Chapter 8 SHAPING THE GOOD CITIZEN - Higher Education

SHAPING THE GOOD CITIZEN Beyond Phrenology to the Child-Centred Classroom By Dr Denis ARTHY ii CONTENTS Acknowledgments Thanks to the Reader Abbreviations Lists of Figures and Appendices iii iv vi vii Introduction viii Overview Training the Soul Square Pegs in Round Holes Manuals of Ethical Conduct Global Genealogy of Good Citizen viii ix xiii xviii xxvi PART ONE: CIVILISING AND CHRISTIANISING PRACTICES Chapter 1 Shaping the Good Citizen Chapter 2 Educational Ladder 27 Chapter 3 Problem of Retardation 42 Chapter 4 Beyond Phrenology: Sagax, Capax and Efficax 65 1 PART TWO: FLOWERING OF A CHILD CENTRED CLASSROOM Chapter 5 Government Reconstruction 97 Chapter 6 Science in a New Education 125 Chapter 7 Child-Centred Retardation 146 Chapter 8 Higher Education 163 Chapter 9 Abandonment of Failure 191 Chapter 10 Parachutes, Regulators & Helicopters 233 Appendices 241 Bibliography 257 iii Acknowledgements In the early to mid-1980s, while in my employment as a Counsellor at the QUT Counselling Centre, after becoming concerned at the continuous flow of disgruntled, unhappy and confused students regarding their educational directions, I began a detailed ethnographic study of the psychological practices and techniques of guidance and counselling. Why did I do this? A number of years earlier in the mid to late 1970s as part of an Honours thesis at the Faculty of Humanities at Griffith University, I had already begun to research the relationships between sex discrimination in professional employment and certain cultural technologies embedded in the high school classroom influenced by the emerging new profession of counselling psychology. On the basis of numerous interviews with prospective, undergraduate and postgraduate students over subsequent years, I began to make the connection that it was the dysfunction of these same classroom technologies which seemed to be so influential and dominate the shaping of the educational and vocational direction of many of these unhappy “students-in-crisis” who had received questionable advice and who were fundamentally lacking in basic skills necessary to understand the complexities of a modern world. From these beginnings, I had begun to formulate certain theories regarding the relationships between the fields of education, employment and disciplinary orientations of the counselling practice. In supporting me in this preliminary research, I am most thankful to Professor David Saunders who encouraged me to extend, what began as a critique of dysfunctional “grubby” psychological practices, into a doctoral research project and now a book. This project received the support of my employers at QUT and also that of my colleagues in the broader guidance and counselling community. I thank those numerous students for agreeing to be interviewed and for their participation. To others who generously offered their time and contributions I also thank them. In particular, I am thankful for the unique insights provided by the late Dr Howell into the Radford Committee, his experience as Head Master of the Brisbane Grammar school and his initiatives in the area of vocational guidance. Associate Professor Ian Hunter's early and brief co-supervisory contribution to my research was to also challenge the limited temporal parameters of my research methodology. Through the main part of the formal supervision of this programme, Professor Saunders has provided generous encouragement and support, sound advice on the rhetorical form, strategy and protocol of the written project and has facilitated the intellectual stimulation necessary to research and report on the multiple threads of the interdisciplinary project. A brief but important discussion with Dr Bruce Smith in Canberra resulted in my researching archival material that has contributed significantly to the substance of the historical orientations. In the latter part of the research project, I have also received most valued support and guidance from Dr Denise Meredyth as co-superviser. The completed project is, however, my own contribution to those fields of knowledge that converge on contemporary issues related to the demise of the subject-centred classroom, the consequent abandonment of failure, the triumphant emergence of the child-centred classroom, and of the contemporary dilemmas in the shaping of the vocational and ethical ambitions of the good citizen. The result of this intensive research and over twenty years at the coal face as a Careers Counsellor at QUT in Brisbane was the award of PhD by Griffith University in 1996. This project would not have come to fruition without the opportunity provided by the radical policy to open up the "ivory towers", the universities to working class people such as myself and many thousands of others, by Prime Minister Gough Whitlam and the Labor government from 1972-1975 in being able to attend university as a mature aged full time student after having qualified as an accountant throughout the 1960's as a part time evening student completing the external examinations of what is now the CPA Australia. After spending two years working and living in Europe from 1972 to 1974 working as an accountant, and experiencing the joy of learning about European culture, its history, music, theatre, sport, politics, literature, architecture and geography, I was now able to fully participate in the equally radical interdisciplinary Griffith University and the Humanities and Social Sciences Faculty in a liberal arts degree. Finally, I am deeply indebted for the generous support, patience and understanding of my family, my children Ben, Tara and Zoe with my greatest thanks going to my beautiful and loving wife Ellie. To her, my closest friend and companion, I dedicate this book, finally published. iv Thanks to the Reader The book is published on Academia.com as separate chapters and is based on extensive research into the role of government in “shaping the good citizen” and in “training the soul” both of which terms are used in historical government archival records and writings in the field of education in Queensland Australia. This research traces certain historical threads related to transformations of the classroom which themselves significantly impact on present day issues such as the National Curriculum debate, the lack of separation between State and Church manifested in the School Chaplain’s debate, and the oft reported disaster and failure of the Australian classroom in global rankings in a modern world. This research meticulously examines, analyses and documents the strategic importation by progressive educationalists of a child-centred pedagogy while leaving the gate open for an intensely anti-intellectual political culture to fill the content neutral classroom void. All of which flowered in Queensland in the early 1970s with the full blown Radford Scheme while other states resisted for many years this shift away from a content saturated curriculum and related publicly visible standards. This research examines the failure of the contemporary child-centred classroom in its abandonment of failure and the key role of the classroom in shaping the "good citizen" where "every child is a winner", only to discover sooner or later, the world have never and does not work that way. The detailed research into this topic was driven initially from practical experience at the coalface for over twenty years as a university careers counsellor and was completed in 1996 and submitted as a PhD thesis. Twenty years later, this research is still highly relevant to a meaningful “history of the present”, in understanding and explaining present day issues in "shaping the citizen" and "governing the soul". It was for these reasons, that I now believe quite strongly that this research is far too valuable to NOT be published in some shape or form and thus I believe will contribute to a new accountability of the Australian classroom that was initially recognized politically at the Federal level and spearheaded by Ms Julia Gillard in her earlier role as Education Minister of a Labor government and championed later as the first female Prime Minister of Australia. The resulting book “Shaping the Good Citizen: Beyond Phrenology to a Child-Centred Classroom” is also based on significant empirical and archival research on the emerging transformations of pastoral guidance practices converging as significantly influential political forces in “shaping” the contemporary “good citizen” through a modern, child-centred curriculum, remaining largely unchallenged by an anti-intellectual culture thriving and protected within the contemporary classroom insulated from public scrutiny. Specifically, this history of the present is crucial to understanding a key aspect of the National Curriculum debate – the dismal failure by the Australian classroom to meet basic educational standards and to meet the needs of a global competitive economy, ranking significantly low in the in the world, and mostly the dismal lack of understanding about the crucial importance of the question: "how do you know if you like or dislike something (courses, careers, life choices) if you know little or nothing about it? Rather than thinking this book is “too specialised”, I would suggest to the intelligent reader that the general thrust is an historical critique motivated by the failures of a modern child-centred classroom which has been dominated by Christian and Civilising pastoral norms instrumental to shaping a good child and future citizen but which now is devoid of the prerequisite skills and knowledge to cope as a consumer of what the modern world has to offer. This critique may well sit uncomfortably for progressive educationalists who condescendingly and patronisingly admonish those who do not agree with the “child-centred” mantra and dogma that “every child is a winner and every child deserves a barbie doll, and big MAC from any shelf of their own choosing… let the child choose!!” Thus we can confront if we are not resistant to the possibility of an anthropological antidote of the "other", to the secular psychology of self as citizen of "who am I" which has been shaped by the child-centred dogma of "everyone is a winner", and failure is anathema to self. Thank you to the reader for your consideration. I am optimistic that by publishing this in separate chapters and placing this on Academia.com, I will reach readers who have the patience to examine the detail and complexity of this work and the intelligence to understand the importance of the convergence of the key issues examined through this research and from my own practical experiences over twenty years dealing with many thousands of students, most of whom had sadly never heard of nor understood the term “liberal arts”, or were wary and even frightened of its meaning and its significance to the broader question of cultural literacy, and whether or not a democracy can exist without the reasoned consent of the governed. In importing over the past forty years the very worst aspects of a child-centred culture direct from the United States into the Australian classroom, we may yet as v a nation be condemned to perpetual mediocrity in the global classroom!! Nothing changes if nothing changes!! This book published in this way is my acknowledgment of and thanks for the opportunities provided to me over a life-time by a public education system in Australia that strives to be free, secular and rewarding those who can apply themselves. The content of my book though is my contribution towards the current debates in Australia running in parallel, but connected through a common history of the classroom and to the broader question of cultural literacy, whether or not a democracy can exist without the reasoned consent of the governed:  In understanding the historical influence of the Christian mutuality between work and society within the classroom in the form of the Australian government’s “anti-democratic” treatment of the successful High Court decision challenging the lack of separation between the State and the Christian religion made by Ron Williams;  In understanding the historical transformation from the subject-centred classroom to the child-centred classroom in Australia with the resultant backlash to the failings of the child-centred pedagogy in the form of various government initiatives such as NAPLAN, MY SCHOOLS WEBSITE, and the NATIONAL CURRICULUM. The child-centred classroom has failed to deliver on providing the intellectual capital necessary for the good citizen to be able to make well informed choices within a complex consumer society and an educational marketplace in a liberal democracy;  In understanding the centrality of a child-centred pedagogy in significantly contributing towards the “Australia Disaster in Education” where Australia ranks 27 in the world. th The target audience of this material will be anyone interested in the history of education and in particular, anyone who wishes to be better informed about:  Origins of vocational guidance and careers counseling  Cultural literacy and access to higher education  Historical origins of the rationale for a National Curriculum  History of the child-centered classroom  Role of government on Christian influences past and present on classroom  All tertiary level academic courses involved in cultural studies, education, guidance and counseling The appeal of this research generally will be to those who support the liberal values of a modern secular democracy and have an interest in the debate of child-centered versus subject centered classrooms and the relevance for providing an education relevant to the arguments in support of “reasoned consent of the governed” in a liberal democracy. Dr Denis Arthy - 11 August 2016 Previous published articles/papers on some chapters of the unpublished PhD dissertation titled The Vocational Personality: Guidance and Counselling Practices in Queensland Education 1996  Article – “A Cultural Analysis of Parachutes, Regulators and Helicopters in Career Planning”, in Australian Journal of Career Development, Vol 8, Nr 3 Spring 1999  Article – “Governance of the Vocational Personality in the Origins of Vocational Guidance”, in Journal of Career Development – JCD, Volume 24, Number 2, Winter 1997  Paper titled “The CIA connection in careers planning: Psychological and anthropological paradigms of vocational guidance”,presented at Conference Proceedings of the 7th Australian International AACC Conference, Careering into the Future Crystal Balls & Cyberspace. Brisbane. 1997  Paper titled “Vocational Guidance and Government Reconstruction of the Good Citizen: the emergence of vocational guidance in the great depression as a governmental practice addressing the boy problem”, presented at and extracted from Proceedings of Australian and New Zealand History of Education Society 26 Annual Conference – Childhood, Citizenship Culture Conference Volume 1 Queensland University of Technology Brisbane 10-14 July 1996 th  Article – Beyond Phrenology: The beginnings of Vocational Guidance in Queensland through ”Sagax, Capax and Efficax” – in Australian Journal of Guidance and Counselling, Vol 5 Nr 1, 1995  Paper titled “Guidance and Counselling Practices in Queensland: Government, Foucault and Ethnography”, presented at The Australian Sociological Association TASA '93 Sociology Conference, Social Theory and Practice. Sydney: Macquarie University, 14th December 1993  Paper titled “The Vocational Personality: Careers Education and Counselling in Queensland” presented at the TASA '90 Sociology Conference, Social Policy and Action Research, Applied Sociology. Brisbane: held at the University of Queensland 14th - 16th December 1990 vi Abbreviations ACER Australian Council for Educational Research ASAT Australian Scholastic Aptitude Test CAE College of Advanced Education CES Commonwealth Employment Services CPD Commonwealth Parliamentary Debates CPP Commonwealth Parliamentary Papers CSS Commonwealth Scholarship Scheme CSSE Commonwealth Secondary Scholarship Scheme DEET Department of Education and Employment DEO District Employment Officer FP Field Position G&SE Guidance and Special Education GO Guidance Officer IQ Intelligence Quotient JEB Juvenile Employment Bureau L&NS Labour and National Service NBEET National Board of Employment, Education and Training OP Overall Performance QDE Queensland Department of Education QDPI Queensland Department of Public Instruction QIT Queensland Institute of Technology QPP Queensland Parliamentary Papers QTAC Queensland Tertiary Admissions Centre QUT Queensland University of Technology R&C Research and Curriculum R&G Research and Guidance TAFE Technical and Further Education TE Tertiary Entrance TEEP Tertiary Entrance Education Project TOLA Test of Learning Ability V&P Votes and Proceedings VGO Vocational Guidance Officer vii List of Figures Figure 1 Square Pegs in Round Holes, Radford Scheme - 1993 Figure 2 Proposed Educational Ladder - 1906 67 Figure 3 New Educational Ladder - 1914 81 Figure 4 Pyramid Effect - 1993 215 Figure 5 University Distributions - 1980 to 1990 216 Figure 6 League Tables - 1992 to 1994 217 Figure 7 Square Pegs in Round Holes, CES - 1993 218 xvii List of Appendices Appendix 1 Training Course of the G&SE Branch - 1973 241 Appendix 2 Prudent Chusing a Calling - 1699 242 Appendix 3 Physical Defects and Intelligence - 1910 243 Appendix 4 General Intelligence and Home Conditions - 1923 244 Appendix 5 Backward Children - 1928 245 Appendix 6 State Grammar School Pupils - 1900 246 Appendix 7 Juvenile Employment Bureau - 1935 to 1942 247 Appendix 8 R&G Branch - 1959 to 1962 248 Appendix 9 Clinical Cases of R&G Branch - 1955 251 Appendix 10 Clinical Cases - 1957 to 1970 252 Appendix 11 Backwardness - 1958 254 Appendix 12 League Table of Top Fifty Senior Students - 1961 255 Appendix 13 League Table of Top Senior Students - 1993 256 - 163 - Chapter 8: HIGHER EDUCATION As Sir Winston (then Mr.) (sic) Churchill, said in February 1910, when he was announcing the setting up of a National Employment Service in Britain: he said "I believe that as a piece of social mechanism an employment service is absolutely essential to any well-ordered community". (Australian Archives, Qld, 1957, p.10) As the earlier sections have shown, the educational wastage is greater among females than males. A major function of the guidance programme would be to break down the prejudice that secondary education is less necessary for girls and to spread information on the wide variety of professional and semi-professional occupations now open to females. Such changes in public attitudes will be affected by the printed word; but the individual will be more strongly influenced by the information and advice on her own problems conveyed in the personal interview with a guidance officer. (R&G Bulletin, 1957) The focus in this chapter will be on the emergence of post-war vocational guidance and careers counselling activities at both the State and Commonwealth levels of government directed at education higher than postcompulsory levels. A previous chapter has already examined the establishment of vocational guidance practices in State Education Department's R&G Branch from the late 1940s for children at the primary school level. The Branch also provided limited vocational guidance at the State secondary level from the beginnings of its operations. By the end of the 1950s, however, the State was beginning to rapidly expand the provision of vocational guidance at the secondary level when, in 1963 with the abolition of the Scholarship examination, vocational guidance at the primary school level was no longer considered relevant. Following the transfer of the grade eight students from primary to high schools in 1964, educational and vocational guidance services were provided by the State government only in the State high schools (R&G, 1965). Vocational guidance had also been available at the secondary level for school children and government assisted scholars at the university level by the Commonwealth government from the beginnings of the Commonwealth-based employment services (CES) until the early 1950s. Through agreements made between the State and Commonwealth governments, the State Employment Exchanges including the JEB was closed and the responsibility for the administration of the CSS was transferred to the State government from 1952. The purpose of the CSS was to lessen inequalities of educational opportunity at the tertiary level with 3000 entrance Scholarships being available each year for open competition by boys and girls who had completed a normal secondary school course. A limited number, not exceeding two percent, of the 3000 Scholarships awarded each year were made available for competition by applicants of Mature Age. Applications for Mature Age Scholarships were accepted from students who were not under twenty-five and in general not over thirty years of age at the date of application and who had matriculated (Australian Archives, Qld, 1950). It was not until the implementation of the Murray Report (1957) that the Commonwealth government again became directly involved in the provision of vocational guidance and careers counselling services to school children, particularly to those attending private and independent schools. This renewed interest by the Commonwealth in vocational guidance for school children was in response to the guidance problem wherein wastage of scholastic talent from the educational ladder leading towards the university level was identified as a national extravagance. This chapter will focus on the implementation of a post-war guidance strategy by both the Commonwealth and the State governments in addressing educational and employment problems of reconstructing the post-war economy towards Full Employment and the rehabilitation of ex-Service personnel and civilian war workers. Vocational guidance represented a new cultural technology of efficiency which was considered capable of facilitating governmental policy of equality of educational opportunity and avoidance of talent wastage through selecting the most suitable material available to be trained for the professions. POST-WAR GUIDANCE STRATEGY I will firstly examine the joint governmental role which the Commonwealth and the State played in the postwar guidance strategy aimed at the reconstruction of the vocational personality. This will be examined in terms of the involvement effectively for the first time by the Commonwealth in the areas of education and employment. The Commonwealth first became involved in the provision of post-war vocational guidance as a - 164 result of its post-war reconstruction policy entitled "Full Employment in Australia" (see "Papers Presented to Parliament" in CPP, 1945-46, v.4, pp.1193-1211). The Re-establishment and Employment Act, 1945 provided the legislative charter for the establishment of the CES, section 47 of which included the following functions to be carried out to facilitate the Commonwealth government's objective of full employment: (a) to provide means whereby employers may engage labour to their requirements, and workers may be afforded the opportunity of obtaining jobs best suiting their qualifications, aptitude, desires and personal circumstances, and in particular to assist ex-Service personnel and civilian war workers in this regard. (b) to aid any person trained for example under the Commonwealth Reconstruction Training Scheme, to become employed in the manner best suited to his training, experience, abilities and qualifications. (c) to afford occupational advice, vocational guidance and other services to facilitate employment of persons best suited to their experience, abilities and qualifications. (Australian Archives, Qld, 1945) The CES needed to do what the employer would have done if he were to install a Personnel Selection Section which would have been complete with vocational guidance experts. Public confidence in the new Employment Service would easily have been lost, it was suggested, if the employer was sent a worker who did not measure up to his specifications. The employer was expected to demand efficiency and speed in this new service, the standard of which was further stated as being higher than most employers had been accustomed to at that time: It is necessary to stress that the Employment Service is not conceived as an instrument for placing only persons who must register because they are unemployed to qualify for sustenance, but as a Governmental agency designed to further the policy of full employment and to afford every worker, whether professional, clerical, tradesman, or unskilled, a better opportunity than he would have by his own unaided efforts, of selecting more expeditiously and with greater certainty, the employment which will best suit and satisfy him. (Australian Archives, Qld, 1945) As we will recall, Queensland was to go its own way and exclude itself from the Australian wide uniform systems of the CES for a six year period from 1946 to 1952. As a