planting should not be equated with forest restoration, but instead countries should 40 consider diverse restoration strategies in diverse ecosystems 7. However, forest restoration commitments made under international agreements like the Bonn Challenge and UNFCCC Paris Accords demand nationally-coordinated efforts to achieve ambitious restoration targets at immense scale 8. As a result, much of the current nationally-pledged restoration area is set aside 44 for large-scale tree planting 2,9. For example, the Indian National Determined Contributions 45 (NDC) from the Paris Accords commits "To create an additional carbon sink of 2.5 to 3 billion 46 tonnes of CO2 equivalent through additional forest and tree cover by 2030" 10. Understanding the 47 Study Site India provides an excellent context to assess the impact of tree-planting programs due to its long history of planting trees 16,17 , continuing high-level commitment 18 , prevalence of areas 79 identified as having forest-restoration potential 19 , and large number of forest-dependent people 20. Yet recent systematic reviews on tree-planting outcomes included no studies from India 13,14 , and the case studies that do exist suggest plantations may fail 21,22 , endanger livelihoods 22,23 , or threaten native forest cover 24-26. India has invested vast sums of money and energy over the last 50 years to plant trees-84 the sixth largest effort in the world 4. The state of Himachal Pradesh has had particular success in advancing basic development goals in a variety of areas (from health, basic welfare, education, and the environment), while a variety of local governance functions, from public service delivery to natural resource management, perform comparatively well. The Kangra District in particular has a long history of forest co-management between state actors and communities, with strong local participation and clearly defined use rights. Incidents of land dispossession from tree-90 planting projects which have been widely-reported by journalists working in other parts of India 91 have not been reported there. In short, we had every reason to believe that if tree planting might 92 be successful, we should be most likely to observe this success in this area. 93 Tree planting has a long history in Kangra District and traces its roots to concerns about 94 forest degradation due to excessive harvesting of wood fuel for cooking and excessive grazing by 95 domestic animals 27-30. As in most of India, the tree-planting areas we study are all on government-owned land and have been undertaken by the state forest department 31. Although 97 there is also a history of commercially-oriented forestry in Himachal Pradesh, a ban on 98

Early growth performance of six native and two introduced tree species was studied for seven years at 16 sites in the Southern region of Costa Rica. Selected study sites represent a wide environmental gradient that ranges from acid low fertility soils such as Ustic Haplohumults and Typic Haplustults to fertile soils such as Typic Hapludand and Fluventic Eutropepts. Mean annual precipitation ranges from 2600 to 4500 mm and length of dry season from none to more than three months each year. The experimental layout was a randomized complete block design nested within four eco-regions, with all plots on private farms. The size of the experimental plot was 11 Â 11 trees planted at a spacing of 3 Â 3 m with a sampling plot of 7 Â 7 trees. The species included in the initial trials were: Pinus caribaea Morelet var hondurensis (Barret y Golfari) and Gmelina arborea Roxb as the introduced species (from Honduras and southeast Asian regions, both of which benefit from genetic selection), and Terminalia amazonia (J. F. Gmelin) Exell, Vochysia ferruginea Mart., Vochysia guatemalensis Donn. Sm., Hieronyma alchorneoides Fr. Allemao, Calophyllum brasiliense Cambess and Schizolobium parahyba (Vell.) S. F. Blake (collected extensively in this project from indigenous populations from across the Southern region of Costa Rica). All plots were measured annually and data collected for tree height, DBH and mortality. Composited soil samples were taken at three depths in each site to characterize chemical and physical soil properties. In general, the native species were highly responsive to eco-regions, the introduced species much less so. The yield and dominant stand height of the introduced species were higher in acid soils with well defined dry season than the selected native species. As soil nutrient and water supply improved, the differences between introduced and native species decreased in mean stand height and yield. Two species (Calophyllum brasiliense and Schizolobium parabyba) had more than 80% mortality in almost all plots during the first two years of establishment. The results of this study contrasts with findings obtained in the Northern region of Costa Rica on acid Ultisols (Typic Tropohumult), where at least Vochysia guatemalensis and Vochysia ferruginea out-competed the best introduced species, Gmelina arborea and Pinus spp. Results are mainly attributed to the pronounced ustic moisture regime in the Southern region of Costa Rica that is able to be tolerated by Gmelina arborea and Pinus spp. but not by the selected native tree seedlings.

