Natural Resource

We examined the relationship between attitudes toward urban ecological restoration and cognitive (perceived outcomes, value orientation, and objective knowledge), affective (emotional responses), and behavioral factors using residents of the Chicago Metropolitan Region. Positive and negative attitudes were both related to perceived outcomes of ecological restoration. In addition, positive attitudes were related to values wlzile negative attitudes were related to emotions. Attitudes of high and low importance groups were connected to perceived outcomes of ecological restoration; however, attitudes of the high importance group were also related to values, emotions, and behavior. Positive and negative attitude groups IZiffered on perceived outcomes, basic beliefs, knowledge, and behavior. I~nplications lie in understarzding of complex attitudes toward natural resource issues and improved communication efforts to influence or educate the public.

Traditional resource economics has been criticised for assuming too high elasticities of substitution, not observing material balance principles and relying too much on planner solutions to obtain long-term growth. By analysing a multi-sector R&Dbased endogenous growth model with exhaustible natural resources, labour, and knowledge capital as inputs, the present paper addresses this critique. We study transitional dynamics and the long-term growth path and identify conditions under which firms keep spending on research and development so that growth is sustained. We demonstrate that long-run growth can be sustained under free market conditions even when elasticities of substitution between man-made inputs and resources are low.

Africa is not poor, it is poorly led. – Omoruyi Aigbe

ABSTRACT

Africa's colonial legacy has been blamed for the socioeconomic, security, political challenges, the tension and hostility among the many ethnic groups, especially in sub-Saharan Africa. Political historians have traced security challenge, conflict and instability in most Africa nations, especially in Burundi, Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), Central African Republic (CAR), Nigeria, Rwanda, Sudan, and elsewhere to colonial programs of division, discrimination, collective exclusion, and manipulation of ethnic identity envisioned to ensure power and control over vast natural resources.

Africa's natural resource wealth, which ought to be a blessing, is arguably a curse, natural resource in Africa has become a source of tremendous suffering, which Collier, (2007) referred to natural resource trap. There is a strong correlation between natural resource, conflict and security challenge in Africa, the ongoing conflict, which is arguably a civil war in the world’s newest country, South Sudan demonstrates the effect of natural resource made conflict.

Conflicts involving the ownership, management and control of natural resources have engaged attention about Africa in the last decade. To date, there has been limited empirical study, which examines the effect of natural resource and leadership on conflict and poverty. However, there is a handful of research which analyses the relationship between conflict and poverty. While this paper also seeks to look at conflict and poverty in Africa, it is interested in exploring the role of natural resource and leadership.

In recent years, New Zealand has undergone fundamental economic, institutional and administrative restructuring. One outcome of this has been the implementation of the Resource Management Act 1991 (RMA). Fundamental to the RMA is sustainable management of natural resources at a regional scale. However, there are no prescriptive definitions for sustainable management in the act; rather the act allows regional and local government flexibility in developing policy and plans for economic development and environmental preservation. Recognizing the importance of biculturalism in New Zealand society, a further requirement of the Act grants Maori a significant role in the management of natural resources. Within this institutional context, Waitakere City, located on the western margin of the Auckland region, has adopted the principles of Agenda 21. The City Council has designated itself as an eco-city with a "greenprint" for future development and growth. A significant component of Agenda 21 is the explicit recognition of indigenous rights. Within its development plans, Waitakere City has adopted Maori concepts for resource management specifically for environmental preservation, water quality and sustainable management. This paper discusses the cross-cultural dynamics of natural resource management in Waitakere City. The first section describes the role of Agenda 21 and RMA in creating the eco-city and its relationship to the greater Auckland region. The second part examines the influence of biculturalism in implementing the goals of the eco-city. The final part considers the arenas in which the principles for sustainability with regard to Maori will be tested in the future.