result, during this period both State and Commonwealth governments operated guidance services to Queensland school children - one with the State Departments of Labour and Industry (the JEB) and Public Instruction (R&G Branch), the other with the Commonwealth Department of Labour and National Service (CES) (1). The Commonwealth Guidance section (of the CES), which began in Brisbane about two years ago with a staff of two, now employs four fully qualified guidance officers and two special clerks. The State (Juvenile Employment) Bureau has three guidance officers and since January 1947 has handled 2200 children. (O'Brien, 1948) The Prime Minister, Mr Robert Menzies (2), wrote to the Queensland State Premier, Mr Vince Gair, in 1952 seeking an end to the duplication of the employment services in Queensland (see letter dated 21st March, 1952 in DEET, 1980, p.50). This approach resulted in the closure of the State's Employment Exchanges, including the JEB. In the previous year, the Commonwealth had entered into an agreement with the State Education Department for the administration of the CSS to be the prime responsibility of the R&G Branch as an agency for the Scheme by the State. Through this involvement in the CSS the State's Guidance Officers were to play a crucial role in that governmental process in reducing wastage of the bright, gifted and talented students in relation to university education. Within the year, a policy change in the relation between the two governmentally operated guidance services resulted in the cessation of vocational guidance to school children by the Commonwealth (CES): There is another factor which is likely to increase the demand for guidance at this Branch in the immediate future. The policy with regard to guidance under the Commonwealth Employment Service has been changed. In future Commonwealth vocational guidance officers will not make appointments for children attending school, as has been their practice in the past, but will refer all such students to this Branch for guidance. (R&G Report, 1953, p.1) The Vocational Guidance Unit within the CES continued to serve as an integral part of the Professional Services Section of the CES that focussed on employment for professionals and youth, handicapped persons and higher appointments. This policy of not providing individual guidance interviews to school children appears to have continued at least until the late 1950s with the implementation of the Murray Report's (1957) recommendations which focussed specifically on higher education. The Commonwealth government, - 165 however, had already made a commitment to post-war reconstruction of access to higher education, in particular through what was to become the CSS. The Commonwealth's involvement in the area of education effectively began in 1943 with the establishment of the Universities Commission by a regulation made under the National Security Act. Among the tasks given it were the provision of financial assistance to certain university facilities. These moves marked the first sustained involvement by a Commonwealth government in education (3), and were clearly part of what was considered to have been a policy of democratisation of tertiary education that was being propounded by the Labor Party at that time (Birch and Smart, 1977, pp.13-7). In the establishment of a Financial Assistance Scheme, the Competing Aims of such a scheme were as follows: (a) To provide complete equality of educational opportunity. (b) To make provision for a flow of trained personnel for various professions. (c) To effect a compromise between the first two aims. (Australian Archives, Qld, 1946a) The latter option was recommended, due to a higher priority being given to the reduction of wastage of the best material on the educational ladder leading to university and to the professions. While the provision of complete equality of educational opportunity was considered an ideal that could never be realised, the aim of a future scheme was that as far as possible, equality of opportunity was to be provided. It was also recommended: The scheme should aim not only at maintaining a flow of trained personnel for the various professions but at ensuring that the most suitable material available is trained for these professions. At present time much good material is lost, as many able students have not the opportunity of reaching matriculation standard and therefore assistance to secondary school students is essential if this loss of suitable material is to be avoided. (Australian Archives, Qld, 1948) This wastage to the university system and the professions was considered to be a factor not only of economic circumstances but of a lack of ambition on the part of the family: Even assuming that the assistance available was on such a scale as to render the student self-supporting from his reaching compulsory school leaving age until he completed his professional training, there would still be many cases of the able student who would be forced into employment at an earlier age to contribute to the family finances either from economic necessity or parental disinterest in higher education. (Australian Archives, Qld, 1948) As part of the governmental strategy of minimising wastage of suitable material, it was recommended that the provision of vocational guidance for assisted students was a definite necessity. Thus should be available both prior to selection of the assisted scholar and throughout the student's whole course of university study (Australian Archives, Qld, 1948). The Commonwealth Office of Education was to be responsible for implementing this governmental strategy. In 1945, the Commonwealth Office of Education had been initially concerned with the rehabilitation of ex-service men and women who were undertaking university education, with relations with overseas bodies such as UNESCO, and with research and surveys on Australia wide topics. Until this time, the ACER had remained the only educational institution with an Australia-wide concern. From the beginnings of the formation of the Commonwealth Office of Education, there was a close and vital relationship between this Office and the ACER (4). The Financial Assistance Scheme was replaced in 1951 by the CSS and at the end of that year agreements were entered into with the various State governments to be responsible for the day-to-day administration of this new scheme. The main function of the Commonwealth was to maintain the broad policy framework, to provide the necessary funds and to interpret and amend rules laid down for the administration of the Scheme. As part of the agreement in Queensland, the administration of the Commonwealth University Scholarships had been allocated to the R&G Branch: Following negotiations between the Commonwealth and State authorities, the administration of the Commonwealth Scholarship Scheme in Queensland was transferred in December 1951 from the Universities Commission (Brisbane Branch) to the Department of Public Instruction. The Deputy Director-General (Mr. Hill) was made responsible for the administration of the Scheme; the detailed work was to be carried out at the Research and Guidance Branch under the direction of the Principal Research and Guidance Officer. (R&G Report, 1952, p.11) - 166 During the first year of the R&G Branch's administration of the Scheme, there were 330 new scholars who had entered training straight from high school in the previous year, 13 Mature Age Scholars and 96 scholars who were continuing from the previous year. In addition, there were 799 total applications for a Scholarship. Of this number 548 were selected with 439 who actually commenced their training at the university the following year. Apart from the clinical guidance officer, every member of the R&G Branch was involved in the operation of the CSS. The Principal R&G Officer also devoted a considerable amount of his time to the administration of the Scheme (R&G Report, 1954, p.10). During the first year of the Scheme under the responsibility of the Branch, over one thousand nine hundred interviews were held. This figure included guidance interviews to scholars, enquiries relating to eligibility, living allowances, lecture attendance and other enquiries on various aspects of the Scheme. Thus began a partnership between two levels of government, Commonwealth and State, wherein new cultural technologies would be implemented for the first time with the aim of producing the competent vocational personality properly adjusted to professional employment realities arising from a university education: So far as Queensland is concerned, it can be stated that no Commonwealth Scholar need enter upon his course without skilled assistance in the appraisal of his abilities as related to the study he undertakes. The additional demands on the guidance staff at a time of the year when vocational selection and guidance activities at the Branch reach their peak have their compensation in the satisfaction that derives from following a youth through from Primary to University level. (R&G Report, 1952, p.14) The responsibilities of the Branch included checking on the attendance and progress of every Commonwealth Scholarship holder. These holders were in attendance during 1952 at the University of Queensland, the State Commercial High School and College, the Central Technical College and the Kindergarten Training College. By 1957, demand for the Commonwealth Scholarship had outstripped the number of places allocated to Queensland scholars. The Branch report concluded that one hundred Open Entrance applicants had failed to secure scholarships in 1957 because of lack of places. Predictions as to future demand for scholarships stated that nearly three times this number would be excluded. It had been previously reported that early action was required: It is anticipated that the number of Senior candidates will continue to rise with increasing rapidity until a temporary peak is reached in 1964. The effect of this rise can and will be seen in the increasing number of students who qualify for Open Entrance scholarships. Unless the quota of scholarships is increased, more and more eligible students are going to be deprived of a tertiary education. (R&G Report, 1956, p.20) The shortage of university places for all students who had matriculated to university was to become a significant feature in the administrative mechanisms related to the transition from secondary level education to a tertiary level. Guidance and counselling services were to emerge as playing a key governmental role as part of this transition phase in producing the competent vocational personality. This was achieved through the R&G Branch applying technologies of efficiency to the governmental machinery, facilitating the laws of supply and demand by matching and adjusting individual capacities with employment realities. The Commonwealth Scholarship, however, was aimed at lessening inequalities of educational opportunity at the tertiary level and unlike State Government Scholarships, Fellowships and Cadetships which were only open to male candidates of the Senior Public Examination, it was open to both males and females on the basis of scholastic merit (see Australian Archives, Qld, 1950a). This was to be subsequently amended to reflect a decision taken by the Universities Commission in October 1954 on the question of awards of Commonwealth Scholarships to married women. It was decided that there should be no discrimination between single and married persons in the award of Open Entrance Scholarships if applicants are under twenty one years of age. In the case of Second and Later years Scholarships, Mature Age Scholarships and Scholarships for applicants in the 21-25 years age group however, preference is to be given to qualified persons other than married women. (Australian Archives, Qld, 1961) The governmental administration of failure or success within Schemes of equality of opportunity based on merit, whether State or Commonwealth, was thus predicated upon a set of rules. These rules generally existed in harmonious relation to the autonomous cultural norms which also included normatively inscribed - 167 definitions of intelligence and vocational suitability and which largely remained submerged in the day-to-day technical administration of the Scheme. These governmental technologies geared towards efficiency of outcome, such as technologies of individual psychology and the guidance strategy, thus facilitated and enhanced this harmonious relation (5) through the formation of the competent vocational personality properly adjusted to and matched with specific employment realities: It seems to have been more noticeable this year than formerly that students from schools where a guidance programme has operated are able to plan and discuss their courses confidently. Some students from non-guidance schools seem to have done little or no planning in regard to their proposed course of study. As in former years these students have been given aptitude and interest tests and a fairly full interview with a guidance officer. A final decision on a course is deferred until the student has studied careers brochures and faculty handbooks provided by the guidance branch. In 1958, 1,631 Commonwealth Scholar interview were conducted. The number of parents who accompany their sons or daughters and are present at the guidance interview would amount to about 15%. (R&G Report, 1958, p.31) In relation to governmental regulation of success and failure within the administration of the CSS, this floating factor is further demonstrated by a concrete example of a borderline case of a particular application for a Commonwealth Scholarship. This application was made in 1956 by Demetrios (Jim) Fouras, a Greek born person, who had lived in Australia for eight years while his parents continued to live in Greece and who had been in the care of his uncle since his arrival in Australia. He had attended The Southport School, successfully completing the Senior Public Examination with a qualifying mark. The application was rejected as clearly ineligible on residence grounds by the R&G Branch as agents for the CSS. An appeal was made by Mr Fouras' uncle, which was forwarded to the Commonwealth Office of Education in Sydney. The reply was written by Mr J.J. Pratt as Acting Director of the Head Office of the Commonwealth Office of Education which stated that Fouras' case had been considered and it was decided that he was ineligible on residence grounds. A further appeal was made by the Member for Southport, E.J. Gaven, who was strongly critical of the decision. He pointed out that he had been present at Mr Fouras's Naturalisation Ceremony some twelve months earlier, that Mr Fouras had received his call-up for National Service Training, that Jim Fouras had won the respect of every person in Southport, that he was a good Queenslander and a true Australian, and that he had furthered his education by hard work and natural ability: Is he to be asked to stand in the background and be refused acceptance as an Australian while, under the Columbo Plan hundreds of anti-Australians - some of them black - are being brought to this country and educated at the expense of the Australian taxpayers? (Australian Archives, Qld, 1957a) A reply was subsequently received by the Director-General of Education from J.J. Pratt as Acting Director of the Commonwealth Office of Education in Sydney stating that further consideration had been given to Fouras's case in the light of information supplied by Mr Gaven. It was decided that Mr Fouras (6) was eligible to apply for a Commonwealth Scholarship on residence grounds. The autonomous cultural norms which were made visible in terms of the threshold or borderline theme of the governance of the educational ladder, related to both the technical norms embedded in the official discourse of rules of eligibility and the explicitly autonomous cultural norms contained in the unofficial discourse of the White Australia policy implied in the letter by Mr E.J. Gaven, Member for Southport. Both discourses related ambiguously, perhaps even ironically, to the then contemporary allegiance of Australia to Britain which had been encoded into the technical norms, the rules of eligibility: An applicant for a Commonwealth Scholarship will normally be required to have resided continuously in Australia with his parents for a period of three years immediately preceding the date of the commencement of his course. Special provision will be made however to cover British immigrants. (Australian Archives, Qld, 1950) In pursuing the post-war guidance strategy in regard to what the Murray Report (1957) had identified as the extravagant failure of Commonwealth Scholars at a national level, the Commonwealth Office of Education, Sydney in 1958, formally requested the State's Director-General of Education for detailed information on factors which might have contributed to student failures (7). As a consequence of this request, all failing students were interviewed by guidance officers using a Commonwealth Government pro-forma needing to be completed to record the student's plans and the guidance officer's recommendations (R&G Report, 1958, p.5). The guidance officers who carried out the interviews were reported as having gained valuable insight into student problems and accordingly, it was to become part of the standard procedure to interview all first year - 168 failures by the Branch. In addition, guidance services were further extended to all country centres in State High Schools in order to widen contact with potential Commonwealth Scholars and to facilitate the formation of the competent vocational personality: A suitable career choice is more likely to follow from a well developed guidance programme throughout secondary schooling than from an isolated guidance interview at the outset of a University course. In this State the interview with a Commonwealth Scholar is, for many, the last of a series of discussions which began at the end of primary schooling (sic). (Australian Archives, Qld, 1959) The Murray Report (1957) had also recommended the inclusion of counselling technologies into the day-to-day fabric of the university itself where the guidance officer or counsellor could discuss with students difficulties they may experience personally in their own academic studies and which they may be unable, or too diffident, to discuss with members of the teaching staff (Murray Report, 1957, p.41). Guidance services were extended into the Queensland University (8) by the appointment of a Student Counsellor as a means of reducing wastage: Following the interviewing of Scholars who failed in 1957, we have given greater emphasis to a discussion on study habits in the initial interview. A duplicated sheet of suggestions is given to all Scholars. The Queensland University is also providing lectures on this subject during orientation week and the recently appointed Student Counsellor is now available to advise individual students who are having difficulty with their studies. (Australian Archives, Qld, 1959) Also in response to the Commonwealth government's focus on wastage, the research section of the R&G Branch conducted a survey of a follow-up from the results of 3,355 students from the 1956 Scholarship examination who had comprised the upper 15 per cent of the age-group (see R&G Bulletin, 1962). The results of this survey were compared with a similar survey undertaken some years earlier on 773 students who were also in the top 15 per cent of the same age-group: This investigation showed considerable wastage. Since that time there has been a marked increase in the number and percentage of the age-groups over fourteen continuing at school. To determine what effect these changes have had on wastage of our talented youth an investigation of the progress of gifted students from the 1956 Scholarship Examination has been undertaken.... Preliminary analysis has shown a considerable reduction in wastage since 1956. (R&G Report, 1961, pp.19-20) The research focus of the R&G Branch had thus been re-oriented specifically towards governmental problems of efficiency and wastage on the educational ladder from the primary to university levels of education. The guidance problem identified by the Murray Report (1957) was transformed at a national level to become a central plank in the governmental strategy for greater efficiency of the educational ladder leading to university. While the Commonwealth guidance strategy in general terms was by no means new to the Queensland government's approach towards governing the vocational personality, the Commonwealth government was responsible for providing the technical rules for regulating the operations of the CSS. In regard to the Commonwealth Scholar, the concrete beginning of the guidance strategy was the obligatory guidance interview. With every offer of a Commonwealth Scholarship, a covering letter signed by the Officer-in-Charge of the CSS was sent to inform students of their obligations in relation to the Scheme and about Guidance and Counselling Services: You may now be quite decided about the course you are going to undertake. Indeed many of you will have planned your careers in consultation with our guidance officers at primary school and during your secondary school course. Some will still be undecided. I want to point out that there is provided under the Commonwealth Scholarship Scheme a fully qualified staff of professionally trained guidance officers whose services are available to help you to choose your course wisely and to provide assistance and counselling should you seek it during your course. (Pro-forma letter for 1958 signed by W. Wood as Officer-in-Charge of the Commonwealth Scholarship Scheme, Department of Public Instruction, Block A, Technical College Buildings, George Street, Brisbane) The prospective Commonwealth Scholar was then invited to the obligatory interview with a guidance officer. A key feature of the guidance strategy with the Commonwealth Scholar involved the psychological technology of self-regulation. The precise wording of this letter to the Scholar is illustrative of a non-coercive or persuasive discursive register and thus gives a glimpse into this technology of self-regulation: - 169 - You will have the opportunity to discuss these matters more fully when you call for interview. This should be as soon as possible after January 6th.... If your home is in the country you are not required to make a special trip to Brisbane for interview but should call on arrival. (Pro-forma letter for 1958 signed by W. Wood as Officer-in-Charge of the Commonwealth Scholarship Scheme, Department of Public Instruction, Block A, Technical College Buildings, George Street, Brisbane) The purpose of the obligatory guidance interview of the Commonwealth Scholar was to ensure that the scholar had an adequate knowledge of the course chosen and the entitlements and responsibilities of a Commonwealth Scholarship Holder. When the scholar reported for interview a search was first made of the record card files to ascertain whether he had already been tested and interviewed by a guidance officer. A considerable number of scholars came within this category; a renewal of contact with the guidance officer at this stage was considered to have been certainly in the interests of the scholar. Where the scholar had not been previously tested and interviewed, the interview was conducted by one of the guidance officers or by the Principal R&G Officer (R&G Report, 1952, p.13). The general strategy of the guidance interview was to ascertain the suitability of the applicant for the preferred course of study. The guidance strategy was essentially one of narrowing the focus of the student for future studies through an explicit reference to the particular aspects of a vocation or career. When the scholar was well informed on his chosen course and later occupational opportunities, and when his past performances and present attitudes left little doubt as to his suitability for the course, the chief function of the interview was to make clear his obligations under the Scheme. When his purposes were vague and his information was meagre, lengthy guidance interviews were required (R&G Report, 1953, p.13). Vagueness, career indecision or lack of knowledge on vocational opportunities necessitated more testing, more interviews with a regard to clarifying the options in such a way as to strategically ensure that the client was freely choosing. In other words, the student was considered not necessarily to have been freely choosing where such career choice may have coincided in some obliging or accommodating way with parental ambitions. This is illustrated in a newspaper article headed "University failures are appalling waste". The first job of the guidance officer in the interview, it seems, was to help select the proper course of study, so that youngsters might enter the career for which their aptitudes and backgrounds fitted them and not parental ambitions, thus