Experiences from the ACIAR Smallholder Forestry Project reveal that production and use of high quality seedlings is a critical consideration for successful tree farming and reforestation activity, considering that most reforestation activities have been largely dependent on nursery-produced seedlings. While the use of polyethylene bags has been the traditional technique in raising seedlings, the planting stock produced often have a deformed or J-shape taproot and may develop to mature trees with poor anchorage in the field. The research project introduced the use of hiko tray as potting containers in seedling production as a way of resolving the problem of J-rooting and producing higher quality seedlings. A economic analysis was conducted to determine the comparative advantage and feasibility of the polybag and hiko tray techniques, with a view of promoting the adoption of the hiko technique among tree farmers, especially the smallholders. Results of the study revealed that the hiko...

In 1987, a catastrophic fire burned over 1 330 000 ha in the densely forested area of the Da Hinggan Mountains in the northeastern China. After the fire, intensive management including burned trunk harvesting and coniferous tree planting had been conducted to accelerate forest restoration. To study the long term effect of these activities on forest recovery, we used a simulation modeling approach to study long-term (300 years) forest dynamics under current planting and natural regeneration scenarios. Results indicate that under tree planting scenario in the severely burned area, the dominant species Dahurian larch (Larix gmelinii) can reach pre-fire level (60% of the area) within 20 years and the maximum abundance can reach nearly 90% within 100 years. While under natural regeneration scenario, it needs about 250 years to reach its pre-fire level. From the perspective of timber production, tree planting can bring twice as much timber volume as that under natural regeneration within 300 years, which is the average longevity of L. gmelinii. It needs about 70 years to reach the timber volume of pre-fire level under the planting scenario, whereas it requires at least 250 years to reach the timber volume of pre-fire level under natural regeneration scenario. Another dominant species Asian White birch (Betula platyphylla) responded negatively to the planting of coniferous species. In general, tree planting of coniferous species after fire can greatly accelerate forest restoration in terms of species abundance and target timber volume, with desirable ecological and economic returns.

In the arid zone of central Turkana, north-western Kenya, where soil salinity affects 15-20% of the rangelands, growth performances of trees planted in saline soil rehabilitation trials have not been evaluated. Tree-planting trials have emphasised exotic species over indigenous ones. However, advantages and disadvantages of promoting exotic tree species have not been examined. The current study was aimed at evaluating growth performance of seven exotic and nine indigenous tree species used in saline soil rehabilitation trials. The tree species were established from 6-month-old saplings using microcatchments (FT1) from 1988 through 1990 and pitting treatment (FT2) from 1989 through 1992. The soils in FT1 and FT2 treatments were moderately to highly saline. The exotic tree species produced greater cover and volume during the first year (FT1) but by the second year, production was not sustained due to greater mortality (FT1 & FT2). The indigenous species in general had higher survival rates. Relative growth rates (RGR) of exotic and indigenous species did not differ (FT1 & FT2). Tree mortality was negatively correlated with RGR for exotic species in FT1 but not for indigenous ones. However, changes in plant performance were not in response to salinity alone. Rather, water scarcity superimposed on soil salinity might have influenced plant growth performance. Greater water and salinity stress and subsequently greater mortality in exotic species provided a more convincing reason for promotion of indigenous tree species. In the future, knowledge of salinity distribution and selection of indigenous species to match this will be a better way of rehabilitating sites affected by soil salinity in the arid zone of central Turkana, north-western Kenya.

We have provided a framework for identifying least-cost sites for afforestation and reforestation and deriving carbon sequestration cost curves at a global level in a scenario of limited information. Special attention is given to country risk in developing countries and the sensitivity to spatial datasets. Our model results suggest that within 20 years and considering a carbon price of US$50/tC, tree-planting activities could offset 1 year of global carbon emissions in the energy sector. However, if we account for country risk considerations-associated with political, economic and financial risks-carbon sequestration is reduced by approximately 60%. With respect to the geography of supply, illustrated by grid-scale maps, we find that most least-cost sites are located in regions of developing countries such as the Sub-Sahara, Southeast Brazil and Southeast Asia.