Payments for Ecosystem Services (PES) economically reward resource managers for the provision of ecosystem services and are thus characterised by (i) an ecological function subject to trade; (ii) the establishment of a standard unit of exchange; (iii) and supply, demand and intermediation flows between those who sell and buy ecosystem services. This paper departs from the term commodity fetishism, broadly understood as the masking of the social relationships underlying the process of production, to illuminate three invisibilities in the commodification of ecosystem services. Firstly, we argue that narrowing down the complexity of ecosystems to a single service has serious technical difficulties and ethical implications on the way we relate to and perceive nature. Secondly, the commodification of ecosystem services denies the multiplicity of values which can be attributed to these services, since it requires that a single exchange-value is adopted for trading. Finally, we suggest that the process of production, exchange and consumption of ecosystem services is characterised by power asymmetries which may contribute to reproducing rather than addressing existing inequalities in the access to natural resources and services.

This paper studies the advent of Intel, manufacturer of microprocessors, to Costa Rica. We use indicators of both direct effects and selected macroeconomic effects as evidence, even though these indicators are in some cases more qualitative than quantitative. We also examine training externalities, as well as the "signaling" effect that Intel has had on other firms' decision to enter the Costa Rican economy, thus making Intel itself into a factor of attraction. The gross income generated by Intel in terms of net exports, investment, wages and benefits, and local purchases is very important for the Costa Rican economy. Net exports and the economy as a whole have been growing at a significantly higher rate since 1997, the year Intel started operations in the country. Also, the share of natural resource-based exports in total exports has declined while the share of manufactures has risen significantly. This has implied a dramatic change in the composition of Costa Rica's exports. Available evidence supports the view that Intel has generated positive externalities for the Costa Rican economy.

and Almaty. He founded the firms practice in the CIS countries and today is responsible for its work throughout the Central Asian and Transcaucasus regions. Currently, his practice includes representing Western natural resource companies in exploration and development projects, representing major philanthropies, and advising foreign sovereigns (including at various times all five of the Central Asian republics) on legal reform issues. He also represents multilateral development banks in secured finance and equity investment projects. He has represented investors in some of the largest natural resource development projects in the Caspian region. Mr. Horton is an adjunct professor at the Columbia University School of Law and the author of over 200 articles and monographs on legal developments in nations in transition, with a focus on natural resource law. Michael Clayton is a founder and member of the governing board of the Horizonti Foundation, a non-governmental organization based in Tbilisi, Georgia, which assists American and European foundations and organizations in developing relations with Caucasian organizations, universities, and government bodies and representatives. He was the Caucasus Program Manager of the Initiative for Social Action and Revival (ISAR) from October 1993 until March of this year. Over the last four years, he has worked extensively in the Caucasus with non-governmental organizations concerned with environmental issues. Mr. Clayton received his B.A. in International Relations from

This paper presents the LCA-based results of a research programme called Cicle Pell: Industrial ecology in the animal-to-leather chain funded by the EU in the framework of the Community Program Interreg III C, Regional Framework Operation, "Ecosind". The main aim of the Ecosind is to define the basis to implement a new strategy of industrial sustainable development in the Southern Europe regions. In the Ecosind framework, the general aim of the Cicle Pell project is to identify the economic and environmental improvements which can be achieved by companies in the leather industry and the related supply-chain by applying the industrial ecology principles and tools. In this paper the results of the LCA of bovine leather manufactured in Italy and Spain will be described in order to put in evidence the eco-profile of the two systems and to find out if the difference in the adopted technologies and cooperative management solutions have led to significant environmental differences.

Collective action in agriculture and natural resource management is all too often perceived of in terms of the mere number of participants, with little consideration given to who participates, why, and the outcomes of inequitable participation. The literature is replete with cases of how uncritical approaches to participation structure positions of privilege vis-a-vis project benefits and the natural resource base (Munk Ravnborg and Ashby, 1996; Rocheleau and Edmunds, 1997; Schroeder, 1993). Yet lessons on how to engage with local communities in ways that promote equitable participation of women, the poor and other stakeholders are only now coming to light. This paper focuses on approaches under development under the rubric of the African Highlands Initiative to bring collective action principles to bear on gender-equitable change processes in natural resource management. The paper utilizes a number of case studies to illustrate the relative strengths and weaknesses of different app...