guiding them as self-regulating vocational personalities: This is harder than it sounds. Father is often a trouble. Being more experienced and worldly-wise, he often tries to put his boy into something he regards as "practical" (ie profitable) (sic). Father has every right to be heard, even if he does sometimes try to push a potential poet into industrial chemistry. The student's own wishes are consulted. His wishes are paramount, even though they may not always be completely reliable. There are fads and fashions in the choice of a career. (Richards, 1960) It is appropriate at this point to examine more closely how the guidance strategy employed psychological technologies of self-regulation and how psychological inscriptions of scholastic performance were related to technologies of self-regulation. In concrete terms, the question can be phrased: how did psychological norms and techniques of self-regulation function within the guidance interview? In the majority of cases of scholars attending the guidance interview, a completed cumulative record card was already held by the Branch. The Branch had built up thousands upon thousands of files on individual Queensland school children, each file containing details of scholastic capacity and personality based upon visits to primary and secondary schools, interviews with the children, parents and teachers, examination results, and comments by the Branch's guidance officers (Richards, 1960). This cumulative record card thus represented a measure of efficient administration in implanting psychologically inscribed norms of a self-regulated career path into the guidance interview. The only coercion acknowledged in this administrative process was that the Commonwealth Scholar was required to undergo the obligatory interview with a guidance officer just prior to beginning of their studies. Within this obligatory framework of participation in the guidance interview for the CSS, the guidance officer would thus formulate the psychological norms particularised for the individual student and present them to the scholar in terms of realistic choices, offering strategies of adjustment to those choices. Persuasion rather than coercion in the form of the non-directive techniques of counselling thus guided the student towards the career path, representing psychologically inscribed norms of a realistic choice. A successful outcome of the interview was claimed in most cases: Since the guidance interview is in no instance directive, there are a few students who persist in - 170 - undertaking a course manifestly unsuited to them. Such students who have difficulty in organising their studies or in adjusting themselves to the University environment do return to the office to see the guidance officers from time to time. It can be stated that the guidance provided in this way has meant the difference between successful adjustment, with consequent satisfactory completion of the year, and discontinuation of studies. (R&G Report, 1954, pp.12-3) These non-directive techniques that were available to the guidance practitioner thus featured as part of a range of techniques of self-regulation and persuasion, where the expected outcome of the interviewing process was a self-directed compliance with various psychologically inscribed norms embedded in the matching attributes of the particular personality and career derived from the broader social, economic and educational culture. Apart from the strategic and economic benefit of governing the educational ladder through technologies that might reduce wastage of talent, such techniques of self-regulation also eliminated worries about manipulation. However, while these psychological techniques of self-regulation did not direct or impose (9), they operated within a normative framework, psychologically inscribed, wherein probabilities of future success or failure would float in relation to the student's participation in terms of resistance or adjustment. In other words, resistance on the part of the student or the parent would be troublesome for future success and adjustment would signal a reduction of the probabilities of failure. Research into wastage by the R&G Branch identified questions involving the technology of pastoral care and the family as related and important factors in the successful outcome of the Commonwealth Scholar's university studies. There were parents of the Commonwealth scholars who were concerned about the student's plans and who asked to be present at the guidance interview: Procedure varies, but it is felt that, whether the parent is a graduate or lacking in knowledge of higher education, the insight and co-operation gained during the interview enhances the student's prospects of success. The interview is normally concluded by emphasising the fact that we are personally concerned and interested in the student's success and happiness, that we regard ourselves as responsible for assisting him during the next three or four years, and that we would like him to call in from time to time to tell us of his progress particularly if difficulties are experienced which may be affecting his application to study. (R&G Report, 1957, p.24) This reference to a personal concern on the part of the guidance officer was part of the general guidance strategy that involved clinical techniques of pastoral care. Governmental pastoral care through clinical guidance in the form of supportive therapy had generally been available at the interview for both Commonwealth Scholars and fellowship holders. However, it was suggested in the 1957 report that such clinical or pastoral counselling was not familiar to the student. The vocational guidance strategy which included pastoral care thus presented certain problems and represented somewhat of a dilemma for the Branch. On the one hand, it was suggested, there was a considerable lack of knowledge and awareness of guidance and counselling practices in general among the main body of university students, but the student was in some way reluctant to participate in this governmental form of pastoral care: It cannot be claimed that our guidance service is adequately meeting the needs of students who strike difficulty, intellectual or emotional in origin, during their course. The Queensland University student is far from being counselling-conscious. (R&G Report, 1957, p.25) On the other hand, it was suggested that in order to increase awareness of the pastoral aspects of guidance and counselling practices, it would have been necessary to publicise the existence of such practices. However, it was considered as having many obvious disadvantages to publicise the guidance and counselling services which emphasised the guidance officers' role in providing pastoral-caring support at the guidance interview. The problem was expressed in such terms as giving such service undue and probably undesirable publicity. As a result of this unresolved dilemma, of not publicising this clinical or pastoral aspect of the guidance practice, There are, therefore, students suffering, for example, from anxiety states and disorders whom we hear of for the first time following failure in examination and request for special consideration. (R&G Report, 1957, p.25) Failure in the university examinations had its administrative responses through a continuing review of the variables used in the predictions of success and failure contained in the psychological matching technology: Every effort is made to ensure that the guidance staff is kept fully informed on university courses and occupations that may be entered therefrom. Periodically throughout the year, deans and university - 171 - professors addressed the staff of this Branch and answer questions on these topics. The results in all courses and faculties are analysed so that guidance officers are fully aware of the varying "casualty rates". These analyses, too, suggest the courses on which discussion is required with university authorities. (R&G Report, 1957, p.25) Even before the implementation of the Murray Report (1957), the post-war guidance strategy focussing on the whole personality had thus been able to demonstrate its utility to government, both State and Commonwealth, in the minimisation of wastage of talent. In the evaluation of governmental technologies, the success of the guidance interview came to be measured by the minimum number of students leaving the course and the maximum number performing well within their course: The practice of interviewing fellowship holders throughout the year proved so successful that only three students were unable to continue with their courses. In 1959, 49 Special Teacher Scholarships were awarded, 33 in Arts, 14 in Science and 2 in Commerce. Four of these students were transferred to Fellowships at the end of the year. These students were interviewed at the commencement of their University course by guidance officers of the Branch. In general their results at the end of the year were outstandingly good. (R&G Report, 1959, p.3) As a consequence of the implementation of the recommendations of the Murray Report (1957), the notion of adjustment to university life emerged in the 1960s as a central feature in the prediction of success of the university student. It thus played a key role in the techniques of the counselling interview. The 1965 report stated: Of the 2,016 scholars who called at the Commonwealth Scholarship Scheme office, 1115 were interviewed by guidance officers in relation to planning their courses and adjustment to University studies. Interviews were held also with suspended scholars who had failed in one year of their course. During interviews with failing scholars, a very searching enquiry was made to determine the reasons for failure and every effort was made to provide guidance and counselling which will ensure better adjustment and more efficient study methods in subsequent years. (R&G Report, 1965, p.6) The counselling of students who had experienced difficulties in their course of study or in their adjustment to university life was thus related to the prevention of subsequent failure (R&G Report, 1965, p.22). The 1967 report summarised this aspect of the guidance interview as follows: In recent years the emphasis in work with Commonwealth Scholars has changed as a result of the rise in academic quality of students gaining a scholarship. Very few scholars in 1967 faced failure in their University studies for lack of scholastic ability and the main form of discussion with most of them at the initial interview was the suitability of their choice in the light of their interests and ambitions. The counselling of Commonwealth scholars has become more concerned with adjustment, efficient study habits and higher aspiration in academic fields. (G&SE Report, 1967, p.23) By the mid-1960s, guidance officers were being briefed by the Commonwealth University Scholarship Scheme Office on statistics of pass and failure rates in the various faculties and their correlation with senior results. This background information, it was suggested (G&SE Report, 1966, p.6 & p.25; R&G Report, 1965, p.22), combined with guidance and counselling techniques, becoming an important factor in assisting Open Entrance scholars to choose courses of study where they might have had reasonable prospects of success: Information gained in the interviewing of scholars throughout their courses and from the analysis of results in the various University courses has been of considerable value in the guidance of Senior students in the schools. The guidance on this level has become better informed and more effective in preparing students for the transition to University work. (G&SE Report, 1967, p.23) The year 1967, however, saw the end of the role of the State guidance officer assisting the Commonwealth Scholar as part of the CSS. The Scheme was returned to the Commonwealth Department of Education and Science at the end of 1967. This year also saw the use of the computer for the first time in producing a order of merit list of all Open Entrance applicants. The list was used to print the offers of scholarship and enrolment vouchers for successful applicants and the advice notices for unsuccessful applicants. Administrative innovations and techniques were rapidly enhancing efficiency measures designed to facilitate - 172 the matching of the bright and talented with the most suitable tertiary course. STATE SECONDARY GUIDANCE In the early years of the R&G Branch, resources had been strategically located at the primary level of education. Secondary level guidance, however, was included in the guidance programme, to facilitate the shaping of the vocational personality within the secondary level of education being part of a longer term strategy aimed at bringing a child-centred pedagogy and the technologies of individual psychology into the mainstream of education. These beginnings of the limited incursions into the secondary level appeared in the form of the administration of a battery of psychological tests to sub-junior students in all of the Brisbane metropolitan State secondary schools - the Brisbane State High School, State Commercial High School, Industrial High School and Wynnum High and Intermediate School. Results from these psychological tests were entered on cumulative record cards for each individual student and were held at the R&G Branch's office. These cards had already been introduced for guidance purposes for students referred to the office by parents or high school principals. The Senior Guidance Officer also visited the Industrial High School one day each week during the period from July to November for the purpose of providing guidance to all school leavers who had requested it. Several films on occupational topics were shown and interviews were arranged for parents of school leavers seeking guidance. During July that year the Senior Guidance Officer also visited the first non-metropolitan high schools - the Nambour Rural and High School - for a period of 5 days for the purpose of administering a scholastic aptitude test to sub-Junior students. Information on careers was also provided to students by group talks and during interviews at these schools (R&G Report, 1949, p.4). From 1949 to 1964, the increase in the number of students tested in the secondary system paralleled the general expansion of the number of students at secondary level. By 1952 with the opening of the Cavendish Road State High School, the number of Brisbane metropolitan State secondary schools had increased to five. In the following year, the demand on guidance resources significantly increased due to a change of policy with regard to guidance under the CES where Commonwealth vocational guidance officers were not to make appointments for children attending State schools (R&G Report, 1953, p.1). During that same year and in response to repeated representations from Maryborough and Bundaberg, visits of one week's duration were made by guidance officers to the State High and Intermediate schools in these two centres for the first time. However, as discussed in a previous chapter, the germination strategy had deliberately limited the provision of guidance services to commitments to the metropolitan area (see R&G Report, 1953, p.2). In regard to these particular country visits, significant efficiencies were achieved in the rationing of scarce guidance resources directed towards the matching of students with the most suitable course. These efficiencies were aided by careful planning, the co-operation of the principals and well compiled record cards (R&G Report, 1953, pp.2-3). During the following year, three more new secondary schools were opened at Banyo, Salisbury and Indooroopilly in the Brisbane metropolitan area and had begun to receive guidance services from the outset. Guidance Officers were reported (R&G Report, 1954, p.4) to have contributed towards the initial success of the new high schools by their work in the feeder primary schools. Guidance was thus now being presented as the technology of efficiency in guiding the individual student along the educational ladder to higher education: The establishment of suburban high schools has facilitated the organisation of guidance as a continuous process, beginning in the primary school and continued through the secondary school to the point of entry to either tertiary education or employment. The guidance officer's itinerary consists mainly of a suburban secondary school and its "feeder" primary schools. During the student's schooling, advice is available to him from an officer who has been in contact with him for a number of years. (R&G Report, 1955, p.3) The main instruments in the guidance technology of matching students with the appropriate academic and vocational streams within the school system were the group test and the student and parent interview. On a state wide basis during 1955, for example, guidance officers tested over 1,800 high school students, held approximately the same number of interviews with those students and parents, and gave over 40 group talks on careers. In policy terms, however, guidance at the secondary level remained as a lower priority than guidance at the primary level until the implementation of the Murray Report (1957) in the late 1950s (10). The subsequent years from the early 1960s saw a further extension into the secondary area, not simply in terms of numbers of schools visited, students tested and so on, but in the growing acceptance and influences of psychological techniques in the administration of secondary schooling. More time was now being allotted to - 173 work in secondary schools, partly due to the increased number of students, but mainly due to requests from teachers, students and parents. Guidance work was firmly established, particularly in the suburban high schools where the guidance officer was regarded as an important staff member. Many school prospectuses referred to guidance as an important school service. Emphasis was given to the early examination of student failures and the investigation of cases of problem behaviour referred by the Principal (R&G Report, 1957, p.3). Changing priority of resource allocation between the primary and secondary levels was, however, becoming evident by the early 1960s. Some requests for guidance interviews received from country centres to include eighth grade primary school students in the secondary guidance programme had to be refused for the first time (R&G Report, 1961, p.4). This increasing demand for guidance interviews was due to the shifting of priorities within the secondary school. A specific policy decision had been made to give priority to parent and student interviews at the Senior and Junior levels which in turn resulted in a large unsatisfied demand for Form II (grade eight) interviews in country schools (R&G Report, 1962, p.14). What was the underlying basis for such significantly increasing demand upon the limited resources available to the R&G Branch? In part, these demands on government resources appeared to be a reflection of the broader economic crisis in the early 1960s which saw the near toppling of the Menzies-led conservative government at the Federal level. Additional pressures were being placed upon guidance services during the early 1960s, particularly in relation to country schools due to what was suggested as being a difficult employment situation at the time. In almost every country high school visited, considerable parent apprehension was evident regarding the non-availability of employment for their children leaving school. After some hundreds of interview with country parents, every guidance officer had become increasingly aware of the economic and social problems that had arisen and which would have been aggravated if the numbers of unemployed teenager boys and girls were to increase (R&G Report, 1962, p.14). The employment crisis had a three fold effect on the demands and expectations of vocational guidance and highlights for our purposes the function of the governmental officer discussed in previous chapters. Firstly, it placed the guidance officer in a new spotlight by parents demanding explanations and solutions for their children at or nearing the traditional point of exit from the education system into the job market. Secondly, it created an unprecedented demand for selection reports which were perceived by parents as a reasonable and possible option for increasing the prospects of securing the job for their children. Thirdly, it significantly increased the retention of students going onto the senior years who would normally have found employment. There was, in effect, a potentially explosive situation in the social fabric that was considered to reflect on the adequacies or otherwise of the education system and its relation to the employment market. Guidance Officers were now being called on to explain, to manage and to contain this situation within the resources available to them. I will deal briefly with each of these factors in turn. The first factor, involving a new spotlight on the guidance officer demanding explanations and solutions specifically for country students and parents, is illustrated in the 1962 Annual Report as follows: An increasing number of parents of last year's Junior students expressed varying degrees of anger, resentment or hostility to the difficulty they found in securing employment for their children. They stated quite strongly that if a boy secures a good industrial Junior pass he should be able to find placement in a technical trade of his choice; that if a girl successfully completes a commercial Junior course she should be able to find suitable employment in an office position in a commercial sphere; and that a boy who has completed an academic Junior should be readily absorbed in clerical employment. (R&G Report, 1962, pp.14-15) It was also reported that even before the guidance interview of the student and his parent could be begun, the guidance officer was obliged to enter into lengthy discussions regarding the demands of employers. Parents, it was observed, seemed reluctant to accept the changing occupational anticipations that then applied to applicants for positions. On the part of the guidance officer, considerable tact and patience was suggested as being necessary to discuss the changing standards with a resentful parent (R&G Report, 1962, p.15). A policy decision was taken in 1962 to further re-allocate guidance resources towards the exit points of the secondary education system, the hotspot of discontent. Priority of parent and student interview was thus given to the Senior and Junior forms. This then resulted in an increased and large unsatisfied demand in the non-Brisbane metropolitan area of Queensland for Form II (grade eight) guidance interviews: At Mount Isa only twenty-seven out of 158, at Mount Morgan 0 out of seventy eight and Warwick thirty-two out of 138 Form II students could be granted individual interviews. At Gympie High and Intermediate School, where only seventeen out of 234 Form II students could be granted individual interviews, and at Maryborough Boy's High and Intermediate School where only twenty-seven out of - 174 - 164 Form II boys could be interviewed individually, afternoon or evening meetings of parents of Form II students were arranged by the school Principals. (R&G Report, 1962, p.14) A partial solution to this unmet demand for individual interviews at the country primary schools was to expand the use of the group session instead of as before providing individual sessions. A guidance officer would address each group of parents and explain to parents how they could best help their children to plan their further education and their careers. The guidance officer would then outline the range of secondary courses and suggestions were made to assist parents and students in the wise selection of the appropriate course at high school (R&G Report, 1962, p.14). In addition to the group session, the resources of the local community were beginning to emerge as part of a strategy of efficiency for communicating occupational information to parents and their children. The birth of what was to become in later years the state wide regionalised organisation of Careers Markets still appeared in its gestation period (11): As in former years, evening parent and student meetings, arranged by the local Rotary Clubs, were addressed by guidance officers at Caloundra and Nambour. Experience gained over many years with such addresses to parents has consistently revealed that: (a) the parents are highly appreciative of the addresses given, and attendances are large; (b) a number of parents approach the guidance officer after the address to gain specific information regarding "my child", as distinct from the group; and (c) however proficient the speaker and however informative the address, group talks to parents cannot provide as much effectiveness as the individual interview. (R&G Report, 1962, p.14) The second factor regarding selection reports relates to arrangements made by the R&G Branch