Rights over trees are often distinct from rights over land. Tree tenure consists of a bundle of rights over trees and their produce which may be held by different people at different times. These rights include the right to own or inherit trees, the right to plant trees~ the right to use trees and tree products, the right to dispose of trees and the right to exclude others from the use of trees and tree products. Factors affecting who had what rights include the nature of the tree, the nature of the use and the nature of the person or group. Landowners and tree plants tend to be relatively advantaged in terms of their rights to trees. Those with temporary claims to the land and, in some case, women, tend to be disadvantaged. The implications of tree tenure issues for the design of agroforestry projects are discussed.

Inter-speci®c hybrid trees planted throughout the world on a commercial basis are most common in the genera Acacia, Eucalyptus, Larix, Picea, Pinus and Populus although the focal point of this review will include only the genus Pinus. The most important forest tree hybrids in this genera include the inter-speci®c Pinus hybrids in USA, Korea and Australia. Of those hybrids that are used commercially, by far the most common are ®rst generation crosses. In particular, these hybrids appear to be most successful when they are planted in areas outside the normal plantation zones of at least one of the parent species. Generalisations about genotypeÂenvironment interactions across genera were not found, and interactions seemed to be speci®c to the hybrid concerned. Published estimates of hybrid genetic parameters were not common, but the following general trends were found: (i) heritabilities calculated from hybrid populations were usually larger when compared to pure species estimates; (ii) dominance variance varied with taxon, trait and age; (iii) epistatic variance, although only estimated in one case, was negligible when compared with the additive and dominance effects. It is possible that in¯ated heritability estimates were obtained because the in®nitesimal model may not be appropriate in hybrid populations. Other alternative models should be investigated in the future. The ability to reliably predict hybrid progeny performance from general combining abilities of pure species populations depended on trait and hybrid, although it appeared that this ratio was greater for traits of higher heritability. No consistent evidence was found to support the hypothesis that hybrids may be more adaptable across environments due to their greater heterozygosity and therefore their ability to buffer different environmental stresses. Although there are still gaps in our knowledge of how hybrids behave, some hybrid combinations are without doubt highly successful, and the impact of the use of hybrids in commercial forestry should not be underestimated. #

Abstract. City residents who planted their own street trees were more satisfied with the outcome,than residents whose trees were planted by the city or an outside agency. Within the circumstances described in the study, those residents who paid for their trees were more satisfied with the outcomes,than those who,received them without extra charge from the city or from a voluntary

a b s t r a c t 'Urban greening' has been proposed as one approach to mitigate the human health consequences of increased temperatures resulting from climate change. We used systematic review methodology to evaluate available evidence on whether greening interventions, such as tree planting or the creation of parks or green roofs, affect the air temperature of an urban area. Most studies investigated the air temperature within parks and beneath trees and are broadly supportive that green sites can be cooler than non-green sites. Meta-analysis was used to synthesize data on the cooling effect of parks and results show that, on average, a park was 0.94 • C cooler in the day. Studies on multiple parks suggest that larger parks and those with trees could be cooler during the day. However, evidence for the cooling effect of green space is mostly based on observational studies of small numbers of green sites. The impact of specific greening interventions on the wider urban area, and whether the effects are due to greening alone, has yet to be demonstrated. The current evidence base does not allow specific recommendations to be made on how best to incorporate greening into an urban area. Further empirical research is necessary in order to efficiently guide the design and planning of urban green space, and specifically to investigate the importance of the abundance, distribution and type of greening. Any urban greening programme implemented would need to be appropriately designed and monitored to continue to evaluate benefit to human health through reducing temperature.

Abstract. City residents who planted their own street trees were more satisfied with the outcome,than residents whose trees were planted by the city or an outside agency. Within the circumstances described in the study, those residents who paid for their trees were more satisfied with the outcomes,than those who,received them without extra charge from the city or from a voluntary

In this study, we assess the need and desire for an alternative way to generate income which would preserve the environment instead of harming it. Informants told us that the quality of the environment had changed because of increasing erosion, a lack of rain and water sources, a reduction in livestock numbers, an increase in the number of farms, rapid deforestation and increased poverty. Without trees, the important symbiotic relationship between the Maasai and their environment would be destroyed. It would become necessary for the Maasai to leave their homeland and move to the cities. Local residents saw tree planting as the solution to this problem. In this study, we have shown that there is a great need as well as a great desire for a village wide reforestation project. A project of this kind would include civic education, training, and the development of local tree nurseries. Maasai people share an important relationship with their environment and a balance must be created between tree harvesting and tree planting if villagers want to live a sustainable lifestyle now and in the future.