This paper describes the methodologies adopted and the results obtained in assessing the groundwater resources of Metro Manila and Metro Cebu. Also some early and recent studies on the aquifer systems in the two metropolis are presented to draw some comparisons on the assessment and data acquisition methods and identify some gaps involved and the improvements needed. Some of the indicators used in assessing groundwater potential and associated problems include storage coefficient, transmissivity, safe yield, and salt water intrusion. The complex and expensive nature of actual field monitoring and analysis has encouraged the use of mathematical models in this study. Specifically, models adopted by NHRC and JICA were used and their respective capabilities, data requirements and modeling results for water balance are described. Although the two models have specific inputs unique to each model and the NHRC model used secondary 9 year data (i.e. 1982-1990) while JICA used one-year actual...

Historically, urban drainage systems have been viewed with various perspectives. During different time periods and in different locations, urban drainage has been considered a vital natural resource, a convenient cleansing mechanism, an efficient waste transport medium, a flooding concern, a nuisance wastewater, and a transmitter of disease. In general, climate, topography, geology, scientific knowledge, engineering and construction capabilities, societal values, religious beliefs, and other factors have influenced the local perspective of urban drainage. For as long as humans have been constructing cities these factors have guided and constrained the development of urban drainage solutions. Historical accounts provide glimpses of many interesting and unique urban drainage techniques. This paper will highlight several of these techniques dating from as early as 3000 BC to as recently as the twentieth century. For each example discussed, the overriding perspective of urban drainage for that particular time and place is identified. The presentation will follow a chronological path with the examples categorized into the following four time periods: (1) ancient civilizations, (2) Roman Empire, (3) Post-Roman era to the nineteenth century, and (4) modern day. The paper culminates with a brief summary of the present day perspective of urban drainage.

Biological nitrogen fixation (BNF) as a result of the legumes-rhizobia symbioses is the main source of nitrogen in organic farming systems. Lucerne (Medicago sativa L.), used as green manure or as forage legume, is important on arable farms under dry site conditions. In a field experiment on organically managed agricultural fields, we examined the impacts of the utilisation system (harvested = forage production versus mulched = green manure) and the crop composition (pure lucerne crops versus lucerne-grass mixtures) on yield, biological nitrogen fixation (BNF), soil inorganic N content, N balance and water consumption of autumn-cultivated lucerne crops. The study was conducted at the University of Natural Resources and Applied Life Sciences, Vienna, in eastern Austria-a region characterized by pannonian site conditions (9.8 8C mean annual temperature, 545 mm average total precipitation) and stockless farming systems. Our results indicate that the utilisation system and the crop composition had no marked influence on above-and below-ground dry matter (DM) and N yield, soil inorganic N contents, BNF, or water use efficiency of lucerne. The level of symbiotically fixed N 2 in harvested lucerne was 89-125 kg N ha À1 (27-33% Ndfa = nitrogen derived from atmosphere) in the first year and 161-175 kg N ha À1 (47-49% Ndfa) in the second year of the study. The high soil inorganic N supply in the first year increased the N uptake from soil by lucerne and led to a reduced BNF. Under the dry and unfavourable conditions in both study years, the nitrogen release from the legume mulch was retarded and BNF in mulched lucerne was not reduced. Assuming low gaseous N losses by mulching (15-30 kg N ha À1 ), the green manure system reached a positive N balance (+137 to +186 kg N ha À1 ) for the subsequent crops because abundant residues remained on the field. #