some years earlier with some industrial and commercial firms to supply them with selection reports for applicants for apprenticeships and clerical position. These arrangements were later extended to include full selection reports on applicants at Senior level for cadetships. Right from the early beginnings of the R&G Branch, vocational selection had been part of the operations of the Branch: During 1949 vocational selection has been carried out at the request of a number of employers. Main Roads Commission, City Electric Light, Shell Co,. Broken Hill Pty. Co. Ltd., and Q.A.H.T.A.S. are among the organisations that have sought our assistance in the selection of employees. This service in addition to its value to the employer and the youth has the advantage of keeping the guidance officers closely in touch with employment conditions. (R&G Report, 1949, p.5) In regard to vocational selection during the early years of the operations of the R&G Branch, close contact had been maintained with the placement officer of the JEB. Between the two agencies, the JEB and the Branch, guidance and placement services were mostly provided to primary and secondary schools in the metropolitan area not visited by guidance officers. This included both State and private schools. The Apprenticeship Office referred for report a number of apprentices who were making poor progress in their apprenticeship courses. A full investigation into the lack of progress was carried out in each case with reports being made offering recommendations for the Secretary and Welfare Officer of the Apprenticeship Office. Employers who sought the assistance from the R&G Branch in the selection of apprentices and junior assistants were provided with detailed guidance reports on particular applicants: This service is provided mainly in the interests of the young people concerned to ensure that they enter careers suited to their abilities and interests. It enables guidance officers to keep in touch with employment conditions and to carry out following studies on the effectiveness of the guidance given. (R&G Report, 1953, p.3) Throughout the 1950s, requests for reports had been considered as representing an excellent research field for follow-up studies to enhance the techniques of guidance and as providing an important and continuing source of knowledge about general employment opportunities for school leavers. However, by 1960, requests for vocational selection reports reached the maximum that could be handled by the available guidance staff. During late 1961, employers throughout Queensland were reported as being embarrassed by the large number of applicants for positions. More and more employers were thus turning to guidance officers seeking any method of assistance to solve their staff selection problems. Also students and parents were becoming aware through press advertisements, that guidance reports were being supplied to some firms. In their eagerness to gain some advantage for their children seeking employment, parents were requesting written guidance reports to be used as references in their search for employment. The resultant flood of written and telephone requests for guidance reports was considered to have occupied an altogether disproportionate time devoted to a facet of guidance that was never intended to be a major activity of the Branch (R&G Report, 1961, p.6). - 175 - The third factor related to the increased demand for guidance services concerned the question of the retention of weak students in the secondary school system. As we will recall, the main objective of guidance in primary schools had been stated in 1949 as being to ensure that a wise decision was made concerning further education or vocation at the end of compulsory education in the primary school: Educational and vocational preferences should be realistic rather than romantic (R&G Report, 1949, p.2). Over a decade later, this same adjustment to reality principle was still in operation. In the secondary school context, the guidance objective was now being expressed as the need to re-adjust the expectations of scholastically weak students and their parents away from pursuing academic studies towards encouraging these students to move into post-Junior vocational courses. In country centres and to a lesser extent in the Brisbane metropolitan area, students who had been unable to find suitable employment at Junior level returned to school to pursue sub-Senior studies. Accordingly, there had been a disproportionate increase in the number of sub-Senior students. As many of those students had poor Junior passes, they were presenting educational problems for their teachers. More often than in former years, Form V (or sub-senior) students and their parents sought advice from visiting guidance officers. With an increasing percentage of weak students proceeding to Senior studies, guidance interviews at that level with both parents and students were thus considered to have become increasingly difficult thus requiring more time than has been formerly allocated (R&G Report, 1962, p.15 & p.17). Many of these students and their parents had, it appears, put their faith in the false assumption that if a boy completed his Senior studies he would thereby have qualified for a professional position at Senior level or would have proceeded successfully to a University degree course. It was noted in the report that some northern schools where boys with consistently low marks in term examinations had planned to proceed to degrees in such faculties as engineering, medicine or science. The economic crisis of general unemployment at this time thus had generated the non-academic and problem student, the vocational personality ambitious for a higher education but who inhibited the smooth functioning of the educational ladder leading towards university studies and professional employment: So long as the employment situation remains difficult the number of scholastically weak students will increase. The interviewing of those students and their parents becomes a protracted process. Considerable counselling skill and time-consuming discussion is required to re-adjust the student and parents' aims before vocational and educational guidance can begin. Interviews with "problem students" at Form VI level can not be effectively conducted in an allotted half-hour period. (R&G Report, 1962, p.16) This problem personality was also gender specific in accordance with the societal and cultural norms prevailing at that time and was thus adjusted or matched in accordance with the reality principle arising from the psychologically inscribed norms. Many of those students were regarded as scholastically incapable of coping with academic subjects at Senior level. The logical answer was thought to lie in the provision of post-Junior vocational courses. Two such courses were indicated: (i) commercial, for boys and girls intending to prepare for entry for office positions; and (ii) industrial, to prepare boys for entry to the technical trades and intending to proceed to certificate or diploma studies (R&G Report, 1962, p.16). There were also many boys who, while considered capable enough to complete Senior, were not proficient enough to succeed in engineering degrees at the University. It was observed that they would make ideal technician level material. Their general attitude was that they were reluctant to commence employment after Senior in the trades apprenticeships and they were unwilling to embark on part-time courses three or four evenings per week for five, six or seven years to qualify for Certificates or Diplomas: "Technicians are needed in industry. There seems a very good case for the provision of full-time studies over one or two years at Technical Colleges to complete part of the Certificate and Diploma courses" (R&G Report, 1962, p.16). The employment crisis in the early 1960s thus highlights for our purposes the central role of the guidance officer to the shaping of the vocational personality through both the psychological technologies of inscription, calculation and persuasion in matching and adjusting the student to the culturally encoded reality factors of scholastic aptitudes and related employment. The pressure on guidance resources that had generally been building since the late 1950s resulted in organisational changes within the Queensland State Education Department. In December 1965, the two main sections of the R&G Branch were divided to form two separate Branches - the G&SE Branch and the R&C Branch. The need for this organisational change was attributed to the amazing increase in the volume and diversity of the activities of the R&G Branch. The reorganisation of the Branch was viewed as another step forward in the challenge to keep pace with the increased rate of change in education in Queensland. The R&G Branch had grown since its inception in 1949 - 176 from a staff of nine to a staff of sixty-five in 1965 which included staff responsible for the CSS. The new G&SE Branch thus formed in 1965 was to be responsible for the provision of psychological services virtually to all children from pre-school years to University, but predominantly within the State school system. To nonState schools throughout Queensland, by this time, the Commonwealth Department of Labour and National Service's VGO's were providing vocational guidance along similar lines as the State G&SE Branch. With the transfer of Grade 8 to the secondary school in 1964, there was a need for a complete reappraisal of the testing programmes that had been targeted at the primary level of education. The guidance programme had previously been designed to assist those students intent on entering secondary schools to select the course most suitable to their needs, abilities and interests. The previous Grade 8 battery was then considered neither suitable nor necessary at grade seven level. Thus the year 1963 witnessed the birth of the TOLA which was to be administered to all grade seven pupils throughout Queensland. The first year of the transfer of grade 8 to the high school presented a major problem facing eighth grade students and their parents towards the end of the school year. This problem, identified as the selection of ninth grade courses, was further complicated by the introduction of a new terminology in science and mathematical subjects. Many parents were also confused by the subject content of courses, some of which were terminal at Junior level and some which provided a basis for students to proceed to matriculation. In all schools visited by guidance officers in country areas and all metropolitan schools, every student's proposed ninth grade course was looked at by the principal, the class teacher and the guidance officer. This evaluation was made in relation to his scholastic record and data entered upon his school record card. This card was now transferred to the high school and included the new TOLA score resulting from the October test at grade seven in the primary school. Students whose plans appeared unsuitable or unrealistic were invited with their parents for interview with the guidance officer. This year again there has been so much systematic planning, care and attention given by principals, class teachers and guidance officers to the planning of ninth grade courses for eighth grade students that there should be the very minimum number of students who find themselves in unsuitable courses next year. (R&G Report, 1965, p.2). The increasing demand for post-compulsory education resulted in an intensification of the necessity to prioritise educational resources utilising the guidance programme. The science of psychological testing remained central to the strategy of the guidance programme during this period. By the end of the 1960s, psychological testing had become routinised and was being implemented within the secondary schools as a governmental technology of an economy of scale in the form of mass production: See at one stage there I was handling five state high schools a week. I started off by doing three a week and I must have been reasonably successful, because I remember these two other high schools asked if they could have my services. And so being keen, I suppose, young and keen at that stage, I went with them. But it was like mass production.... When I first went into the secondary schools we were still very heavily into testing, and I remember at the beginning of each year we tested all the year eights. In the very early days of guidance, when I first went in we did also mass trips to all the Brisbane State high schools. So for example, we went to the Brisbane State High school, a half a dozen of us (GO's) would go out to the school. In the morning, we'd test year eights, mark those tests enter them on the record cards, and eleven and twelves in the afternoon doing the same thing. (Interview with Mr Frank Hughes, 1993) In the re-deployment of guidance resources in the Queensland state schools from 1964, there appeared not only a radical adjustment of resources away from the primary to the secondary levels, but also a shift in emphasis towards the secondary-tertiary interface. In both metropolitan and country high schools, priority of interviews was given now in this order: (i) Senior students; (ii) Juniors proceeding to Senior; (iii) Students at any level with educational or behaviour problems; (iv) School leavers at any level wanting purely vocational guidance; (v) Eighth grade students who had indicated apparently unsuitable choices for ninth grade courses (R&G Report, 1965). In addition, as demand for vocational guidance was increasing across the State towards the end of the 1960s, priority of guidance activities had to shift towards mass psychological testing. In regard to country visits to secondary schools, the guidance programme consisted mainly of testing where the guidance interview did not re-emerge as an integral part of the guidance programme until the early 1970s: In the country trips we went up to Cairns and Townsville and those sort of places. And what we'd do we'd go from here to Cairns on the Sunlander. We'd work our way, we'd do the Atherton Tableland. They were great trips, and we'd work our way down the coast on the Sunlander... The trips were - 177 - testing, yes. We did some interviewing later, but in the early days in 68 and 69, mainly 69, it was basically testing. That was for all the grade eights, aptitude tests and grade elevens. We'd do what we called word knowledge, reading comprehension, speed and accuracy testing, reasoning and short hand ability. (Interview with Mr Frank Hughes, 1993) The shift of guidance resources towards the secondary-tertiary interface in the early to mid 1960s marked the beginnings of a new era in the provision of guidance services in Queensland. This new era was paralleled in the broader context of Australian education by the commencement of a second tier of the tertiary level education system. This became known as the binary tertiary education system due to the formation of the Australian CAE's representing the applied and technical aspects of a tertiary level education. In Queensland, up until 1965 there had only been one university, the University of Queensland, which at that time was situated at St Lucia in Brisbane with an off-campus facility at George St in Brisbane City and a college in Townsville. From the perspective of guidance and counselling practices operating within the Queensland State Education Department, there were now two choices for the scholastically fit student intending to move into tertiary level education - the University of Queensland and the Institute of Technology with campuses in Brisbane, Toowoomba and Rockhampton. In Queensland in January 1965, there came into being the Queensland Institute of Technology as well as the Commonwealth Technical and Advanced Scholarships. The R&G Branch perceived that there was a gap in the information needs of secondary school students and accordingly produced an information booklet. This booklet contained information on courses at the Institute of Technology, which included campuses at this time at George St in central Brisbane, Toowoomba and Rockhampton and was aimed at parents and their children who had only a limited knowledge of the new technical education (12). The Institute courses were described in the Branch's annual report as being designed to produce technicians and technologists for commerce and industry and as providing a long sought after solution to both an occupational and an educational vacuum that had proved a guidance dilemma for many years. This dilemma was formulated in terms of the intellectual capacity of students for post-secondary level education. The intellectual capacity for tertiary education was specifically described in terms of fitness for academic pursuits: The availability of such courses has given scope to the "second twenty percent" of the high school population. For years, this group had created very difficult problems for the guidance officer in the school. They were not quite academically fit to proceed to degree studies at a University, but they were capable of further study after leaving secondary school. (R&G Report, 1965, p.3) During these embryonic years of a restructuring of the tertiary education system in Queensland, the process of determining these second twenty percent who could be pronounced academically fit appears to be derived from the amazingly intense and voluminous activity of guidance officers in the area of testing, in considering the student record and in interviewing parents and students. In practically all country high schools visited during 1965, the guidance officer in charge, at the request of the principal, addressed the assembled staff on the interpretation of data entered on the school record cards: There appears to be a growing awareness among teachers of the value of the cards in the understanding of students' abilities, interests, aptitudes and educational potential. It is certain that more young teachers are using record cards purposefully and seeking discussion with guidance officers regarding students in their classes who present educational or behaviour problems. (R&G Report, 1965. p.5) In regard to the Guidance Programme with Senior and Junior Students, the interest displayed by students and their parents in courses at the Institute of Technology was described in the annual reports as being remarkable. Few students and parents were considered by the guidance officers to have had much knowledge about such courses. Considerable time by guidance officers was devoted to giving information about the courses available at the Institute of Technology. The availability of these courses gave new scope and variety to the talks and removed the embarrassment that had always existed in answering the educational and vocational questions by borderline University aspirants (R&G Report, 1965, p.5). This notion of embarrassment emerged as another threshold theme relating to the administrative priorities of educational resources in the face of an excessive demand for those resources. How do educational administrators draw the line between those who should go to university and those who do not, between those who want to go to university and those who cannot? What were the governmental technologies instrumental in drawing this line in such a way as to minimise any possible embarrassment, any possible rupture to the tranquillity of the explanatory powers of the laws of supply and demand, or simply to explain - 178 and contain? As discussed, the construction of a borderline or threshold highlights not only the problematic dimension to the governance of human subjectivity within the educational field, but the contingent basis of those technologies floating in relation to cultural norms and historical determinations. This embarrassment reported by the R&G Branch was thus a measure of the capacity of the scientific technology of individual psychology to address the governmental problem of supply and demand factors of higher education, by floating the psychological inscriptions of the whole personality in harmonious relation to the autonomous cultural norms, standards, circumstances and values in the broader society. Within post-war guidance practices, psychological inscriptions of the bright and the dull children had become a key technical dimension in shaping the post-war vocational personality. These particular psychological inscriptions of the whole personality represent the capacity of individual psychology to transform cultural factors into technical inscriptions of a natural bent and talent. This natural bent factor continues to underscore the technical distribution of a scholastic fitness for higher education and the capacity of this psychological technology to float the natural brightness of the whole personality in relation to the administration of scarce educational resources of tertiary level places (13). In other words, this technical capacity by individual psychology to transform natural talent into a rank of scholastic merit would contribute towards the rationale for abandoning the subject-centred classroom moderated by the public and external examination in favour of a child-centred pedagogy. The beginnings of a new sector of tertiary education (the Institutes of Technology) were thus sufficient to provide the secondary GO's as the front-line agents of government policy the necessary respite to further scientifically explain and contain the situation. They were able to contain an expanding ambition for higher education by explaining the distributional rewards as a function of technical and psychological inscriptions of a scholastic fitness or a natural talent. This convergence of experimental psychology and experimental education (see Cunningham, 1923) would represent a radical alternative to the subject-centred curriculum moderated by public scrutiny through the external content saturated public examination. This emerging capacity to calculate scientifically, measure and inscribe the natural bent of the vocational personality would come to provide, as we will see in the final chapter, the necessary leverage for the Radford Committee to transform the ethical and pedagogic focus of the classroom from being subject-centred to child-centred. COMMONWEALTH SECONDARY GUIDANCE Up until the late 1950s, the Commonwealth government had been referring school children to the State R&G Branch for vocational guidance. This was about to change due to the recommendations contained in the Murray Report (1957) aimed at reducing the extravagant failure and wastage of talent from the educational ladder leading towards the university. In September 1957, Prime Minister Menzies had been presented with the report of the Murray Committee, which he had appointed to investigate the future structure, organisation and function of the universities in Australia and to indicate ways in which universities might be organised so as to ensure that their long-term pattern of development was in the best interests of the nation (see Murray Report, 1957). This report identified what it termed the waste to the nation of children of high ability. The report stated that there was a large number of children who were being lost to secondary education through leaving school early, and that among these there must have been large numbers of intellectually able pupils. It was considered probable that among those who did complete their secondary schooling not all who were suitably qualified to do so were able to go on to the university. But, it was observed, there was no evidence to determine precise numbers (Murray Report, 1957, p.64). The report also identified the student guidance problem as students going to university with little knowledge of the suitability of alternative courses for their particular inclinations and aptitudes, and without any clear idea why they had selected one course instead of another (Murray Report, 1957, p.64). The most disturbing aspect of university education in its actual working, the Report stated in its "Summary and Conclusions", was the high failure rate: Such a high failure rate is a national extravagance and can be ill afforded. Extensive consideration of the problem clearly indicates that there is no one cause and we have discussed various relevant factors such as the previous preparation of students, the gap between school and university, the pressure of curricula, teaching methods, inadequate staffing and the absence of student guidance. (Murray Report, 1957, p.121) In many instances, the report stated, the problem of unsuitability of selection of university courses lay with the parent whose ambition for their child did not take account of the natural aptitude of the child to succeed in - 179 that course (Murray Report, 1957, p.64). Thus the family and the school represented the central institutions through which the guidance problem would need to be addressed. The report of the Murray Committee was presented to Parliament in November 1957. Among the major