In the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Tanzania, particularly the Northern Diocese, a significant portion of environmental discourse focuses on land: animals, mountains, soil, and especially trees and forests. Tree-planting and reforestation schemes are given particular emphasis by church officials and individual parishioners alike, and this paper will discuss their cultural, moral, and political dimensions.

The diocese is centred around Mt. Kilimanjaro where the Chagga people form the ethnic majority. As many as 70% of Chagga people are Christian, and many of them hear exhortations to "care for the environment" every Sunday in church. Clergy attempt to inculcate a moral duty in parishioners, drawing on environmental and stewardship theologies. At the same time, environmental discourse reflects cultural concepts of domesticity (as "the environment" is also understood to mean the household), and connection to the land - which is itself grounded in contemporary understandings of historical Chagga spirituality.

Environmental discourses also reflect contemporary political issues, including debates on household energy consumption, (particularly the use of firewood and charcoal versus gas and electricity) and the engagement between church officials and government leaders on environmental policies. Debates on energy and the promotion of tree-planting schemes over other options (e.g. reducing carbon emissions) also reflect locally understood ideas of modernity and development.

I demonstrate how environmental discourse and tree-planting schemes reflect cultural understandings of domesticity, land, and spiritual heritage; contemporary political debates; and moral understandings of Chagga spiritual heritage and its application to contemporary environmental theology.

Agroforestry, the purposeful growing of trees and crops in interacting combinations, began to attain prominence in the late 1970s, when the international scientific community embraced its potentials in the tropics and recognized it as a practice in search of science. During the 1990s, the relevance of agroforestry for solving problems related to deterioration of family farms, increased soil erosion, surface and ground water pollution, and decreased biodiversity was recognized in the industrialized nations too. Thus, agroforestry is now receiving increasing attention as a sustainable land-management option the world over because of its ecological, economic, and social attributes. Consequently, the knowledge-base of agroforestry is being expanded at a rapid rate as illustrated by the increasing number and quality of scientific publications of various forms on different aspects of agroforestry.

Low agricultural productivity, land degradation and poverty are severe interrelated problems in the East African highlands. While the proximate causes of such problems are relatively well known, the underlying causes are many and complex, and depend upon many site-specific factors that vary greatly across the diverse circumstances of the region. In this paper, we argue that the appropriate strategy for

The handbook covers 5 thematic areas (knowing the environment, conserving the environment, the role of trees in our environment, climate change and expanding learning beyond class rooms). Within each thematic area, there are lessons designed in such a way that they provide practical exercises, which is an opportunity to engage children in real action in order to increase learning about the theme of the lesson. The exercises can be done either during the session or carried separately. The handbook has illustrations and drawings that relate to the theme of the lesson.
It also provides practical exercises that improve awareness about the environment and trees, while at the same time engaging children in conservation efforts around the school. It is hoped that teachers and other users find it useful.

Abstract. Few studies have included detailed investigations of the interactions of agroforestry techniques with pests and diseases, although the relevance of such interactions has long been recognized. The objectives of this review are to provide basic information on pests and ...

This study identifies the major methods used by farmers to adapt to climate change in the Nile Basin of Ethiopia, the factors that affect their choice of method, and the barriers to adaptation. The methods identified include use of different crop varieties, tree planting, soil conservation, early and late planting, and irrigation. Results from the discrete choice model employed indicate that the level of education, gender, age, and wealth of the head of household; access to extension and credit; information on climate, social capital, agroecological settings, and temperature all influence farmers’ choices. The main barriers include lack of information on adaptation methods and financial constraints.

Integrated conservation and development projects in the recent years view local people's support for protected areas management as an important element of biodiversity conservation. Increased knowledge about the interaction between conservation of natural resources and the development needs of local people is an essential part of understanding sustainable protected areas management in Haiti. This paper investigates farmers' perceptions on the impact of the Forêt des Pins Reserve on the economic, social, and environmental status of local people using factor analysis and linear structural models. Data from 243 farmers inside the Reserve are used in the empirical analysis. The results suggest that farmers most value economic and environmental objectives, such as tourism and tree planting activities, in promoting forestry programs inside the Reserve. Respondents who believe that their farming activities would benefit from forestry programs through soil protection tended to be more positive.