The spectacular performance of Indian agriculture witnessed during the second half of the 20th century against the onslaught of rising demographic pressure is a vivid demonstration of the growing effectiveness of our agricultural research and development system. However, the issue of sustainability in agriculture still remains a question. Management of natural resources, especially soil and its fertility status and vegetation following suitable agronomic management practices for sustainable agricultural production, represents a most daunting task and is certainly going to receive much attention in the years to come. Many workers established functional relationships between nutrients and other agronomic factors at different locations in India but systematic compilation of those relationships is a rare effort. The present paper reviews the latest information on inter-relationships between nutrients and other agronomic factors (seed rate, planting density, age of the seedling, planting method, irrigation, weed control, tillage, bacterial inoculation and cultivar etc.) on field crops. Major findings of first and second order interactions are highlighted. None of the second order interaction was found signifi-P. K. Ghosh is Senior Scientist

A solução dos problemas na Amazônia não são independentes, mas conectada com outras partes do País e do mundo. A redução dos desmatamentos e queimadas na Amazônia depende do desenvolvimento de atividades agrícolas adequadas nas áreas já desmatadas e que tenham mercado, em vez do uso “sustentável” da floresta e de direitos difusos. Nesse sentido, uma política agrícola teria efeitos mais positivos do que uma política ambiental, que não pode ser efetuada de maneira isolada das demais regiões do País, sob risco de transferir contingentes populacionais de outras localidades. Há necessidade de elevar a produtividade das atividades agrícolas na Amazônia, reduzirem a pressão sobre os recursos naturais com risco de esgotamento, incentivar plantios racionais de recursos extrativos potenciais, substituir as importações de produtos tropicais (seringueira, dendê, cacau, etc.), melhorarem as relações de troca dos produtos amazônicos versus produtos importados da Zona Franca de Manaus, efetuar a r...

Cotton farmers in many developing countries are facing decreasing marginal returns due to stagnating yields and high input costs. Conversion to organic management could offer an alternative. In a two year comparative study in central India covering 170 cotton fields, organic farms ...

The monitoring of land use/land covers (LULCs) is an indispensable exercise for all those involved in executing policies to optimize the use of natural resources and minimize the ill impacts on the environment. The study here aims at analyzing the changes that occurred in LULC over a time span from 1990 to 2005 using multi date data of a part of Punjab. The digital data consisted of two sets of Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM) data and one set of IRS-1C

Since machine tools are used extensively throughout their functional life and consequently consuming valuable natural resources and emitting harmful pollutants during this time, this study reviews strategies for characterizing and reducing the energy consumption of milling machine tools during their use. The power demanded by a micromachining center while cutting low carbon steel under varied material removal rates was measured to model the specific energy of the machine tool. Thereafter the power demanded was studied for cutting aluminum and polycarbonate work pieces for the purpose of comparing the difference in cutting power demand relative to that of steel.

Transportation planning is an important part of the supply chain or wood flow chain in forestry. There are often several forest companies operating in the same region and collaboration between two or more companies is rare. However, there is an increasing interest in collaborative planning as the potential savings are large, often in the range 5-15%. There are several issues to agree on before such collaborative planning can be used in practice. A key question is how savings should be distributed among the participants. In this paper, we investigate a number of possibilities based on economic models including Shapley value, the nucleolus, separable and non-separable costs, shadow prices and volume weights. We also propose a new allocation method, with the aim that the participants relative profits are as equal as possible. A large case study comprising eight forest companies in Sweden, is described and analyzed.

This paper presents 5 km×5 km Arctic emissions inventories of important greenhouse gases, black carbon and other pollutants under existing and future (2050) scenarios that account for growth of shipping in the region, potential diversion traffic through emerging routes, and possible emissions control measures. These high-resolution, geospatial emissions inventories for shipping can be used to evaluate Arctic climate sensitivity to black carbon (a short-lived climate forcing pollutant especially effective in accelerating the melting of ice and snow), aerosols, and gaseous emissions including carbon dioxide. We quantify ship emissions scenarios which are expected to increase as declining sea ice coverage due to climate change allows for increased shipping activity in the Arctic. A first-order calculation of global warming potential due to 2030 emissions in the highgrowth scenario suggests that short-lived forcing of ∼4.5 gigagrams of black carbon from Arctic shipping may increase global warming potential due to Arctic ships' CO 2 emissions (∼42 000 gigagrams) by some 17% to 78%. The paper also presents maximum feasible reduction scenarios for black carbon in particular. These emissions reduction scenarios will enable scientists and policymakers to evaluate the efficacy and benefits of technological controls for black carbon, and other pollutants from ships.