recommendations that the government accepted was the extension of the Commonwealth's assistance to universities to include capital expenditure and the establishment of an Australian Universities Commission (I. Birch, "Commonwealth Participation in Education, 1901-1964", in Birch and Smart, 1977, p.20). This commission was formed with maximum haste immediately addressing the guidance problem. On 24th December that year, the Director of the Commonwealth Office of Education, Mr W.J. Weeden (14), wrote to the Director-General of Education in Queensland: The Universities Commission has been considering how wastage among University students holding Commonwealth Scholarships might be reduced. It realises that there are many factors contributing to failure, but considers that one of the most effective ways of reducing the failure rated is the provision of an adequate guidance service. (Australian Archives, Qld, 1957b) The guidance problem was in effect to be transformed into a long-term comprehensive or wide-ranging guidance strategy by the Commonwealth government designed to increase governmental efficiencies in managing the educational ladder leading to university education and professional employment. The Commonwealth's guidance strategy was twofold. Firstly, it set the conditions of a minimum guidance service to the State Education Departments responsible for the administration of the CSS (see Australian Archives, Qld, 1957b). Secondly, the Commonwealth focused on those sections of the educational ladder leading towards universities that were not being specifically catered for by the State Government's agency, the R&G Branch. These were contained in the Independent or private school sector. Included as part of this two fold guidance strategy by the Commonwealth was the aim to facilitate community involvement by drawing on the expertise and knowledge embedded in the complex fabric of educational, professional, and community organisations, the central community activity of which was to become in later years, the regionally organised Careers Market. This guidance strategy was directed at transforming existing vocational guidance, counselling and placement practices within the broad framework of the CES. These were explained in some detail in official Departmental internal manuals produced to assist the DEO and other Officers of the Department such as Youth Employment Officers in their work with school groups, young people, parent associations and teaching staffs who had a direct concern with the preparation of young people for occupational choice and others with a special interest in youth employment. In the interests of these young people and of the prosperity and welfare of the nation as a whole, all young people leaving school should start work in occupations which would make the best use of their education, aptitudes, skills and interests, and in jobs in which they could be happy and successful. This process should not be left to chance, otherwise, too many young people could drift into dead-end jobs or jobs with which they quickly become dissatisfied. This was considered not only bad for young people themselves but for the community as a whole: We seek to ensure that school leavers - and other young people too - are provided with the employment information and counselling they need, and where necessary expert vocational guidance, so that the right choice of a career will be made. (Australian Archives, Qld, 1957, p.14) Vocational guidance was firstly outlined in the strategic sense, in the widest sense of the term as a process that started within the family, with parents who first encouraged the young child to acquire skills that subsequently would become vocationally important. The process included the central role of the school, with teachers providing educational guidance. The actual vocational guidance practice within the CES at that time, however, functioned in the narrower or technical sense of the term. This practice covered the administration of a number of standard psychological tests by a VGO who was employed as a professional psychologist (15). The tests administered by the VGO were designed to provide an assessment of various aspects of intelligence, aptitudes and interests relevant to employment. After the testing, an individual interview would be held with the young person and with one or more of the parents where practicable. The VGO would then discuss the information so obtained by psychological testing, the young person's background, education and school performance, hobbies, interests and personality factors. The approach was non-coercive or non-directive where the attempt was made to give the young person an understanding of himself in relation to the type of work which would have seemed to the VGO to be appropriate. The decision, however, was entirely left with the young person: Thus vocational guidance is not as is sometimes wrongly thought simply a matter of giving "some I.Q. tests", though tests may be used as part of the process of obtaining relevant information about the individual; neither does vocational guidance as practised by the CES involve the Vocational - 180 - Guidance Officer in instructing the client as to what he or she should or should not do. It is not to be confused with psycho-analysis, psycho-therapy or such useless practices as bump reading, palmistry, and the like. (Australian Archives, Qld, 1959a, p.27) It was the DEO who was not employed as a psychologist, however, who had been primarily responsible for the careers counselling and placement function within the CES: The counselling and placement service provided by the CES for school leavers can only be fully effective if the young people and their parents have given careful consideration, well in advance of the end of schooling, to the problem of choosing a career. An important function of every DEO is, therefore, to help young people acquire an adequate knowledge of occupations and of the issues to be considered in choosing between them. (Australian Archives, Qld, 1959a, p.4) The careers counselling and placement service was responsible for helping young people to find new jobs. It was reported that in 1958, about 93,000 young people had sought assistance through this service in Australia. Many of them, it was further reported, had been looking for a new job because they had not liked the work they had been doing. The advice given in regard to seeking employment was framed in the familiar terminology of square pegs and round holes: It is quite common these days to see references in the newspapers and elsewhere to the need for those still at school to think carefully before choosing a career. Emphasis is placed on the dangers of the dead-end job, on the need for more highly-placed workers, or on the dissatisfaction which results from being a "square peg in a round hole". (Australian Archives, Qld, 1959a, p.7) It was within this pegs and holes or trait-and-factor framework of psychological matching that guidance, counselling and placement activities were oriented. It was suggested that both jobs and people came in all sorts of shapes and the young person needed to find an answer to the questions about himself and about jobs: From their knowledge of your school work, your teachers can help you understand your strengths and weaknesses; they can help you decide how long you should continue at school, and the subjects you should study in preparation for a suitable career. If you have difficulty in sorting out your ideas, or if you are doubtful whether you have the abilities needed for the career you would like, then you could be helped by vocational guidance, if this can be arranged. This will involve your doing a number of psychological tests which the Vocational Guidance Officer will discuss with you, in conjunction with your school results and other facts which may have to be considered in making your choice. (Australian Archives, Qld, 1959a, pp.15-6) Not all young people were stated as needing vocational guidance. Many, perhaps the majority, may have needed expert employment counselling as provided by the Youth Employment Officer in each District Office. If the Youth Employment Officer felt that vocational guidance was necessary, that is, psychological testing, it was possible in the metropolitan districts at least for that officer to arrange for vocational guidance to be given by the specialist Vocational Guidance Officers in the professional Services Office. In the country districts, only a limited service was available due to the shortage of trained personnel: The demand for vocational guidance greatly exceeds our vocational guidance resources. Trained people are in short supply. In view of some popular misconceptions about vocational guidance, stress should be placed on the need for the Vocational Guidance Officer to have an extensive and expert knowledge of occupations such as is to found in the CES. It is not to be confused with crystal-ball gazing or the adding up of scores on a test. (Australian Archives, Qld, 1959a, p.26) The narrow or technical guidance strategy with psychological testing, vocational guidance and counselling interviews of the individual client was soon to be transformed to include the targeting of those institutions central to the guidance process in the widest sense of the term as stated above. The CES was to broaden its policy direction in this regard by facilitating involvement by the community, the school and the family in the guidance problem. It did this by organising school visits to work places, giving careers talks to schools and community organisations such as Rotary, organising Occupation Information Visits in co-operation with the State Department of Education, and organising Job Information Displays and similar activities for the general purpose of seeking to ensure that all young people about to leave school were given the opportunity of learning something about the range of occupations available: We are seeking to encourage school systems at both the State and local levels to help young people - 181 - to think about their careers and to get the basic information they need if they are to make the right choice. (Australian Archives, Qld, 1959a, p.26) To illustrate the comprehensive and facilitating role of the CES emerging across the State in the early 1960s, the first Job Information Displays ever held were in Hughenden, Cloncurry, Mount Isa, Blackall, Barcaldine and Longreach and were staged by the CES in 1963. The Townsville Office of the CES made its contribution to Education Week in that year by staging the Northern Job Information Display at Townsville University College on 28th March. The occasion was a Careers Night with the Job Information Display and the showing of the Department's films forming the central theme. Over 300 parents were in attendance. The night, it seems, proved a good exercise in counselling for the District Officer and Senior Employment Officer who, together with prominent professional and businessmen were kept busy answering questions (Australian Archives, Qld, 1963). Later that year, the Warwick District Office organised for the first time a programme of approximately fifty talks to local schools with Rotary members speaking on their particular occupations. The Principal of the Warwick State High School stated that he acknowledged with deep gratitude the help given by the CES Officers in introducing the scheme whereby all interested students were given guidance and advice about possible future careers. In relation to the overall activities of this part of the CES's involvement with schools, however, it is apparent that the private school systems (16) increasingly were becoming more central to the attention of the Commonwealth government through new technologies of guidance, counselling and placement. The year 1963 appears as a significant year in the expansion of such activities into the general community as Careers Nights, school visits and parent discussion talks taking place for the first time. While the R&G Branch was the State governmental agency responsible for providing guidance and counselling services to the State schools, the CES effectively was to become the governmental agency in the provision of a similar guidance and counselling service to private schools over the next decade: They (CES) used to provide a guidance service to any member of the community who was interested in it. They also provided a guidance service to anybody in the secondary schools who wanted to come. But it was centred on the Independent Schools. Most State high schools looked after their own people, although there was nothing to stop students from State high schools from coming in, they did. At that time (early 60s), there was a very big concentration on the secondary schools and they (CES) actually used to visit the secondary schools. (Interview with Mr Michael Duran, 1993) These school visits to secondary schools and the facilitation of community activities represented the broadened policy direction by the Commonwealth government in addressing the student guidance problem. The CES was thus not only to provide guidance and counselling services to the general community including private schools but the CES would become instrumental in facilitating the migration of the technologies of efficiency into the institutional fabric of the private and independent school systems through the continuing community interventions: The Business and Professional Women's Club sought the assistance of the Department in staging careers nights at Girls' Schools. The first was held at All Hallows on 18th June and the next will be at Brisbane Girl's Grammar on the 6th August. Miss Ferguson from Brisbane Office and Miss Caffery for the Vocational Guidance Section are participating in these activities. (Australian Archives, Qld, 1963, August) During that same year, the Headmaster of the Slade School Warwick commented on the employment crisis at the same time praising the efficiency of this governmental scheme functioning directly through the local community. He used the familiar language of square pegs and round holes: This seems an appropriate time to express commendation of the service provided to Warwick secondary schools by the programme of talks arranged by the District Employment Officer. At this time of uncertainty, if not crisis, in junior employment, the information and advice given should prove of great value in ensuring that fewer square pegs end up in round holes, and that boys and girls of our schools go on to careers in which they will be happy and therefore profitable. (Australian Archives, Qld, 1963, August) In the following year, the District Office of the CES arranged with the co-operation of the Business and Professional Women's Club, a series of Careers Talks to girls of the Warwick High Schools. The Club assisted in obtaining suitably qualified women, and eleven professions were covered: Librarianship, Hairdressing, Teaching, Business Methods, Occupational Therapy, Nursing, Physiotherapy, Pharmacy, - 182 Kindergarten Teaching, Medicine and Radiography (Australian Archives, Qld, 1965, January). In August, 1965, the first Careers Night at the Brisbane Grammar School was organised by the Headmaster, Mr Max Howell with the assistance of the CES. The Regional Director of the Department of Labour and National Services was one of a panel of four guest speakers which addressed a meeting of 156 Junior Form boys and over 200 parents. Mr Howell had already organised such nights in his previous school in Victoria and was quite gratified at the response to his first such event in Brisbane. Co-speakers were Mr N. W. Savage and Dr Thiele from the University of Queensland Counselling Services (Australian Archives, Qld, 1965, August). Dr Howell (17) has since stated that in regard to that first careers night at the Brisbane Grammar School, he was assisted by a "fellow who was from the Department of Labour and National Service, being a friend of his whom he had met in Melbourne" (Interview with Dr Howell, 1993, pp.2-3). Dr Howell's involvement with careers markets and related activities had arisen from his own prior experiences, interests and motivations towards the value of careers advising, as well from assistance from the Department of Labour and National Service, the Commonwealth Department responsible for the Australia wide administration of the CES. According to Dr Howell, the guidance and counselling practices in the Commonwealth area emerged out of the Department of Labour and National Service: That was a post-war Department. They were also really responsible for providing advice and assistance to ex-servicemen who had come back on the C.R.T.S., the Commonwealth Reconstruction Training Scheme, of which I was one. And that's partly why I got to know it. The other reason was because one of my best friends, who was my best pal when I got married was from that Department. When he left University, he went to work for the Department of Labour and National Service, and I kept in touch with him. That's how I had a bit of an insight into what they were doing in careers. (Interview with Dr Howell, 1993) In December the following year in 1966, Mr M.A. Howell had been part of a live panel discussion on ABC television with the final Television session of Careers for Young People. Other panel members were Mr C. Williams, Student Counsellor Queensland University, Mr N. F. Miller of the Chartered Institute of Secretaries, and Mr C. G. Cooke, Senior Psychologist of the Department of Labour and National Service. The panel discussion to present four viewpoints on the problems of Choosing a Career (Australian Archives, Qld, 1966, December) (18). Soon after Mr Howell had taken charge as Headmaster of the Brisbane Grammar School in 1965, he appointed Mr E.A. Logan as Careers Master to give guidance and advice to Senior boys and to help Juniors with their problems. While he was the Careers Master, he spent about half his time teaching (Willey, 1968, p.188): Yes, Ernie Logan. I appointed him. He was a fairly logical choice for the job. He was on staff, he'd been a Headmaster before and a Housemaster at a boarding school in Victoria... He was a very nice man, and got on well with the boys, he had a sort of avuncular interest in boys... He took to the job like a duck to water. He had his own competencies, he improved his competencies by taking various courses, going to conferences and so on. So he was a very good man for the job. (Interview with Dr Howell, 1993) This appointment at Brisbane Grammar School appears as the very first such appointment of a school counsellor to any Queensland school, including the State schools, where the primary role was aimed at vocational guidance. It is worth describing the details because this particular appointment appears to predate similar appointments in the private school systems by many years. Moreover, the Queensland State Department of Education through the G&SE did not move to a school based guidance system by appointing Guidance Officers to specific State High schools until nearly a decade later under the restructured Radford educational system. On the 10th January, 1966, Mr M.E. Duran was appointed to the CES Department as the New Psychologist in the Vocational Guidance Section of the Professional Services Office within the CES: Mr M.E. Duran took up duty in this position in P.S.O. on 10.1.66 on promotion from the P.M.G. Department. Michael is 34 years of age and joined the Accounts Branch of the P.M.G. Department in February, 1949. He was promoted to the position of Training Officer in July, 1961 and was engaged in this work until his appointment as Psychologist Class I. He is an Arts graduate of the Queensland University, with a Major in Psychology. (Australian Archives, Qld, 1966, January) Mr Duran was subsequently to become the first Manager of Brisbane's Careers Reference Centre in 1973 (see Australian Archives, Qld, 1973, February). As a VGO, Mr Duran had been one of the many VGO's who - 183 visited the Independent and private schools throughout Queensland who were interested in their pupils receiving vocational guidance: So we were rostered and we used to do country trips. And we used to go up to Cairns and do the colleges up there. Townsville, Charters Towers. Mackay, Bundaberg, Rockhampton, Longreach, Roma, Charleville, Gympie, Nambour, down to Southport, down to Warwick. We'd go to Toowoomba and see St Joseph's and St. Mary's and Glennie. (Interview with Mr Michael Duran, 1993) These country trips were organised on a yearly basis with different teams of four to five VGO's in attendance depending on the size of the schools. The private schools in Brisbane were also included in the itinerary: Yep, yep, nearly all of them, just about every private school in Brisbane at the time. We used to visit them on a regular basis. You name it we were there. From the west, Ashgrove Marist Brothers, Stuartholme up there on the hill, down to Moreton Bay College.... Every year 10 and year 12 we did it. Grammar, Terrace, Churchie and BBC. (Interview with Mr Michael Duran, 1993) What the VGO's did at these schools appears to have been somewhat similar to their colleagues in the State Guidance agency, the R&G Branch. It was referred to as bulk testing and involved testing the Grades 10 and 12 pupils, sixty, seventy or eighty at a time in a large room as in an examination situation: We wandered around checking that they didn't cheat too much. There was about three hours of it in one go, although some of the tests took a half an hour, the ML and MQ and the verbal and arithmetical tests, progressive matrices, the abstract reasoning test. So I think they were about three hours testing all told. (Interview with Mr Michael Duran, 1993) Record cards were made out for each pupil, with the VGO entering the results of the test onto the card and comments by the VGO about the pupil after an interview with the pupil but rarely with the parent. The cards were collected after each school visit and returned to the Head Office in Brisbane to be filed for future discussions if the student came in later and wanted to discuss something further. Neither cards nor any reports were left with or sent to the school in question but were returned to the Head Office in Brisbane. This mass testing approach to vocational guidance was complemented by the other activities of the CES in community involvement further increasing the profile of the technologies of careers counselling particularly in the private school sector: On the night of Wednesday, the 10th August, Mr. P. Robertson and Miss M. Whitaker attended a Careers Display at the Brisbane Girl's Grammar School. They were inundated with enquiries from parents and students of the school, deciding upon their future careers. This is a further example of the Department's increasing influence in the sphere of career's counselling. The Headmistress expressed her appreciation of the assistance which the Department is offering her school's pupils in this very important aspect of their lives. (Australian Archives, Qld, 1966, September, M. Whitaker, V.G. Section) Towards the end of the decade in the 1960s, the Department of Labour and National Service was further increasing its profile by being involved with and organising a diverse range of activities which included participation in television segments on the Maggie Tabberer Show, organising Careers Visits to Brisbane for Country students, organising and participating in Careers nights at the City Hall with the Queensland Association of University Women and the Business and Professional Women's Club and so on. A clear focus, however, running through all of these diverse activities was the targeting of the private school sector and the highlighting of those careers and employment related to the educational ladder beyond tertiary level education. The era of Careers Counselling was by now emerging not as a competitor to Vocational Guidance which had operated predominantly on the basis of mass psychological testing and continued to do so for a number of years into the early 1970s. It was now emerging as an alternative technology which was developing its own capacity to deal efficiently with large volumes of people, students and parents who could be targeted to enhance the matching of students with careers appropriate to capacities, abilities and attributes. Some of the careers events were now being presented as an extension of the curriculum by including knowledge about careers, employment and educational prerequisites.: In order to avoid the heartbreak that eventuates when at the end of a school year, students find that - 184 - their educational course does not equip them for their chosen career, a new form of careers counselling was introduced at a parents and daughters night at All Hallows' Convent, Brisbane, recently. The programme was spread over two nights, one for parents of Grade 10 students, one for parents of Grade 8 students. (Australian Archives, Qld, 1968, November, L. Dempsey, Emp.) At this particular