Why is Turkish President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan so enthusiastic about planting trees? The answer is more complicated than authoritarian greenwashing. In this Middle East Brief, Ekin Kurtiç argues that the AKP government’s interest in greening Turkey is an attempt to monopolize the environmental agenda and turn environmental activism into a criminal activity. From anti-mining movements in the 1990s to the Gezi Park occupation in the 2010s and the wildfires of the 2020s, Kurtiç charts how community organizers, legal activists, and forestry experts have formed new fronts of opposition against environmental degradation. While state-led initiatives to plant trees throughout Turkey might appear benevolent, Kurtiç argues, in reality AKP environmentalism is rooted in coercion.

While the biological and ecological role of agroforestry (AF) on climate change mitigation has received considerable research attention lately, the role of socio-psychological factors in this context has been left largely unexplored. Socio-psychological variables such as culture, demography, economy, and social values play important roles in farmers’ decision making with the land management, which in turn influence the ability of AF systems to sequester carbon (C). This chapter presents a case study from Thrissur, Kerala, India, which examined how different socio-psychological factors influence soil C sequestration through land management decisions in tropical homegardens (HGs), a popular agroforestry system in the tropics. This study used the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) as the theoretical framework to understand homegarden owners’ perceptions on the adoption of five land management practices (i.e., tillage, tree planting, plant residue incorporation, manure usage, and fertilizer applications), which are known to impact C sequestration. Data collected using focus group and household interviews were analyzed by regression statistics. Results indicated that farmers’ decision making processes were most influenced by factors such as ancestors and education, followed by peers, financial condition, and economic importance of the AF land holding. The results of this case study will not only benefit researchers and extension practitioners, but can also contribute to the policy platform to recognize the role of socio-psychological factors in agricultural decision making.

Community-based forest management (CBFM) is the principal strategy in managing inhabited 'forest land' in the Philippines. It involves the participation of local communities in various forestry activities to achieve sustainable forestry, advance social justice and improve socioeconomic welfare, and promote a stable and healthy environment. This paper analyses the potential benefits of agroforestry farms in CBFM sites to mitigate climate change. The incorporation of trees in farms and landscapes has led to enhanced carbon storage and sequestration. Half a million hectares of agroforestry farms in CBFM sites in the Philippines are estimated to store 25 MtC while sequestering 2.7 MtC annually. Lessons are drawn from three carbon sequestration projects under development using CBFM as the main approach. Income from carbon credits is not sufficient to recover the cost of tree planting. The transaction costs of forestry CDM projects are substantial and could prove to be the greatest barrier to project fruition. Government institutions must find ways to encourage project developers by simplifying rules and regulations for forestry carbon projects. Forest definition must be assessed. Project developers and the government could also explore the voluntary carbon market which is more flexible than the CDM market. Policy and technical studies must be conducted to ascertain the potential of the REDD for CBFM sites in the country.

Community-based forest management (CBFM) is the principal strategy in managing inhabited 'forest land' in the Philippines. It involves the participation of local communities in various forestry activities to achieve sustainable forestry, advance social justice and improve socioeconomic welfare, and promote a stable and healthy environment. This paper analyses the potential benefits of agroforestry farms in CBFM sites to mitigate climate change. The incorporation of trees in farms and landscapes has led to enhanced carbon storage and sequestration. Half a million hectares of agroforestry farms in CBFM sites in the Philippines are estimated to store 25 MtC while sequestering 2.7 MtC annually. Lessons are drawn from three carbon sequestration projects under development using CBFM as the main approach. Income from carbon credits is not sufficient to recover the cost of tree planting. The transaction costs of forestry CDM projects are substantial and could prove to be the greatest barrier to project fruition. Government institutions must find ways to encourage project developers by simplifying rules and regulations for forestry carbon projects. Forest definition must be assessed. Project developers and the government could also explore the voluntary carbon market which is more flexible than the CDM market. Policy and technical studies must be conducted to ascertain the potential of the REDD for CBFM sites in the country.