International organizations and biodiversity scientists recognize three levels of biodiversity: genetic, species, and ecosystem. However, most studies with the goal of assessing biodiversity collect data at only a single level-that of the species. Even when multiple levels of biodiversity are considered, usually only ecosystem diversity is also evaluated. Genetic diversity is virtually never considered. Yet, genetic diversity is essential for the maintenance of populations and species over ecological and evolutionary time periods. Moreover, because components of genetic diversity are independent of either species or ecosystem diversity, genetic diversity can provide a unique measure by which to assess the value of regions for conservation. Regions can be valuable for conservation of their genetic resources regardless of their levels of species or ecosystem uniqueness or diversity. In general, the same methods and statistical programs that are used to answer questions about population genetics and phylogenetics are applicable to conservation genetics. Thus, numerous genetic techniques, laboratory methods, and statistical programs are available for assessing regional levels of genetic diversity for conservation considerations. Here, we provide the rationale, techniques available, field and laboratory protocols, and statistical programs that can be used to estimate the magnitude and type of genetic diversity in regions. We also provide information on how to obtain commonly utilized statistical programs and the type of analyses that they include. The guide that we present here can be used to conduct investigations of the genetic diversity of regions under consideration for conservation of their natural resources.

This paper has visualized how agricultural scenario would evolve in the near future and what policies and strategies would be appropriate to adjust to the emerging changes and to harness the new opportunities. The major challenges for agriculture in the region are: raising and sustaining agricultural growth; ensuring food and nutritional security; facing impact of climate change; adjusting to changes in energy scenario; maintaining biosafety and bio-security; make sustainable use of natural resources and protecting biodiversity. The new opportunities lie in trade, marketing, biotechnology, shifting demand preferences in domestic and overseas markets, technology sharing, resource sharing and investments in research, extension and infrastructural development. SAARC countries need to develop science-based strategies for collective response to challenges and opportunities and global shocks in agriculture.

this paper are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the view of the World Bank, its Executive Directors, or the countries they represent. Policy Research Working Papers are available online at http://econ.worldbank.org. I.

Borana pastoralists in southern Ethiopia are faced with the challenge of developing more efficient and sustainable use of natural resources. In past decades poorly adapted development interventions and inadequate land-use policies aggravated by population growth have weakened pastoral rangeland management. Ignoring pastoralists’ technical and organizational capacities has contributed to progressive land degradation, the erosion of social structures and poverty. The Endogenous Livestock Development concept recognises pastoralists’ indigenous knowledge-based strategies and priorities, and uses them as the bases for further development of their production system and social relations, to be utilized, improved and combined with modern technologies. This paper explores the Borana pastoralists’ adaptive strategies for improved utilization of natural resources and the manner in which they respond to environmental risk and external influences such as water development and new formal administ...

Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) as an important driver of growth. It is an important source of non debt financial resources for country for economic development. Besides it is a means of achieving technical knowhow and employment generation of employment. However, many are of the view that FDI is a big threat to sovereignty of host and domestic business houses. Faster exploitation of natural resources for profit may deprive host from such resources in long run. Midst of debate on pros and cons of FDI, world economy has observed a phenomenal change in volume and pattern of FDI. There is clearly an intense global competition of FDI. India is not behind this global race of attracting foreign investment. India emerged as an attractive FDI destination in services but has failed to evolve a manufacturing hub which has greater economic benefit. FDI though one of the important sources of financing the economic development, but not is not a solution for poverty eradication, unemployment and other economic ills. India needs a massive investment to achieve the goals of vision 20-20. Policy makers need to ensure transparency and consistency in policy making along with comprehensive long term development strategy.