careers event, this new knowledge was presented within a pedagogic framework which was familiar to parents and students. Each night was reported as starting with two short addresses by teachers describing the secondary courses to be offered at All Hallows in 1969. This was followed by talks by Departmental Officers on the need for planning a career with hints on how to go about it and descriptions of appropriate opportunities for school leavers and entrance requirements. A large proportion of the 700 parents and girls, sought the assistance of the CES Officers on duty (Australian Archives, Qld, 1968, November, L. Dempsey, Emp). During the 1960s and beyond into the early 1970s, while all these careers events included a guidance and counselling function as a key feature of the Commonwealth's guidance strategy, it is important to note that the VGO's and the psyches had little or no participation in these careers events. Their responsibilities had been almost exclusively involved with mass psychological testing, follow-up guidance interviews with the individual student, and testing and interviewing at the Regional Office. The organisation and participation in the various careers events described above had been undertaken by Officers of the Department other than the "psychs" or VGO's, these other Officers exhibited a wide range of qualifications and experience within the CES (19). It is also important to note that these governmental technologies central to the guidance strategy which targeted the interface of education and employment were entirely in harmony with the autonomous cultural norms operating within the broader white-European and Christian society. The various psychological matching technologies were themselves predicated upon the strategy of floating in harmony with those cultural norms, in adjustment to the reality of the divisions-of-labour pertaining at the time. To again illustrate this theme, the Careers Information Visits to Toowoomba in 1969 can be seen to demonstrate demographic norms of social class and gender not only of the broader culture but in the socialised attributes of the particular individual student participating in the particular careers event: The interest in the professions varied considerably. The girls showed preference for the careers of nursing, social work, teaching, librarian, public service and journalism. The boys were fairly evenly distributed, but most interest was shown in teaching, engineering, chemistry, journalism and agricultural science. The District Officer and his staff are to be congratulated on the success of the programme in which 225 students made 674 visits covering 351 careers. The response from students and employers was excellent. The high level of co-operation between private industry and State and Commonwealth Departments concerned with the visits cannot help but benefit the community as a whole. The success of this programme should prove a stimulus to other District Officers to initiate similar programmes in their areas. (Australian Archives, Qld, 1969, September, P. Carius, Emp) What represented the inaugural meeting of the Committee of GO's and CC's (Careers Counsellors) (and years later would be re-named the Committee of Student Advisers) was held at the University of Queensland on 10th December, 1969. Parties interested in careers counselling met to discuss and give their view on all aspects of the counselling service given to school leavers, to help them in their transition from school to university or employment. The University Student Counsellor Mrs G.V.U. Hughes chaired the meeting and present were Mrs E.R. Wilson, Appointments Officer of the University, Mr W. Brown, Principal Guidance Officer and Mr J. Eckersley, Senior Guidance Officer, Education Department, and Mr V.M. Horstman, O.I.C. (Officer in Charge), V.G. and Mr E. Keating, Employment Officer. Future meetings were planned for the following year (Australian Archives, Qld, 1969, December, E.V. Keating, Emp). The following year on 24th April, a second meeting was held in the Conference Room of Australia House, the Regional Office of the Department of Labour and National Service. It was described as an informal gathering at which the Regional Director of the Department welcomed the participants and stressed that the co-operation between counsellors would result in a more effective service being provided for young people. Discussion ranged over a number of topics including expected numbers of graduates from the University of Queensland and QIT, sources of careers counselling information, University failure rates, selection of subjects for matriculation. It was decided that these first gatherings of counsellors had been very valuable and should be held regularly. Further, each meeting should have one main topic for discussion, to be set well in advance so that preparation for the discussion is possible. The Director of Counselling Services, University of Queensland, ended the meeting with a tribute to this Department and to a member of staff for bringing the counsellors together in this way. (Australian Archives, 1970, April) - 185 - By the early 1970s, momentum had been gathering for the establishment of school counsellors in various private schools with the VGO's now participating in certain careers events. At the Church of England Grammar School (C.E.G.S.), for example, during a visit to the school by an Employment Officer of the Department, the new Head Master, Hon. C.D. Fisher, M.A. (Oxon), M.A.C.E. expressed interest in the Department's programme of occupational visits and invited officers to address the senior boys about the Department's service to young people. On 23rd June, the District Officer and the Youth Officer from Woolloongabba D.E.O. [District Employment Office] attended with the O.I.C. Vocational Guidance Section, and were cordially introduced to 350 Senior and Sub-Senior students assembled in the Morris Hall. (Australian Archives, Qld, 1970, July, H.J. Barker, QWOO) During the remainder of the address, the District Officer spoke about the Department's role of counselling and in providing occupational information and placement assistance to all who needed it, stressing the wisdom of remaining at school as long as possible to develop full employment potential. Mr V. Horstman, Officer in Charge of the Vocational Guidance Section addressed the students about factors of vocational choice and the activities of the Vocational Guidance Section in the Department's youth counselling programme. It was further reported that the C.E.G.S had not previously participated fully in the CES school leaver programme but now for the first time had invited staff to address its students (Australian Archives, Qld, 1970, July, H.J. Barker, QWOO). By the early 1970s, guidance and counselling services were beginning to be established in private and grammar schools, the universities and colleges themselves: About every six weeks the Senior Officers of the Branch meet with counsellors from the University, the Institute of Technology and the Commonwealth Department of Labour and National Service. Amongst other things this group aims to provide advisory services for private schools wishing to set up educational and vocational information sections in their school libraries. (G&SE Report, 1970, p.4) In June 1971, at one of the now regular meetings of the Committee of GO's and CC's, certain matters were discussed which were of some significance to the final phase of the post-war guidance strategy implemented a quarter of a century earlier through the White Paper on Full Employment and again subsequently through the Murray Committee's recommendations to improve efficiency in the government of the educational ladder leading towards the tertiary level sector. Pressure, it appeared, was inexorably being applied to the Independent or private school systems to take over the provision of careers guidance and counselling services from the Commonwealth: The A.D. (E) reported on his participation in the recent National Conference on Training for Industry and Commerce held in Canberra and Mr. V. Keating introduced discussion on the proposed meetings with the Association of Headmasters of Independent Schools and Principal of Catholic Secondary Schools. At these meetings it is planned to discuss the subject "Guidance Services in Independent Schools" which is the title of a paper recently prepared by prominent committee member Dr H.W. Thiele, Director of Counselling Services, University of Queensland. (Australian Archives, Qld, 1971, June) Two months later, the Committee of GO's and CC's launched a campaign to encourage independent schools to appoint to the staff of their schools full-time or part-time Careers Counsellors: Careers counselling is so important that each school should have someone to whom students and parents could direct enquiries, and who are capable of giving advice or arranging referral to authorities competent to answer questions on careers. (Australian Archives, Qld, 1971, August) The opening of this campaign was at The Conference of Female Superiors of Catholic Colleges where members of the Committee addressed over 120 superiors and secondary school teachers present at the Conference. The particular addresses given by members of the Committee were - Mrs U. Hughes (Careers and Appointment Counsellor, University of Queensland) on Personal Counselling, Mr L. Stewart (Student Counsellor, QIT) on Educational Guidance, Mr E. Logan (Student Counsellor, Brisbane Grammar School) on "A Practical View of the Role of a Student Counsellor", and Mr J. See, (A.D. Emp, Department of Labour and National Service) on "Employment Facilities and Advisory Services for Parents, Teachers and School - 186 Leavers" (Australian Archives, Qld, 1971, August): The discussion and questions after the addresses had to be terminated by the Chairman because of time. The interest augurs well for the success of the campaign to spread Careers Advisory Services. (Australian Archives, Qld, 1971, August) During the following year, a successful step was taken towards interesting private secondary schools in providing counsellors for their schools. The Department had organised, in conjunction with the University of Queensland Counselling Services and the G&SE Branch of the State Education Department, a meeting with representatives from sixteen non-state secondary schools in February at the Department's Offices at Australia House. Mr J.J. See, Assistant Director Employment, welcomed the visitors on behalf of the Department suggesting that they might form a loose knit association and meet regularly to exchange information. This suggestion was taken up by the meeting and they agreed to meet on 12th April at C.E.G.S. (Australian Archives, Qld, 1972, February). That meeting took place at the C.E.G.S. and effectively transformed a number of private school teachers and administrators in the smaller schools into part-time careers counsellors forming an additional part to their responsibilities. The group was described for the first time as a group of School Counsellors from 17 metropolitan Independent and Church Schools. The meeting was addressed by Mr V. Horstmann Officer in Charge of the Vocational Guidance Section, by Mrs G. Hughes, University of Queensland Careers and Appointments Counsellor and the newly appointed School Counsellor from the C.E.G.S., Mr E. Kentish (Australian Archives, Qld, 1972, May). Later that year, two former Departmental psychologists of the Department of Labour and National Service took up appointments in private schools as the School Counsellor. Mr Cliff Cooke was appointed as School Counsellor to The Southport School in May, and Miss Helen Conrad was appointed by the Presbyterian and Methodist Schools Association as Psychologist at Somerville House in June. During the early 1970s, bulk testing in the private schools was being phased out as a consequence of a specific policy decision taken by the Department. The alternative technology of careers counselling had over the previous decade successfully demonstrated its capacity for efficient implementation at careers events as well as individual vocational counselling for older clients, both of which had been undertaken by Employment Officers and not the "psychs" or the VGO's. The abandonment of mass testing and the shift away from psychometric forms of ascertaining vocational attributes thus placed the VGO's in somewhat of a void that needed to be filled: Recently a trial was carried out with school leavers seen at a metropolitan school. Forty two [42] school leavers were interviewed at the school by the psychologists. This counselling service seemed adequate in all but fifteen [15] cases who were subsequently tested and interviewed again at the V.G. Section in Regional Office. The results are encouraging and suggest greater sophistication in the use of V.G. services, and the recognition that vocational psychologists' expertise is wider than psychological testing alone. (Australian Archives, Qld, 1971, April, V.M. Horstman, V.G.) This optimistic experiment, however, was both too late and shortlived. It was too late in that the VGO's were attempting to claim a technology that had never been part of the professional responsibilities of the VGO in the Department. Psychological testing utilised by the VGO's by the early 1970s was being effectively displaced by the now preferred technology of vocational counselling integrated with the wider-ranging expertise of the Employment Officers. The experiment was shortlived in that the VGO's were soon to be disbanded and removed from Vocational Guidance and careers work completely by being re-classified as Psychologists and re-deployed within the Department either becoming "psychs" not concerned with vocational guidance or leaving the service to take up positions elsewhere, some within private schools as School Counsellors: The Department's policy had altered to the effect that - no more vocational guidance. It didn't mean they didn't have psychs, in fact, if anything the psychs expanded, they're everywhere now. What they were doing was not vocational guidance, it was more assessing unemployed people, people with employment problems. As one put it rather unhappily: "We're little more than rubber stamps for people who get pensions". So they were still assessing, but not with a view to providing any form of vocational counselling, it was to assess people whether or not they were fit to work. (Interview with Mr M. Duran, 1993, p.5) Moreover, the policy decision to abandon Vocational Guidance as practised by the VGO's within the Department coincided with the emerging success of the migration of guidance and counselling practices into the private school sector, the success of growing community participation in the careers event and the implementation of the Radford Scheme. These residual functions of careers advising, counselling and information giving that had been an integral feature of the CES during the 1960s were in effect transferred to - 187 The Careers Reference Centre to provide a careers advising, counselling and community facilitation role to potential tertiary students about professional types of careers (Interview with Mr M. Duran, 1993, p.5; see also Australian Archives, Qld, 1973, February). CONCLUSION This chapter has examined guidance practices emerging in post-war Australia as being instrumental in addressing the bureaucratic-pastoral imperatives of efficiency and talent wastage from the educational ladder leading towards an education beyond the compulsory years of education. For the first time in peace time Australia, the Commonwealth had entered the fields of employment and education initially to address the problems of post-war reconstruction and the rehabilitation of civilian war workers and returned service men and women. Throughout the 1950s and 1960s, both State and Commonwealth government were jointly focussed on the shaping of the competent vocational personality, adjusted to the social and cultural norms of university life and to the matched vocation. These governmental practices had as their objective the achievement of social and administrative efficiencies derived from matching psychologically inscribed profiles of the whole personality with employment realities. Guidance and counselling practices were also instrumental in producing an ambitious disposition for professional employment through a university education in the family whose child appeared as bright, gifted and talented. The analysis of the guidance strategy in this chapter thus significantly cuts across the threshold that might be drawn between the public and the private, between the State and civil society and specifically between the public domain of educational administration and the private sphere of the family (see Donzelot, 1979). The shaping of the competent vocational personality emerged in the post-war era as the central goal in the guidance strategy to satisfy the exigencies of a national and governmental concern for producing a trained intelligence: Better training and utilization of the intellect are becoming not merely a desirable alternative but even an inescapable necessity as the products of complex civilization, in the hands of the incompetent, increasingly imperil the human race. (Research in Utilization of Academic Talent, Atkinson and Carnegie Studies - Department of Educational Research, Ontario College of Education, 1959, quoted in R&G Bulletin, 1962, p.1) The technologies of individual psychology with its technical capacity for measuring, calculating, inscribing and thus shaping the competent vocational personality emerged in post-war Australia to draw the public and private domain of the secular soul into the governance of the educational ladder leading towards a higher education at the pinnacle of which appeared the university as the main goal for the pedagogical family. The centrality of guidance technologies to the efficiency of the governance of the educational ladder was crystallised in a governmental review of tertiary level education in 1957. In that year, the Committee on Australian Universities commissioned to review of university education in Australia had identified a high failure rate in the universities as a national extravagance that could ill be afforded and produced the Murray Report (1957, p.121) to advise government on policy direction. The Murray Report (1957) offered explanations regarding the efficiency of the educational ladder at a national level, identifying such efficiency in terms of a national extravagance with a high failure rate as well as large numbers of intellectually capable children being lost to secondary education and university. The Murray Report (1957) had specifically addressed the problem of wastage as a function of the guidance problem and of the lack of ambition on the part of the family. The remedy was thus to increase the efficiency of the educational ladder through the guidance strategy. This governmental strategy included the targeting of the family and the community in order to produce the competent and well-adjusted vocational personality at the university level (20). This guidance strategy was implemented through the Department of Labour and National Service and entailed increasing guidance and counselling resources to bring about a more efficient matching of the natural aptitude of students with corresponding careers. As the State was already providing for the State schools, the Commonwealth targeted the private and independent schools throughout the State and by the end of the 1960s had been successful in transferring the guidance and counselling technologies into the these schools. The success of this technology transfer of guidance and counselling practices into the private sector of education was reflected in the withdrawal and abandonment by the Commonwealth government of these practices during the early 1970s. Queensland education was by now poised ready to transform its mass testing psychological technology of the guidance practices and subject-centred classroom into the child-centred domain through the progressive and radical changes contained in the Radford Report (1970): the abandonment of public examinations and the implementation and convergence of experimental psychology and experimental education (see Cunningham, 1923) at the secondary level. - 188 NOTES 1. State officers employed during the war years in the Department of Labour and Employment and the Manpower Directorate had been given the opportunity to transfer to the CES. About sixty State officers were reported to have been approved for appointment under this Federal scheme (see DEET, 1980). It was apparently through this avenue that Mr J.J. Pratt, transferred to the Commonwealth government Public Services. Mr Pratt had been seconded by the State Department of Public Instruction to the ACER in 1939 and was in effect appointed as Queensland's first psychological consultant in the practices of vocational guidance. 2. The new Menzies government in 1949 continued to support university education but acted to reinforce state control of education. In 1951, the Commonwealth government brought in legislation providing grants to the states for recurrent expenditures for their universities. It was also the Commonwealth government's view that states should administer most aspects of the Commonwealth funding programme related to education. Included in this programme was the CSS (I. Birch, "Commonwealth Participation in Education, 1901-1964", in Birch and Smart, 1977, p.20). 3. From federation in 1901 up to 1939, Birch suggests there was little to distinguish Commonwealth governments in their attitudes to the question of the Commonwealth's participation in education. Overall, he states, there was a strong reticence, if not downright opposition, to such an involvement. It was defence purposes which provided the cloak for a major involvement by the Commonwealth in education during the 1940s (I. Birch, in Birch and Smart, 1977, pp.13-7). 4. This relationship is described as being mirrored in personal friendships and other connections with key members of the ACER such as K.S. Cunningham and W.C. Radford. The first Director of the Commonwealth Office of Education was R.C. Mills who met and formed a lasting friendship with K.S. Cunningham on the troopship returning from World War I. This was a relationship which was described as standing the two organisations, the ACER and the Commonwealth Office of Education, in good stead 30 years later. It was also suggested that it was no disadvantage that J.J. Pratt, one of the Office's senior members, had spent two years as a research assistant at the ACER and was the brother-in-law of W.C. Radford, the Assistant Director. Through constant contact and discussion between the main parties throughout the early years of the Office's existence, relationships between the two institutions were organised smoothly and amicably (Connell, 1980, p.38 & pp.162-3). 5. In regard to cultural norms of gender equality during the 1960s, I refer to extracts from the Interview with Mr Michael Duran (1993): "There was one psych [VGO] who wouldn't go to girls schools. He was an eccentric. He wouldn't interview females. We'd all interview males and females. He'd only interview males. No he was strange for a psych. I say this as you expect a psych to be fairly neutral about many things. Even in music he felt that no woman would ever be a great pianist or violinist. All the great composers were men. (Interviewer: Were his ideas and views all that untypical of the times?) M: I suppose not, but you didn't expect to find one in a psych. He was terribly narrow in many ways. He was a nice guy, everyone liked him". In the next chapter, we can note the similarity between this point of view and that of Haine (1963, pp.184-5) who affirms the intellectual equality of men and women but notes differences in historical terms of the creative genius being men. 6. Mr Jim Fouras is a Labor member of the State Queensland Parliament and has been the Speaker of the House from 1989 to the present time. 7. One of these letters was from Mr J.J. Pratt, Acting Director of the Commonwealth Office of Education. Mr Pratt was the first official psychological consultant appointed by the State Education Department to implement a vocational guidance programme in 1941 discussed in a previous chapter (Australian Archives, Qld, 1958). 8. Within the University of Queensland there had already been in existence the University Appointments Board which was established in 1934 and functioned from 1936 to assist University graduates to obtain employment after completing their degree courses ("Sixty-Third Report of Secretary for Public Instruction for the Year 1938", in QPP, 1939, v.1, p.923). 