We evaluated the impacts of the Ethiopian Productive Safety Net Program (PSNP) on rural households' holdings of livestock and forest assets including trees. Using panel data, we applied both regression analysis and propensity score matching. We found no indication that participation in PSNP induces households to disinvest in livestock or trees. In fact, households that participated in the program increased the number of trees planted, but there was no increase in their livestock holdings. We found no evidence that the PSNP protects livestock in times of shock. Shocks appear to lead households to disinvest in livestock, but not in trees. Our results suggest that there is increased forestry activity as a result of PSNP, and that improved credit access encourages households to increase their livestock holdings.

While the biological and ecological role of agroforestry (AF) on climate change mitigation has received considerable research attention lately, the role of socio-psychological factors in this context has been left largely unexplored. Socio-psychological variables such as culture, demography, economy, and social values play important roles in farmers’ decision making with the land management, which in turn influence the ability of AF systems to sequester carbon (C). This chapter presents a case study from Thrissur, Kerala, India, which examined how different socio-psychological factors influence soil C sequestration through land management decisions in tropical homegardens (HGs), a popular agroforestry system in the tropics. This study used the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) as the theoretical framework to understand homegarden owners’ perceptions on the adoption of five land management practices (i.e., tillage, tree planting, plant residue incorporation, manure usage, and fertilizer applications), which are known to impact C sequestration. Data collected using focus group and household interviews were analyzed by regression statistics. Results indicated that farmers’ decision making processes were most influenced by factors such as ancestors and education, followed by peers, financial condition, and economic importance of the AF land holding. The results of this case study will not only benefit researchers and extension practitioners, but can also contribute to the policy platform to recognize the role of socio-psychological factors in agricultural decision making.

The forest reserves of Hawai'i were established in the early 1900s in response to concerns about supplies of freshwater in the islands and the degraded condition of the native forests protecting the watersheds. Tree-planting was a coordinated effort involving both Harold Lyon and the Hawaiian Sugar Planters' Association and Territorial Forestry under the direction of R. S. Hosmer. The early foresters planted many types of trees on an experimental basis, but concluded that native species were of limited utility and turned largely to introduced species for large-scale reforestation efforts. The number of trees planted rose to many millions by the 1930s, when Depression-era labor was available for planting. Lyon envisioned the plantations as a buffer zone that would be established between the remaining native forests and the lower-elevation agricultural lands to protect the native forests and perform the functions (maintaining input of water to aquifers) that native forest no longer could. This large-scale attempt to engineer nature was probably the largest environmental project ever carried out in the islands. Forestry introductions have been a significant contributor to Hawaii's alien-species crisis, with many of these tree species now problem invasives. Key Words: alien species, Hawaiian Islands, tree plantations, watershed.

Over the past few years a single row of Eucalyptus globulus trees planted along the borders of cropland has come to dominate central highland agroforestry practices. Although evidence is scanty, there is a perception that this practice adversely affects crop productivity. An onfarm trial was therefore conducted at Ginchi to determine the biomass production potential of eucalypt boundaries and their effect on the productivity of the adjacent wheat crop (Triticum aestivum) on highland Nitosols. Three rotation cycles of 4 years each, two stand ages within each rotation, four field aspects and six yield strata perpendicular to the tree-crop interface were arranged in a split-split plot design with three replications. The annual wood production rate, which was 345-903 kg ha À1 yr À1 with two-and four-year-old stands in the first cycle, was increased more than 2-fold in the subsequent two rotation cycles. With these productivities, eucalypt boundaries on a hectare of land in the second and third cycle would satisfy about 70% of the annual biomass energy requirement of a rural household with a family size of five people for four consecutive years. However, adjacent wheat yields were substantially reduced because of the combined effects of water, light and nutrient competition. In the last two rotation cycles, significant yield depressions occurred over the first 16 m from the line of trees as opposed to only the first 8 m in the first cycle. The yield drop was 4.5-8.1%, and 8.1-10.4% in the first and last two rotation cycles, respectively. Nevertheless, the benefit accrued from the tree component adequately compensated for this reduction in wheat yield and generated additional income. The implications of these results are discussed in the AGRICULTURAL SYSTEMS

Urban green space and particularly the tree canopy have been highlighted as offering a mitigation potential against atmospheric particulate pollution. In this paper current and future particulate (PM 10 ) deposition to the urban tree canopy of the Greater London Authority (GLA) was estimated. A modelling approach was used based on the Urban Forest Effects Model (UFORE) and a modified version. Here we give evidence showing that these deposition models can be adapted to run from annual mean meteorological and PM 10 concentration data, thus providing a methodology to examine future scenarios.