The urban waste recycling program in Taiwan is discussed. During the past few years, the quantity of urban waste generated in Taiwan has greatly increased, about 8-10% per year. Approx., 50 wt.% or more of the waste items in urban waste are found to be valuable and worth recycling. Recycling is of much significance to Taiwan because of a lack of natural resources. Hence, ROC EPA has made many efforts to promote an urban waste recycling program, called the ' 'Hsi-Fu Recycling Project". (This project now has a new name called "Urban Waste Recovery and Its Monitoring Project".) The legal backing of this recycling project is Article 10.1 of the "(Solid) Waste Disposal Act", which was revised and promulgated in November 1988. "The product life cycle cost" and "beneficiary pays and polluter pays" are the two important basic concepts incorporated in this Article. Through the promotion of the ' 'Hsi-Fu Recycling Project", these two fundamental concepts are being practiced in Taiwan for some items in urban waste. Currently, only ten out of the 17 waste items under the "Hsi-Fu Recycling Project" are regulated by ROC EPA. While this waste recycling project is in progress, many problems have occurred. These problems have caused many impacts on the public, industries, and government authorities. To proclaim a great success in this waste recycling project, these problems must first be solved.

The paper opens with an assessment of natural resources economics up to 1913-14 when Gray published his two pioneering articles in natural resources economics (Part I). An in-depth study of Gray, weighing his contribution to the microeconomic theory of the mine and the macroeconomic theory of conservation against current literature, constitutes the main body of the paper (Part II). Gray and Hotelling's contributions to the theory of the mine are compared (Part III). The paper concludes with a comparison drawn between the author's findings and the scant attention previously paid to Gray's contributions to natural resources economics. "So far as I know, this is the first attempt to apply economic theory to this particular problem of conservation."

Livestock production is an integral part of smallholder farming systems in southern Africa. While goats and sheep play some role in the smallholder farmer household economy, cattle are the predominant livestock species supplying draught power, milk, manure and meat. Production of cattle is based on range grazing. However, the nutritive value of the range is generally low depending on vegetation type and season. With the rapid increase in human population in southern Africa and the increasing need to produce staple food on a sustainable basis, smallholder farmers are increasingly encroaching onto lands formerly reserved for livestock grazing. Therefore, livestock subsisting on the range require supplementation. Conventional bought-in supplements are expensive. Fodder trees and shrubs have been integrated within some farming systems of southern Africa as fodder banks with varying degrees of success. Work carried out in Tanzania, Malawi and Zimbabwe is reviewed to provide evidence on how the fodder tree technology has impacted on livestock production with special reference to smallholder dairy production, human food production and smallholder farmers' income. For the wider adoption of the technology, a synopsis of the different scaling up pathways and approaches adopted by research and development agencies is presented.

The on-site and off-site impacts of land degradation, particularly in the form of soil erosion, pose a serious problem in many developing countries. In Sri Lanka, the implementation of wide-ranging policy reforms and institutional changes designed to move the country toward an outward oriented market economy, have strengthened concerns about environmental degradation and the sustainability of the country's natural resource base. The environmental impact of many of the policy reforms and economic changes are determined by complex economy-wide, inter-sectoral interactions. A computable general equilibrium model incorporating soil erosion is developed to analyse the impacts of various policy reforms in Sri Lanka. Our analysis establishes three important results. First, economic losses from soil erosion in Sri Lanka are substantial. Second, trade liberalisation reforms increase national income and marginally reduce soil erosion. Third, while trade liberalisation has a positive impact on soil erosion, complementary policies which directly target soil erosion, such as tax/subsidy incentives, are needed to minimise social losses from soil erosion.