9. The floating-norms psychological technology of the self-directed client in codified in the text Let the Client Choose by O'Sullivan (1972). In a different cultural context, Jacques Donzelot comments on these floating norms as the adoption of a long-standing economic technique as part of the relational - 189 technology by the psy specialists: "Every formulation of a social judgement is associated with its possible calling back into question through the subject's participation. The individual's resistance to norms, like that of the family, is thus no longer anything but an internal resistance to a process whose outcome can be a greater well-being for him and for it. The resistance to norms is a resistance to analysis, a purely negative and blind blockage in the way of one's own welfare. The strength of relational technology lies precisely in the fact that it does not impose anything - neither new social norms nor old social rules. On the contrary, it allows them to float in relation to one another until they find equilibrium. This is an old economic technique in the strict sense, and the most economical one to use in terms of both administrative and conflictual costs" (Donzelot, 1979, p.211). 10. This is illustrated by the numbers group tested in both primary and secondary schools as follows: GROUP TESTING IN PRIMARY AND SECONDARY SCHOOLS EDUCATIONAL AND VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE (Extracted from R&G Reports, 1950-64) TEST 1950 52-57 1958 Prim Sec 5,035 473 58,049 16,594 5,290 4,527 1960 1963 1964 16,665 8,176 10,133 15,106 29,300 11. The first reference to what was later known as country careers markets was in 1955 where guidance was given in response to an invitation of a country Rotary Club at local gathering, but to grade eight children at the primary level (R&G Report, 1955, p.4). 12. The handbook for the Brisbane campus of the Institute of Technology was not produced by that institution until December 1966 (G&SE Report, 1966, p.5). Guidance practices also included a specific information giving role in relation to university courses and related professional employment as an integral component of the matching technology involved in these services: "The University will publish again in 1965 the booklet 'The University and Its Courses' the last edition of which was published in 1962. This should further reduce the purely 'information giving' time in Commonwealth University Scholar interviews and permit guidance officers to devote a greater part of their time to counselling aspects" (R&G Report, 1965, p.22). 13. This particular concrete image of a floating outcome can best be understood in today's terms in Queensland as the cut-off factor of the TE Scores or OP Scores which float from year to year as a substitute exchange mechanism for a monetary factor in the relative absence in Australia of private enterprise operating at the tertiary education level. In regard to the selection of bright children into the university system as continuing to dominate the concrete image of the selection mechanism into university, see a recent article in the Brisbane's Sunday Mail, (1993): "The Education Minister, Mr Pat Comben, yesterday stood by the new tertiary entrance system and claimed it was working very well.... He denied that teachers could manipulate the system to give advantage to their students and their school. He said the fact that some private schools might have won a high number of OP1's reflected the selection process of those schools more than anything else. Some have entrance examinations, offer scholarships to bright students. It is not about rorting the system". This will be discussed further in the final chapter. 14. W.J. Weeden was also another key figure in the influence of the ACER on the post-war policy direction of the Commonwealth government. Weeden had worked for Harold Wyndham during the 1930s in establishing a school-counselling service in New South Wales (Nixon & Taft, 1977, p.13). Weeden (first class honours MA in psychology) worked as a school counsellor at Cantebury Boys High School and initiated a Guidance and Research Office at the Sydney Technical College (O'Neil, 1987). In addition, Weeden had been during the war one on the main contacts in the Department of Labour and National Service for the ACER which had been attempting to persuade the government on the value of vocational guidance as an instrument for rationalising civilian employment. In the late 1960s, Weeden with W.C. Radford featured in the development of an ACER-type test that would be useful as a university entrance examination. The experimental and developmental programme resulted in the ASAT which became the psychological test used to moderate the Radford Scheme in Queensland (see Connell, 1980, pp.136-7 & pp.281-9). 15. It is important to note that the term professional psychologist at that time effectively meant any person who practised as a psychologist and may or may not have had any formal academic training - 190 within a University level course. To illustrate, it was reported that a new Vocational Guidance Officer was appointed in 1963 as follows: "Mr. L. Blackburn took up duty in the Department on 18.4.63 as VGO Grade I. An economics graduate of the Queensland University, Mr. Blackburn, 24 years of age, comes from the Audit Office, Brisbane. Previously he was with the Department of Social Services" (Australian Archives, Qld, 1963, May). 16. With the abandonment of the Scholarship Examination in the early 1960s, the State Grammar Schools were in effect to take on the public image of private or Independent schools and were included under the term of the Independent or private school. The fact that up until 1962 persons with scholarships could have opted to go to a grammar school and not have had to pay any fees is responsible for the current reputation of the high academic performance of the Grammar schools. This was confirmed by Dr Howell: "That's why the grammar schools have that reputation now, when you see the 'leagues table'. You look around. It's very interesting. Nobody's bothered to do this, because the country high schools don't come up to the metropolitan area, the number of OP's. You look around the grammar schools all over Queensland, Ipswich, Rockhampton, Townsville, all got the top students in every area. Now why wouldn't they have. I mean, the tradition was that every grammar school had a nucleus of very bright kids. And that's why they got the academic results they did in the past. Their reputation continued, and I'm surprised that nobody's picked this up or said this anywhere. The reason the grammar schools now are and were in my time, I mean Grammar, we used to get more nine-nineties than any other school, apart from the fact that we had a very large number of sixth form of over two hundred... percentage wise we did too. Because the school had the reputation of being an academic school, where you said, if your son was bright, you sent him to the grammar school. If you got a scholarship, that was great" (Interview with Dr Howell, 1994). 17. The use of the title of Mr for Max Howell reflects the earlier time frame within which Dr Howell was quoted in the literature, whereas his title of Dr Howell is used to reflect his current status. 18. Dr Howell had been involved in a similar programme in the early 1960s in Melbourne with Barry Jones who as a teacher also had an interest in careers matters. "Part of my enthusiasm for my involvement in careers came about when I spent a year in 1959 at comprehensive schools in Yorkshire and I was fortunate to be able to do it. I was supernumery on the staff. The Headmaster gave me a really good deal to go around looking at a large number of schools. And in 59 the careers advising thing was growing very much. It was a stimulus. And when I came back to Victoria, that was when I became a Careers Master. I said to the Headmaster, 'What we need is a Careers Master'. He said, 'I can't afford to pay one, you'd better do it yourself'. And I said 'Alright, I'll do it'". So I was the Deputy Headmaster, Senior English Master and now the Careers Master" (Interview with Dr Howell, 1994). These observations are based on both material from the Australian Archives and confirmed through an interview with Mr M. Duran who had been a VGO from the mid-1960s through to the early 1970s. He was subsequently appointed the first Manager of the Careers Reference Centre in Brisbane in 1975. In addition, psychological counselling within the University of Queensland was separate from course, careers and appointment counselling. It was the careers and appointments counsellor and appointments officer at the University of Queensland who were responsible for counselling students in relation to courses and careers, for notifying young graduates of employment vacancies, for maintaining a Careers Reference Room and for extending the available range of careers advisory material. In August 1969, a three day conference of appointment officers and student counsellors of 12 of the 14 Australian universities was held at the University of Queensland to examine, among other things, the responsibilities of universities and of employees for professional training (see QDE, 1968, p.38; and QDE, 1969, p.34). In 1961, this governmental need to inculcate ambition for a university education in the family is demonstrated in a letter written by the Commonwealth Office of Education to the Director-General of Education seeking information on the top 70 students in Queensland: "The Commonwealth Scholarships Board has under consideration methods of attracting students of high quality into the universities. As part of the information required, the Board is anxious to know what happened to the top 500 students at last year's matriculation level examinations throughout Australia" (Australian Archives, Qld, 1961a). The reply to this request provided a listing of detailed information on the top fifty students as determined by the Open Scholarship Listing, a summary of which appears as Appendix 12. The listing shows that the State High Schools, the vast majority of those listed being males, produced forty six percent of the total high achievers within the State in that particular year (taken from Australian Archives, Qld, 1961). 19. 20. - 241 - Appendix 1 Training Course of the G&SE Branch - 1973 The following are the texts used in the first formal training course of the Guidance and Special Education Branch in 1973 for School counsellors with specialisation in primary and secondary guidance fields. The list is reproduced exactly as in (G&SE, 1973). BOOKS SUGGESTED FOR SELECTIVE READING GUIDANCE Shelley, C. Stone and Bruce Shertzer (editors), Guidance Monograph Series; Martinson, R. and Smallenburg, H. Guidance in Elementary School; Margary, F.J., School Psychological Services in theory and practice; McDaniel, H.B., Lallas, J.E., Saum, J.A. and Gilmore, J.L., Readings in Guidance FOUNDATIONS OF GUIDANCE Mussen, P., Conger, J. and Kagen, J. Child Development and Personality; Kirk, S., Educating the Exceptional Child; Maier, H.W. Three Theories of Child Development; Cole, L. and Hall, I.N., Psychology of the Adolescent; Hurlock, E. Adolescent Development; Bigge, M.L. Learning Theories for Teachers; Downey, L. The Secondary Phase of Education; Hughes, F., Reading and Writing before School; Richmond, W.K. School Curriculum; Torrence, E.P. The Gifted Child in the Classroom; Silberman, C.E. Crisis in the Classroom; Silberman, C.E. The Experience of Schooling; Dunn, L. The Exceptional Children in the School; Tansley, A.E. and Gulliford, The Education of Slow Learning Children; Zytowski, D. Vocational Behaviour - Readings in Theory and Research; Crities, J.O. Vocational Psychology; Peters, H. and Hansen, J. (Editors) Vocational Guidance and Career; Development; Osipow, S.H. Theories of Career Development; Hospar, B. and Hayos, J. (Editors) The Theory and Practice of Vocational Guidance. KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS Cronback, L.J., The Essential of Psychological Testing; Tyler, L. Tests and Measurements; Mittler, P. The Assessment of Mentally and Physically Handicapped; Anastasi, A. Psychological Testing Vernon, P. Personality Assessment; Benjamin, A. The Helping Interview; Huber, J. Report Writing in Psychology and Psychiatry; Lang, Phillips and Lee. Interpersonal Perception; Cartwright and Zendler. Group Dynamics Research and Theory; Stefflre, B. Theories of Counselling; S.R.A. Counselling in Content and Process; Tyler, L. Psychology of Human Difference; Krumboltz, J.D. and Thorenson, C.E. Behavioural Counselling; Nossow, S. and From, W.H. Man, Work and Society; Borow, H. (Editor) Man in the World of Work; Norris, W., Zeran, F., Hatch, R. The Information Service in Guidance; Kerlinger, F. Foundations of Behavioural Research; Adams, G. Measurement and Evaluation; Bassett, W. Innovation in Primary Education; Moyle, D. and Moyle, L. Modern Innovation in Teaching of Reading. Selected Articles from the following Journals Academic Therapy; American Journal of Mental Deficiency; Australian Journal of Mental Retardation; Australian Journal of Psychology; British Journal of Psychology; British Journal of Disorders and Communication; Child Education; Education Research; Education and Training of the Mentally Handicapped; Exceptional Child; Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry; Journal of Counselling Psychology; Journal of Counselling Psychology; Journal of Speech and Hearing Disorders; Occupational Psychology; Personnel and Guidance Journal; Remedial Education; Special Education; The Australian Teacher of the Deaf; Teaching Exceptional Children; The Teacher of the Deaf; The Reading Teacher. - 242 - Appendix 2 Prudent Chusing a Calling - 1699 Extract taken from Part I, Chapter 15 Of Education, Especially of Young Gentlemen, Sixth edition, 1699 (quoted in Brewer, 1942) OF PRUDENT CHUSING A CALLING, OR STATE OF LIFE Upon the discreet Choice of our Calling, or state of Life, depends our whole Content and Felicity: for if we chuse that which is agreeable to our Inclinations and Abilities, both of Body and Mind, we work cheerfully, our Life is pleasant, and we are constant to our purposes. But if, capable of better, we chuse a worse and lower, we espouse a continual Vexation; if we aim at what is above our Capacity, we despond and despair. Players contrive their Parts to their Persons; and let us exercise our selves in what we are most fit ... In chusing a Calling ... consider, 1. The Advantages or Disadvantages to our End, or its Contrary. 2. The Temptations we are likely to undergo and meet 3. What Strength, Assistance, or Hopes we have to overcome them. But because it is not possible to judge of these but by Experience, which the Deliberant is supposed not to have, but in some lesser measure; it is therefore necessary for him, to ask Advice, first of God; then of wife, upright, and experienced persons. .. Many Men are not capable to chuse for themselves, being of weak Judgements, unexperienced, byassed with some Vice or Irregularity; these are to submit to the Counsel of their Friends; and the most disinterested, and nearest a-kin, are the likeliest to give best Counsel. ... Going to chuse, therefore, place your self as much as is possible in Equilibrio; and resolve to take the best as near as your own Discretion (the assistance of Gods Spirit implored) and the advice of Friends, shall suggest unto you. The best, I say, not simply, but the best for you; considering your Parts, Inclinations, bodily Health, and Strength, exterior Advantages, and the like. ... From the Consideration of which, and such like, these Rules maybe taken notice of. A good natur'd facil Man is not fit for such an Employment, wherein he must necessarily converse frequently with evil Persons. A melancholic Person is not fit to undertake a Profession of much Study or Solitariness. A timorous Spirit is not fit for Magistracy. A coveted Person in not to be a Merchant, or Banquier. A Man of bodily Strength and Choler will not be a good Officer in War. ... If you be consulted concerning a Person, either very inconstant, passionate, or vicious, give not your advice; it is in vain: for such will do only what shall please themselves. Never advise any one to a Calling, which is much against his Will or Inclination. - 243 - Appendix 3 Physical Defects and Intelligence - 1910 Tables showing effects of physical defects upon a child's intelligence - 1910 (Taken from "Report of the Medical Inspector of Schools", QPP, 1911-1912, v.2, p.97) - 244 - Appendix 4 General Intelligence and Home Conditions - 1923 The following tables have been extracted from "Report of the Head Master, Brisbane, Central (Practising) School" (in "Report of the Principal of the Training College", QPP, 1924, v.1. TABLE I. GENERAL INTELLIGENCE. ______________________________________________________________________________________ Per Cent Theoretical Discrepancy of Total Explanation Enrolment ______________________________________________________________________________________ Very Inferior Inferior Below Average Average Abover Average Superior Very Superior 0.2 2.5 17.0 54.8 20.9 3.7 0.9 ______ 0.2 4.0 24.0 43.6 24.0 4.0 0.2 ______ .. - 1.5 - 7.0 + 11.2 - 3.1 - 0.3 + 0.7 ______ 100.0 100.0 .. ______________________________________________________________________________________ _ Average (A.M.) Discrepancy = 3.4% TABLE II. HOME CONDITIONS. ______________________________________________________________________________________ _ Per Cent Theoretical Discrepancy of Total Explanation Enrolment ______________________________________________________________________________________ __ Very Inferior Inferior Below Average Average Abover Average Superior Very Superior 0.9 3.0 10.0 60.5 17.7 7.0 0.9 ________ 0.2 4.0 24.0 43.6 24.0 4.0 0.2 ______ + 0.7 - 1.0 - 14.0 + 16.9 - 6.3 - 3.0 + 0.7 _______ 100.0 100.0 .. ______________________________________________________________________________________ Average Discrepancy = 6% Note - The increase in the average discrepancy in home conditions is to be expected: for, to teachers, intellectual performance is under their observation continually, and this is not true for home conditions. - 245 - APPENDIX 5 Backward Children - 1928 ("From Mr. Bevington's Report", in QPP, 1929, p.787) ______________________________________________________________________________________ Schools Number Number Number Number who have returned who left remain. attended to their since School opening ______________________________________________________________________________________ South Brisbane 169 89 31 49 Petrie Terrace 199 68 68 63 Fortitude) Valley ) 177 72 73 32 New Farm 53 33 9 11 Ipswich 201 142 10 49 Toowoomba 58 35 7 16 Rockhampton 90 55 26 9 ____________________________________________________________________________ Totals 947 494 224 229 ____________________________________________________________________________ - 246 - Appendix 6 State Grammar School Pupils - 1900. Number of fee paying pupils and scholarship holders in The State Grammar Schools in the year 1900 (Extracted from (see V&P, 1901, v.1, p.1089 and p.1253) ______________________________________________________________________________________ __ School Grammar School Grammar School Total for Boys for Girls Grammar School Fee Schol Total Fee Schol Total Fee Schol Total Pay Hold Pay Hold Pay Hold ______________________________________________________________________________________ __ Brisbane 165 65 230 76 15 91 241 80 321 Ipswich 48 6 54 51 2 53 99 8 107 Rockhampton 59 3 62 130 2 132 189 5 194 Maryborough 58 7 65 48 5 53 106 12 118 Townsville 46 2 48 - - - 46 2 48 Toowoomba 38 2 40 - - - 38 2 40 ______________________________________________________________________________________ __ Total 414 85 499 305 24 329 719 109 828 ______________________________________________________________________________________ __ - 247 - Appendix 7 Juvenile Employment Bureau - 1935 to 1942 This appendix shows a yearly summary of registrations and placements thus giving some measure of the volume of operations from the beginnings of the State wide operations of the Bureau until it was declared a National Service Office under the provisions of Commonwealth Regulations. These provisions empowered: the Minister for Labour and National Service, on the recommendation of the Director General for Man-Power, to establish and maintain National Service Offices at such places as he thinks fit", and "to use in accordance with arrangements made between the Commonwealth and the States for that purpose, as he thinks necessary, the services or officers of any organisation, undertaking or Government Department in any State (L.D. Edwards, "Report of the Director General of Education", in QPP, 1943, p.496). ______________________________________________________________________________________ Year Metropolitan Country Total Reg. Place. Regis. Place. Regis. Place. ______________________________________________________________________________________ 1935... 4,826 2,908 - - 4,826 2,908 1936... 4,075 3,154 204 36 4,279 3,190 1937... 5,303 4,008 545 357 5,848 4,365 1938... 5,764 4,593 443 390 6,207 4,983 1939... 7,674 4,005 417 416 8,091 4,421 1940... 6,554 3,626 337 279 6,891 3,905 1941... 5,330 3,314 244 279 5,574 3,593 1942... 7,080 4,879 216 206 7,296 5,085 ______________________________________________________________________________________ TOTAL 46,606 30,487 2,406 1,963 49,012 32,450 ______________________________________________________________________________________ - 248 - APPENDIX 8 R&G Branch - 1959 to 1962 (Extracted from R&G Report, 1962) TESTED 1959 1960 1961 1962 Primary Secondary Research At Office 15,133 8,363 278 1,123 16,665 10,133 1,124 1,419 15,609 12,834 935 1,557 13,870 14,566 349 1,767 Total ------24,897 ------29,341 -----30,935 -----30,552 ------- ------- ------ ------ 869 582 247 -----1,698 686 716 323 -----1,725 795 680 415 -----1,890 698 693 193 -----1,584 ------ ------ ------ ------ 9,970 1,641 2,073 1,113 -----14,797 10,322 1,566 1,245 1,147 -----14,280 12,237 2,798 2,282 1,216 -----18,533 12,102 2,726 2,335 1,106 -----18,269 ------ ------ ------ ------ 7,553 1,647 2,499 458 ------12,157 ------- 8,189 2,026 2,949 442 ------13,606 ------- 8,871 2,140 3,126 350 -----14,487 ------ GROUP: INDIVIDUAL (CLINICAL): In Schools At Office Re-Tests at Office Total CHILDREN INTERVIEWED In Schools Re-Interviews in Schls At Office Re-Interviews at Office Total ADULTS INTERVIEWED Parents in Schools C'wealth Scholars Parents at Office Others Total 7,014 1,655 2,321 107 ------11,097 ------- - 249 - APPENDIX 8 [CONT] TESTED 1959 1960 1961 1962 2,305 1,437 2,224 1,746 2,823 2,246 3,141 2,567 968 900 917 790 45 15 30 50 19 33 51 22 36 SPEECH CORRECTION Speech Defectives Treated Parents Interviewed GUIDANCE TALKS SCHOOLS VISITED Metropolitan Primary Metropolitan Secon. Country Secondary 54 20 40 RESEARCH AND GUIDANCE STAFF FROM 1958 - 1964 Year Guidance Research CSS Clerical Spec Educ Total 1958 14 1 5 5 10 35 1959 17 3 6 5 15 46 1960 18 2 6 5 17 48 1961 20 2 6 6 20 54 1962 18 2 6 7 22 55 1963 21 2 6 7 25 61 1964 21 2 7 5 24 59 - 250 - APPENDIX 8 [CONT] TABLE V: SENIOR STUDENTS INTERVIEWED IN COUNTRY HIGH SCHOOLS, 1958 - 1962 (R&G Report, 1962, p.15) Senior Students Interviewed 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 120 277 324 498 630 25 43 56 74 72 Percentage of Students tested GUIDANCE STATISTICS - METROPOLITAN AND COUNTRY HIGH SCHOOLS 1959-64 (Extracted from R&G Reports, 1962-64) 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 TESTED Country 10,183 Metrop. 16,412 11,352 19,714 12,668 20,076 13,115 19,021 13,127 15,614 16,049 31,653 TOTAL 31,066 32,744 32,136 28,741 47,702 CHILDREN INTERVIEWED Country 3,257 Metrop. 11,540 3,572 10,708 4,480 14,053 5,000 13,269 4,938 14,158 4,476 12,666 TOTAL 14,280 18,533 18,269 19,096 17,142 ADULTS INTERVIEWED Country 2,944 Metrop. 