Using a correlation between trunk diameter fluctuation (TDF) and stem water potential (SWP) it appears possible to determine water deficit threshold values (WDTV) for young cherry trees. This correlation must be based on a significant effect between SWP and at least one variable associated with the vegetative or reproductive growth of the trees. The objectives of this study are: (1) to determine the effect of several irrigation treatments on vegetative and reproductive growth and the SWP of young cherry trees; (2) to determine the correlation between TDF and SWP, and; (3) to propose a first approximation of SWP and TDF water deficit threshold values for young cherry tree plants. The experiment was carried out between September and April of the 2005-2006 and 2006-2007 seasons, in Quillota, in the Valparaiso region, central Chile. The irrigation treatments consisted of applications of 50% (T 50 ), 100% (T 100 ) and 150% (T 150 ) of potential evapotranspiration (ET 0 ) over the two growing seasons, using a randomized complete block design (RCB). The effect of irrigation scheduling was observed on: apical shoot growth rate (GR AS ), branch cross-sectional area (BCSA), canopy volume (CV), annual length of accumulated growth (AL AG ) and productivity. This effect showed that the T 50 treatment caused lower SWP (measured pre-dawn), vegetative growth and productivity. The fruit quality variables (cracking and size) were not affected by the different treatments. Combining the vegetative growth, productivity and SWP results shows that the water deficit threshold value, as a first approximation, is between 50% and 100% of ET 0 , and therefore the critical SWP for defining irrigation frequency should be close to −0.5 MPa. Upon applying a postharvest drought period (14 days without irrigation), a linear correlation was determined both between SWP and maximum daily trunk shrinkage, MDS (R 2 = 0.69) and between SWP and trunk growth rate, TGR (R 2 = 0.57). Using these correlations and the SWP reference value, reference values were obtained for MDS (165 m) and TGR (83 m day −1 ), which would permit automated control of water status in young cherry trees.

The approaches adopted by local farmers to put the degraded landscape of the Irangi Hills in central Tanzania to productive agricultural use are analysed. The area has been extensively affected by severe soil erosion, thereby reducing its potential for agriculture. While soil erosion in the upper and middle reaches of the slopes has resulted in extensive gullies, sedimentation in the lower reaches has created extensive sandfans and buried some of the fertile, clayey soils.

There has been substantial attention given to the benefits provided by urban forests, but little emphasis placed on the distribution of urban trees and the means by which trees are redistributed through urban reforestation efforts. This paper examines the 2002 program Greening Milwaukee, the city’s largest public/private tree planting program. The vast majority of trees planted for this program are located on owner-occupied properties. The study accounts for this via political-economic analysis and discusses both the implications and the necessary strategies to overcome this inequity.

Highest priority zones for tree planting within New York City were selected by using a planting priority index developed combining three main indicators: pollution concentration, population density and low canopy cover. This new tree population was projected through time to estimate potential air quality and carbon benefits. Those trees will likely remove more than 10 000 tons of air pollutants and a maximum of 1500 tons of carbon over the next 100 years given a 4% annual mortality rate. Cumulative carbon storage will be reduced through time as carbon loss through tree mortality outweighs carbon accumulation through tree growth. Model projections are strongly affected by mortality rate whose uncertainties limit estimations accuracy. Increasing mortality rate from 4 to 8% per year produce a significant decrease in the total pollution removal over a 100 year period from 11 000 tons to 3000 tons.

One of the most important reasons for the degradation of biodiversity, in mountain areas and elsewhere, is that the people who make land use decisions often receive few or no benefits from biodiversity conservation. Understandably, therefore, they generally ignore potential biodiversity benefits when choosing land use practices. The end result is that biodiversity is often lost, as are many other off-site benefits such as the regulation of hydrological flows. Efforts to enhance biodiversity conservation need to take account of the constraints faced by individual land users, who decide what practices to adopt on their land. Over the years, a variety of efforts have been made to boost the profitability of biodiversity-friendly practices for land users, with mixed results. A further approach, which has received increasing attention in recent years, is to provide direct payments for the provision of environmental services such as biodiversity conservation. The simple logic of Payments f...