This paper explores the relation between countries’ pattern of trade specialization and long-term economic growth. It shows that countries specializing in the export of natural resource based products only fail to grow if they do not succeed in diversifying their economies and export structure. This conclusion follows from an empirical investigation that has three innovative features. First, it uses a

In Latin America, indigenous peoples constitute a marginalized group that is using the courts, increasingly, as one means by which to pursue and defend its rights. In part, this is a result of the juridifi cation of its collective rights through processes of constitutional reform across the region during the 1980s and 1990s. It is also a consequence of the very limited advances that have been made to date in guaranteeing these rights in practice. The enlarged legal recognition of indigenous autonomy has occurred at the same time as judicial reform in implementation of economic policies promoting free trade and accelerated natural resource exploitation -policies that affect indigenous communities negatively and disproportionately. This combination of factors has meant that indigenous movements more and more have called on the judiciary in defense of their collective rights, albeit often with limited tangible effects.

Although forest fires have become a critical question in Mexico following the fire season of 1998, there is little knowledge regarding the effects of fire events on forest structure, composition, and dynamics in mixed pine-oak forests in northern Mexico. Objective of this ...

This paper applies a spatial economic regression model to analyze the relation between deforestation in the period from 1989 to 1994 and access to roads and markets, ecological conditions, land tenure, and zoning policies in Santa Cruz, Bolivia. The data comes from a Geographic Information System (GIS) compiled by the Natural Resources Department of the Santa Cruz Government. Locations closer to roads and the City of Santa Cruz and that have more fertile soils and higher rainfall have a greater probability of being deforested. The same also applies to colonization areas. National parks and areas occupied by indigenous people do not have significantly less deforestation than sites with similar acess and ecological conditions. Forest concessions, on the other hand seem to protect forests.

This paper presents lessons from applying an innovative approach for linking smallholder farmers to markets. This approach entitled, Enabling Rural Innovation (ERI) focuses on strengthening the capacity of smallholder, resource-poor farmers to access market opportunities and actively engaging in them with the aim of creating an entrepreneurial culture in rural communities, where farmers "produce what they can market rather than trying to market what they produce". The approach focuses on fostering inclusion of rural women and the poor in analyzing and accessing market opportunities (domestic, regional and international), using a territorial approach to agro-enterprise development. The paper provides a general overview of the approach, the guiding principles, conceptual framework and steps in the ERI process. The paper also gives detailed examples of the five key components: participatory market research, farmer participatory research and its links to natural resource management, social and human capital, gender equity and participatory monitoring and evaluation. Lessons, experiences and challenges from testing this novel approach with a range of research and development partners in eastern and southern Africa are presented. The paper also summarizes some key research findings from a series of impact studies. This paper is a critical selfreflection of our intellectual journey testing and applying the ERI approach.

Bioproductive land is one of the most significant natural resources. People use the land for receiving ecological services. This leads to humans using and favouring certain species, while competing with all other species. Land use can create diverse cultural landscapes of outstanding aesthetic, economic and ecological value, but it may equally result in land degradation, soil loss and impoverished ecosystems. Hence land use is shaped by processes of society-nature interaction. These processes can detract from sustainability-in other words, society-nature interaction may deplete the natural capital upon which the provision of ecosystem services for humans depends. Sustainability indicators aim at monitoring key aspects of society-nature interaction in order to generate information needed to document the current state and the history leading up to it. Moreover, they are useful to communicate complex sustainability problems within the scientific community, to policy-makers and the broad public. This paper introduces a special issue that seeks to contribute to the development of sustainability indicators that track society-nature interaction. We focus on a variety of concepts that measure socioeconomic metabolism. All the discussed approaches relate socioeconomic energy and material flows to the bioproductive area needed to support them, above all, the ecological footprint and the human appropriation of net primary production. In addition, this special issue also analyses the consequences of land use intensity on the diversity, naturalness and patterns of landscapes.

Rural families must constantly negotiate their livelihoods by obtaining access to natural resources, labor, capital, knowledge, and markets. Successful negotiation leads to enhanced family well-being and sustainable use of natural resources. Unsuccessful negotiation threatens family survival, threatens sustainable use of natural resources, and reduces biodiversity. These negotiation processes are mediated by gender relations. The ideas of negotiation and of survival strategies outlined here provide a framework within which the articles of this issue can be situated. The articles are the result of research on gender and natural resource management conducted in Latin America, Asia, Africa, and North America. Each experience illustrates the consequences for natural resources and family well being when they have voice and when they do not have voice in household decisions.

In this paper, the deterministic parameter identification procedure proposed in a companion paper is applied to suction-dependent elasto-plasticity problems. A mathematical model for such type of problems is firstly presented, then it is applied to the parameter identification using laboratory data. The identification procedure is applied in a second example to exploitation of a gas reservoir. The effects of the

Conflict scholars have argued that natural resources, such as oil, diamonds, and gemstones, may increase the chances for civil wars because rebels can sustain their organizations by looting resources and because certain types of resources, such as oil, create weaker state governments that are less capable of putting down insurgencies. Natural resources like oil also raise the value of capturing the state through war. However, empirical studies typically treat natural resources as exogenous variables, failing to consider the possibility that war alters the production levels of various natural resources. This endogenous relationship may help to explain the inconsistent empirical results linking natural resources and civil war onset. This article examines the two-way relationship between natural resources and civil war, focusing on oil, diamonds, and fisheries. The empirical findings suggest that most of the relationships run in the direction from war to resources, with no significant effects of resources on the onset of civil war. States with civil wars experience lower oil and diamond production, while marine fisheries production recovers in civil war–torn states.

Ungulate herbivory can impact riparian vegetation in several ways, such as by reducing vigor or reproductive output of mature plants, and through increased mortality of seedlings and saplings. Much work has focused on the effects of livestock grazing within riparian corridors, while few studies have addressed the influence of native ungulate herbivory on riparian vegetation. This study investigated the effect of deer herbivory on riparian regeneration along three streams with degraded riparian corridors in Mendocino County, California. We utilized existing stream restoration efforts by private landowners and natural resource agencies to compare six deer exclosures with six upstream control plots. Livestock were excluded from both exclosure and control plots. Three of the deer exclosures had been in place for 15 years, one for 6 years, and two for 4 years. The abundance and size distribution of woody riparian plant species such as Salix exigua , S. laevigata , S. lasiolepis , Alnus rhombifolia , and Fraxinus latifolia were quantified for each exclosure and control plot. The mean density of saplings in deer exclosures was 0.49 Ϯ 0.15/m 2 , while the mean density of saplings in control plots was 0.05 Ϯ 0.02/m 2 . Within exclosures, 35% of saplings were less than 1 m and 65% were greater than 1 m; within control plots, 97% of saplings were less than 1 m in height. The fact that little regeneration had occurred in control plots suggests that deer herbivory can substantially reduce the rate of recovery of woody riparian species within degraded riparian corridors. Exclusionary fencing has demonstrated promising results for riparian restoration in a region with intense deer herbivory.

A forum focusing on similarities and differences in environmental sociology and the sociology of natural resources is healthy. Attempts to more adequately understand the relationships between social organization and the natural world need to be informed by reviews and critiques of past and current work by resource/environmental social scientists and the array of theoretical frameworks, research designs, and problem-solving capabilities that are represented in the literature. In this article, we provide a perspective on the paths that natural resource sociology and environmental sociology have taken. W e draw distinctions based on their origins, conceptual orientations, theoretical perspectives, and problem-solving focuses. Clarifying the differences between natural resource sociology and environmental sociology will not only help in tracing the intellectual foundations for these sub® elds of inquiry and bring to light lost literature, but also point to areas where synthesis and convergence in these sub® elds are possible.