8,153 3,221 8,936 3,863 9,743 4,452 10,035 4,413 10,315 3,987 6,670 Total 12,157 13,606 14,487 14,728 10,657 33 36 40 40 42 50 51 54 57 - 19 22 20 27 29 264 301 314 310 307 530 615 685 670 789 26,595 14,797 11,097 SCHOOLS VISITED Country Sec 30 Metrop (Prim) 45 Metrop (Sec) 30 COUNTRY Class talks 240 ManDays 458 - 251 - Appendix 9 Clinical Cases of R&G Branch - 1955 TABLE I: SOURCES OF REFERRAL OF CLINICAL CASES FOR 1955 Referred By Surveys Teachers Doctors and Hospitals Parents School Health Services Speech Correctionists Ascertainment Committee (Oral Deaf School) Department of Public Instruction Commonwealth Acoustic Laboratory Guidance Officers Spastic Centre Psychiatric Clinic Remedial Education Centre Bush Children's Health Scheme Soldiers' Children's Education Scheme M.L.A.'s Canteen Trust Fund TOTAL Number referred 528 406 97 96 46 31 17 14 13 11 9 9 7 6 3 3 1 1,297 TABLE II: REASONS FOR REFERRAL OF CLINICAL CASES 1955 Reason for Referral BACKWARDNESS General backwardness Specific Backwardness - (a) Verbal (b) Number PHYSICALLY HANDICAPPED General health defects Speech Deafness Spastic BEHAVIOUR PROBLEM At home At School SUITABILITY ASSESSMENT Opportunity school Oral Deaf School Montrose Home Educability Employability Number Referred TOTAL 1,297 267 34 19 38 68 3 22 27 41 718 22 9 25 4 - 252 - APPENDIX 10 Clinical Cases - 1957 to 1970 This Appendix reveals the shifts in and between the "normalising" distributions of a clinical guidance taxonomy over a fourteen year period (R&G Reports, 1957-70). REASONS FOR REFERRAL OF NEW CLINICAL CASES Reason for Referral 1957 1958 1959 1965 1970 BACKWARDNESS General backwardness Specific Backwardness 299 22 559 46 1,138 138 1,359 38 2,215 209 PHYSICALLY HANDICAPPED General health defects Deafness Spastic Oral Deaf Assessment Montrose School Assessment Blind Cootheringa School Assess. Multiple Handicap Defect of Hearing Spacticity Defect of Vision Other Physical Defects 13 2 18 * * * * * * * 4 1 3 14 18 * * * * * * * 4 9 28 19 13 2 6 * * * * * * 42 28 34 * 59 19 35 59 SPEECH Stammering Other Defects 22 22 11 24 11 25 - - Speech Defects * * * 19 9 BEHAVIOUR PROBLEM At home At School 73 15 - - - - Behaviour Disorder Habit Disorder * * * * * * 51 4 - EMOTIONAL INSTABILITY Emotionally Disturbed Behaviour Problem * * 39 68 36 67 - - Personality Problems Behaviour Disorder School Readiness Problems * * * * * * * * * 2 * * 4 54 44 - 253 - Appendix 10 [cont] NEW CLINICAL CASES REASON FOR REFERRAL 1957 1958 1959 1965 1970 Opportunity school 372 250 36 - - Oral Deaf School 12 - - - - Montrose Home 14 - - - - Educability 26 97 16 - - Employability 11 6 3 - - Mental Retardation * * * 27 27 921 1,140 1,451 1,665 2,374 SUITABILITY ASSESSMENT TOTAL * this category was not stated; - no further references made to the particular category Table IV: Enrolments in Opportunity Schools and Classes in 1958 (Extracted from R&G Report, 1959, p.17) School or Classes No. on Roll Dutton Park Opportunity School 140 Fortitude Valley Opportunity School 120 Rockhampton Opportunity School l60 Ipswich Opportunity School 37 Cairns Opportunity School 40 Townsville Opportunity School 40 Darling Point Opportunity School 34 Bundaberg Opportunity Classes 38 Petrie Terrace Opportunity Classes 61 Sandgate Opportunity Classes 40 TOTAL 610 - 254 - Appendix 11 Backwardness - 1958 Distributions of IQ's and ages of all Pupils enrolled in opportunity schools and classes in Decemeber, 1958 AGE UNDER 50-9 60-9 70-9 80-9 90+ N 50 15+ 1 4 5 1 1 - 12 14 6/12 14 0/12 1 1 3 10 7 9 5 15 4 6 2 20 43 13 6/12 13 0/12 1 2 7 4 30 10 28 20 7 9 1 2 74 47 12 6/12 12 0/12 1 4 7 16 12 27 24 11 36 1 2 59 62 11 6/12 11 0/12 - 5 6 15 12 27 20 14 15 3 4 64 57 10 6/12 10 0/12 1 - 4 3 15 9 14 13 7 9 1 3 42 37 9 6/12 9 0/12 - 5 2 9 10 8 15 4 5 1 - 27 32 8 6/12 8 0/12 - 1 - 3 3 5 1 2 1 1 - 12 5 N 8 65 165 223 111 21 593 The above represents an abbreviation of Table V in the annual report of the R&G Branch wherein the average IQ was stated to be 71.6. The average IQs for the various schools ranged from 70 to 75. Over 250 children with an IQ score of 75 or more were enrolled in the opportunity schools throughout Queensland (R&G Report, 1959, p.18). - 255 - Appendix 12 League Table of Top Fifty Senior Students for 1961 This table was extracted from detailed information prepared in response to a request by the Commonwealth Office of Education seeking a listing of the top seventy students in Queensland (Australian Archives (Qld): (1961) ___________________________________________________________________________ GRAMM Pupils SHS Pupils F F M PRIV Pupils M F TOTAL M F M _____________________________________________________________________________ Bris Metrop 10 3 - 7 4 3 14 13 Other 1 1 1 15 2 3 4 19 ___________________________________________________________________________ Sub Total 11 4 1 22 6 6 18 32 ____________________________________________________________________________ TOTAL 15 23 12 50 ___________________________________________________________________________ % of Total 30% 46% 24% 100% ____________________________________________________________________________ No. of Schools 4 10 9 23 ____________________________________________________________________________ - 256 - Appendix 13 League Table of High Performance in Senior for 1994 This table was extracted from information appearing in Courier Mail (1995d and 1995e) ___________________________________________________________________________ GRAMM Pupils SHS Pupils PRIV Pupils TOTAL Pupils OP1 OP1-7 OP1 OP1-7 OP1 OP1-7 OP1 OP1-7 _____________________________________________________________________________ Brisbane -Ipswich 17 Brisbane-South Brisbane-North 115 63 28 242 292 33 25 35 430 301 350 57 49 80 516 538 757 90 137 946 1081 ___________________________________________________________________________ Sub-Total Brisbane Metropolitan 80 357 86 1023 141 1404 307 2784 ____________________________________________________________________________ Cairns Mackay Rockhampton Sunshine Coast Gold Coast Toowoomba Wide Bay Townsville 4 8 3 41 34 22 14 1 11 16 18 23 11 12 172 101 128 224 280 222 250 169 5 8 12 4 29 27 3 11 83 62 85 81 343 207 37 115 19 9 27 20 47 58 14 26 255 163 254 305 623 463 287 306 ____________________________________________________________________________ Sub-Total Non Metropolitan 15 97 106 1546 99 1013 220 2656 ___________________________________________________________________________ TOTAL 95 454 192 2569 240 % of TOTAL 18% 8% 36% 47% 46% No. of Schools 8 8 75 185 69 2417 527 5440 45% 100% 100% 116 152 309 - 257 - Bibliography 1. BOOKS, PAMPHLETS, PAPERS AND ARTICLES A.C.E.R. (1943), The Future of Education No. 2, A Plan for Australia, Melbourne, Australian Council for Educational Research. Adams, G.S. (1966), Measurement and Evaluation in Education, Psychology, and Guidance, New York, Holt, Rinehart & Winston, Inc, (see Appendix 1). .Adams, J. (1923), "Educational Implications of the I.Q." in The Australasian Journal of Psychology and Philosophy, v.1, pp.177-90. Ames, L., Gillespie, C. and Streff, J. (1972), Stop School Failure, New York, Harper & Row Publishers. Anastasi, A. (1976), Psychological Testing, Fourth Edition, New York, Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc, (see Appendix 1). Anderson, J. (1963), "Methods of Child Psychology", in Carmichael (1963). Anskey, A. (1979), "Musterbation is a health hazard", in Arthy (1979), no.8, August. Arthy, D. (ed), (1978-84), Grope, QIT Counselling Centre, newsletter publication, numbers 5-18, Brisbane. Arthy, D. (1991), Premature Vocational Decision Making, a paper presented at the Australian and New Zealand Student Services Association 7th Triennial Conference, at University of Sydney, 21 - 25 January. Arthy, D, (1995). Beyond phrenology: The beginnings of vocational guidance in Queensland through “Sagax, Capax and Efficax". Australian Journal f 'Guidance and Counselling, 5(1), 1-11. Arthy, D, (1996), “Vocational guidance and government reconstruction of the good citizen: The emergence of vocational guidance in the great depression as a government practice addressing the box, problem”, paper in J. Scott, C. Manathunga & N. Kyle. (Eds.), Proceedings of the Australian and New Zealand History of Education 26tb Annual Conference, Vol. 1 (pp. 21-45). Brisbane: The Australian and New Zealand History of Education Society, Arthy, D, (1997a), “Governance of the vocational personality in the origins of vocational guidance”, Journal of Career Development, 24(2), 115-132. Arthy, D. (1997b), “The CIA connection in careers planning: Psychological and anthropological paradigms of vocational guidance”, paper presented and published in Conference Proceedings of the 7th Australian International AACC Conference, Careering into the Future Crystal Balls & Cyberspace. Brisbane. Arthy, D. (1999), “A Cultural Analysis of Parachutes, Regulators and Helicopters in Career Planning”, Australian Journal of Career Development, Vol. 8, No. 3. Austin, A. G. (1965), Australian Education 1788 - 1900, Church State and Public Education in Colonial Australia, Melbourne, Sir Isaac Pitman & Sons Ltd. Babcock, R.J. (1976), Pastoral Care: Farce of Force? Brisbane, Kelvin Grove College of Advanced Education, Monograph. Barcan, A. (1980), A History of Australian Education, Melbourne, Oxford University Press. Bassett, G.W. (ed.) (1962), Second Conference on School Administration - Administration for Good Schools - 258 - - The Guidance of Pupils, Brisbane, Faculty of Education, University of Queensland, Bassett, G.W., (1962a), "Individualised Teaching", in Bassett (1962). Bassett, G.W. (ed.) (1964), Third Conference on School Administration, Brisbane, Faculty of Education, University of Queensland Bassett, G.W. (1971), Each One is Different, Teaching for Individual Differences in the Primary School, Revised Edition, A contribution to the individual education of Australian children, arising form a conference convened by A.C.E.R. in August, 1962, Hawthorn, Victoria, Australian Council for Educational Research. Beavers, W.S. (1978), Guidance: towards an equal partnership in education", New Horizons in Education , Vol 59, pp22-7. Beavers, W.S. (1978a), "The Role and Importance of Counselling in the Secondary School", in Quest, Vol 59, pp59-63. Beckenham, P.W. (1948), The Education of the Australian Aborigine, Melbourne, Australian Council for Educational Research. Bell, D. (1974), The Coming of Post-Industrial Society: A Venture in Social Forecasting, London, Heinemann Educational Books. Berdie, R.F. (1956), Manpower and the Schools, Melbourne, Australian Council for Educational Research. Berkley, G. and Alford, N. (1974), "A Study of Developed Ability Tests", in Dunn (1974). Binet, A. and Simon, T. with marginal notes by Terman, L. (1980), The Development of Intelligence in Children (The Binet-Simon Scale), Nashville, Williams Printing Company, (first published in 1916). Birch, I.K.F. and Smart, D. (eds.) (1977), The Commonwealth Government and Education 1964-1976, Political Initiatives and Development, Melbourne, Drummond. Blackmore, J. (1988), What's New about the New Vocationalism, paper presented to ANZHES Conference held in Canberra on August 25 - 28th, School of Education, Deakin University. Blum, J.M. (1978), Pseudoscience and Mental Ability, The Origins and Fallacies of the IQ Controversy, New York, Monthly Review Press. Board, P. (1935), "The Development of Secondary Education in Australia", in Cole (1935). Bono and Foucault (1986), "The Risks of Security - Security and Dependency: a diabolical pair?", a discussion between Michel Foucault and Robert Bono, in History of the Present, Spring. Boreham, P., Pemberton, A. and Wilson, P. (1976), The Professions in Australia, Brisbane, University of Queensland Press. Borow, H. (ed.) (1964), Man in a World at Work, Boston, Houghton Mifflin Company. Borow, H. (ed) (1973), Career Guidance for a New Age, Boston, Houghton Mifflin. Bourdieu, P. (1990), Homo Academicus, Cambridge, Polity Press. Bourdieu, P. & Passeron, J.C. (1979), The Inheritors, French Students and Their Relation to Culture, Chigago, The University of Chigago Press. Bourdieu, P. & Passeron, J.C. (1990), Reproduction in Education, Society and Culture, London, Sage - 259 Publication. Brammer, L. (1973), The Helping Relationship, Process and Skills, Englewood Cliffs, Prentice-Hall Inc. Brammer, L. and Shostrum, E. (1977), Therapeutic Psychology, Fundamentals of Counseling and Psychotherapy, Englewood Cliffs, Prentice-Hall Inc. Brewer, J. (1942), History of Vocational Guidance, Origins and Early Development, New York, Harper & Brothers Publishers. Brown, C. (1973), Bibliography of Australian Education from Colonial Times to 1972, Melbourne, Australian Council for Educational Research. Browne, G.S. (ed.) (1927), Education in Australia, A Comparative Study of the Educational Systems of the Six Australian States, London, Macmillan and Co. Limited. Bruce, D.W., Hengeveld, M. and Radford, W.C. (1971), Some cognitive skills in aboriginal children in Victorian primary schools, Hawthorn, Vic, ACER, 32p (Progress Report, no.2). Buckman, N. (1962), Some Aspects of Early Leaving, A Review of Research, Melbourne, Australian Council for Educational Research. Burchell, G., Gordon, C. and Miller, P. (eds) (1991), The Foucault Effect, Studies in Governmentality, London, Harvester Wheatsheaf. Burt, C. (1922), "Tests for Clerical Occupations", Journal of the National Institute of Industrial Psychology, pp.23- 27; 79-81. Burt, C. (1924), "The Principles of Vocational Guidance", in VIIth International Congress of Psychology, held at Oxford from July 26 to August 2, 1923 under the Presidency of Charles S. Myers, Proceedings and Papers, C. Myers (ed), London, Cambridge University Press. Burt, C. (1935), The Subnormal Mind, London, Oxford University Press. Burt, C. (1937), The Backward Child, London, University of London Press, Ltd. Burt, C. (1943), "Ability and Income", British Journal of Educational Psychology, vol 13, June. Burt, C. (1943a), "The Education of the Young Adolescent: the Psychological Implications of the Norwood Report", British Journal of Educational Psychology, vol. 13. Burt, C. (1947), Mental and Scholastic Tests Second Edition, London, Staples Press Limited. Buss, A. R. (ed) (1979), Psychology in Social Context, New York, Irvington Publishers, Inc. Butts, R.F. (1957), Assumptions underlying Australian Education, Melbourne, Australian Council for Educational Research. Cameron, R.G. (1935), "The Activities which the Curriculum Entails", in Cole (1935). Canguilhem, G. (1980), "What is Psychology?", in Ideology and Consciousness, V7, Autumn. Carkhuff, R.R. (1969), Helping and Human Relations, A Primer for Lay and Professional Helpers, Volume II Practice and Research, New York, Holt Rinehart and Winston Inc. Carrithers, S., Collins, S. and Lukes, S. (eds.) (1985), The Category of the person, Anthropology, philosophy, history, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. - 260 Carmichael, L. (ed), (1963), Manual of Child Psychology Second Edition, New York, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Cartan, S. (1971), "Use of the Queensland Test in the Subnormal Population", in Australian Journal of Mental Retardation, 1: 231-4. Cartwright, D. and Zander, A. (eds) (1968), Group Dynamics, Research and Theory, Third Edition, New York, Harper & Row, Publishers, (first published in 1953) (see Appendix 1). Clegg, S. and Dunkerley, D. (1980), Organization, Class and Control, London, Routledge and Kegan Paul. Cole, P.R. (ed) (1932), The Primary School Curriculum in Australia, Educational Research Series, No 16, , Melbourne, Melbourne University Press for the Australian Council for Educational Research. Cole, P.R. (ed) (1935), Educational Research Series, No 32 The Education of the Adolescent in Australia, Melbourne, published for Australian Council for Educational Research by Melbourne University Press. Cole, P.R. and Whately, R.K. (1932), "Standardised Tests of Teaching Ability", in Cunningham, et al, (1932), pp.52-74. Collmann, R.D., and Jorgensen, C. (1935), Three Studies in the Prediction of Scholastic Success, Melbourne, Melbourne Univeristiy Press, ACER Educational Research Series, no.35. Collmann, R.D., Marshall, A.J. and Thomas, R. (1934), Three Studies in the Comparative Intelligence of English, American and Australian Children, Melbourne, Melbourne University Press. Connell, R.W. (1977), Ruling Class, Ruling Culture, Melbourne, Cambridge University Press. Connell, W. F. (1980), The Australian Council for Educational Research 1930-80, Hawthorn, Vic, The Australian Council for Educational Research Limited. Cook, P.H. (1944), The Theory and Technique of Child Guidance, Melbourne, published for The Australian Council for Educational Research by Melbourne University Press. Cook, P.H. (1949), "The Work of Psychologists in Australian Industry", in Occupational Psychology, v.23, pp.38-46. Cook, P.H. (1960), "This business of vocational guidance", in Personnel Practice Bulletin, v.16, pp.31-7. Coward, R. and Ellis, J. (1986), Language and Materialism - Developments in Semiology and the Theory of the Subject, London, Routledge & Kegan Paul. Cramer, J.F. (1936), Australian Schools Through American Eyes, Melbourne, Melbourne University Press for the Australian Council for Educational Research. Cronbach, L.J. (1984), The Essentials of Psychological Testing, Fourth Edition, New York, Harper & Row, (first published in 1949), (see Appendix 1). Cunningham, K.S. (1916), "Binet and Porteus tests compared: examination of one hundred school journals", in Journal of Educational Psychology, v.7(10), pp.552-556. Cunningham, K.S. (1923), "Experimental Education", in Education Gazette and Teachers' Aid, Melbourne, 19th April, p.72. Cunningham, K.S. (1931), "Why Children are 'Naughty'", in Cunningham et al (1931). Cunningham, K.S. (1932), "The Relation of the Curriculum to Industrial and Social Needs", in Cole (1932). - 261 Cunningham, K.S. (1934), Educational Observations and Reflections, Being Some Comment on Present Day Education in United States, England, and Australia, Melbourne, Melbourne University Press for the Australian Council for Educational Research. Cunningham, K.S. (1935), "Admissions Requirments, Tests and Examinations", in Cole (1935). Cunningham, K.S. (1942), The Scientific Selection of Personnel, an address delivered to the Institute of Industrial Management, Melbourne, Victorian Chamber of Manufacturers. Cunningham, K.S. (1943), "The Use of Psychological Methods in War-time Australia", in Occupational Psychology, v.17, pp.111-15. Cunningham, K.S. (1953), Success and Failure in Australian Universtities, Hawthorn, Australian Council for Educational Research. Cunningham, K.S., Limb, B., Parker, H.T., Cole, P.R., Whatley, R.K., and Gutteridge, M.V. (1932), Australian Educational Studies, (First Series), Melbourne, Melbourne University Press for the Australian Council for Educational Research. Cunningham, K.S., Pratt, J.J. (1940), Review of Education in Australia, 1939, Melbourne, published for Australian Council for Educational Research by Melbourne University Press. Cunningham, K.S. and Radford, W.C. (1938), Education for Complete Living. The Challenge of To-day, The Proceedings of the New Education Fellowship Conference Held in Australia August 1 to September 20, 1937, Melbourne, Australian Council for Educational Research. Cunningham and Radford (1957) in Appendix A, "Evidence presented by Dr. K.S. Cunningham [Director] and Dr. W.C. Radford, Representatives of the Australian Council for Educational Research", in Wyndham Report, 1957. Cunningham, K.S., Williams, J.F., Gutteridge, M.V., Springthorpe, G. and Gunn, J.A. (1931), The Young Child, A Series of Five Lectures on Child Management, Given Under the Auspices of the Victorian Council for Mental Hygiene, November 1930, Melbourne, Melbourne University Press. Donzelot, J. (1979), The Policing of Families, New York, Pantheon Books. Dreyfus, H. and Rabinow, P. (1986), Michel Foucault Beyond Structuralism and Hermeneutics, Brighton, The Harvester Press. Duncan, W.A. (1850), Lecture on National Education, Delivered at the School of Arts, Brisbane on Thursday, The 20 June, 1850, Brisbane, James Swan. (The first booklet printed in Queensland). Duncan, W.G.K. (ed.) (1936), Educating a Democracy, Sydney, Angus & Robertson Ltd. Dunn, L. (ed.) (1973), Exceptional Children in the Schools, Special Education in Transition, Second Edition, New York, Holt,Rinehart & Winston, first published in 1963, (see Appendix 1). Dunn, L.M. (1973a), "An Overview", in Dunn, (1973), (see Appendix 1). Dunn, L.M. (1973b), "Children with Moderate and Severe General Learning Disabilities", in Dunn, (1973), (see Appendix 1). Dunn, S.S. (1974), Public Examinations, The Changing Scene, Adelaide, Rigby Limited. Dunn, S.S. and Radford, W.C. (1974), "Where Next?", in Dunn (1974). Eco, U. (1976), A Theory of Semiotics, Indiana University Press, Bloomington. - 262 - Economic News, (1949), "A test of the success of vocational guidance", Brisbane, Queensland Bureau of Industry, January, v.18, no.1, pp.1-4. Egan, G. (1975), The Skilled Helper A Model for Systematic Helping and Interpersonal Relations, Monterey, Brooks/Cole Publishing Company. Egan, G. (1976), Interpersonal Living A Skills/Contract Approach to Human Relations Training in Groups, Monterey, Brooks/Cole Publishing Company. Elias, N. (1968), The Civilizing Process The History of Manners, Oxford, Basil Blackwell. Evans, B. and Waites, B. (1981), IQ and Mental Testing, An Unnatural Science and its Social History, New Jersey, Humanities Press. Ewan, R.B. (1988), An Introduction to Theories of Personality, Third Edition, Hillsdale, New Jersey, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers. Fitzgerald, L.F. and Rounds, J.B. (1989), "Vocational Behavior, 1988: A Critical Analysis", in Journal of Vocational Behavior, 1989, 35 (2), 105 - 163. Foucault, M. (1979), Discipline and Punish - The Birth of the Prison, London, Penguin Books Ltd. Foucault, M. (1979a), The History of Sexuality - Volume 1: An Introduction, London, Allen Lane. Foucault, M. (1979b), "On Governmentality", in Ideology and Consciousness, 6, 5 - 22. Foucault, M. (1980), "Georges Canguilhem: philosopher of error", in Ideology and Consciousness, Volume 7, Autumn. Foucault, M. (1988), "Technologies of the Self", in Martin, Gutman and Hutton (1988) Foucault, M. (1991), "Governmentality", in Burchell, Gordon and Miller (1991). Foucault, M. and Bono, R. (1986), "The Risks of Security, Security and Dependency: A Diabolical Pair?", in History of the Present, Spring, pp.4-5 and pp.11-4. Giles. G.R. (1932), "Vocational Guidance in Australia in 1932", in International Labour Review, 26, 530-543. Giles, G.R. (1929), "Boys' Vocational Desires, A Study of Vocational Interests of Adolescent Boys", in The Australasian Journal of Psychology and Philosophy, v.7, pp.212-8. Giles, G.R. (1936), Careers? for Boys & Girls, Melbourne, published for The Boys' Employment Movement by Robertson & Mullens Limited. Glasser, W. (1969), Schools Without Failure, New York, Harper & Row. Goodman, R. (1968), Secondary Education in Queensland, 1860 - 1960, Canberra, Australian National University Press. Gould, S. J. (1981), The Mismeasure of Man, New York, W.W. Norton & Company. Grant, W.H. (1972), "Introduction", in Stefflre and Grant (1972), see Appendix 1. Griffiths, R. (1981), "Personality Assessment", in Mittler (1981), pp.83-132, (see Appendix 1). Haine, H.E. (1963), Classroom Psychology, Brisbane, Jacaranda Press Pty Ltd. Hales, N. M. (1932), An Advanced Test of General Intelligence, A Report on the Revision, Extension and Standardization of a form of the American Army Examination Alpha, Melbourne, The University - 263 Press, issued by the Australian Council for Education Research. Halmos, P. (1973), The Faith of the Counsellors, Trowbridge, Redwood Press Ltd. Hammersley, M. and Atkinson, P. (1989), Ethnography, Principles and Practice, London, Routledge. Hanger, T. (1963), Sixty Years in Queensland Schools, Sydney, Wentworth Books. Hansen, L. and Borow, H. (1973), "Towards Effective Practice: Emerging Models and Programs", in Borow (1973). Harms, E. (ed.) (1947), Handbook of Child Guidance, New York, Child Care Publications. Hart, J. and Tomlinson, T. (1970) (eds), New Directions in Client-Centred Therapy, Boston, Houghton Miflin Company. Herbart, J.F. (1897), The Science of Education Its General Principles Deduced from its Aim and The Aesthetic Revelation of the World, London, Swan Sonnenschein & Co., Lim. Herink R. (ed.), (1980), The Psychotherapy Handbook, New York, New American Library. Herr, E. and Cramer, S. (1972), Vocational Guidance and Careers Development in the Schools, Boston, Houghton Mifflin Company. Hirst, P. and Woolley, P. (1984), Social Relations and Human Attributes, London, Tavistock Publications. Hoppock, R. (1949), Group Guidance, Principles, Techniques, and Evaluation, First Edition, New York, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc. Hopson, B. and Hayes, J. (eds) (1968), The Theory and Practice of Vocational Guidance, A Selection of Readings, Oxford, Pergamon Press. Howell, M.A. (1986), "Headmaster's Report", in Brisbane Grammar School Annual Report, 1986. Hoy, D.C. (ed) (1986), Foucault A Critical Reader, Oxford, Basil Blackwell. Hughes, F. (1971), Reading and Writing before School, New York, St. Martins Press, (see Appendix 1). Hunter, I. (1988), Culture and Government The Emergence of Literary Education, London, Macmillan Press. Hunter, I. (1994), Rethinking the School Subjectivity, bureaucracy, criticism, St. Leonards, Allen & Unwin. Hunter, I., Meredyth, D., Smith, B. and Stokes, G. (1988), Re-Thinking The Role Of The Humanities In The University Sector, A Submission to the Senate Committee Inquiry Into Higher Education, Brisbane, Developed for the Institute for Cultural Policy Studies in the Division of Humanities, Griffith University. Hunter, I., Meredyth, D., Smith, B. and Stokes, G. (1991), Accounting for the Humanities the language of culture and the logic of government, Brisbane, Institute for Cultural Policy Studies, Division of Humanities, Griffith University. Hurlock, E. (1967), Adolescent Development , New York, McGraw-Hill, (first published in 1949), (see Appendix 1). Hyndman, K. and Patching, B. (1995), "Common Sense Assumptions and Language in Career Counselling", in Australian Journal of Career Development, Winter. - 264 Illich, I. (1970), Deschooling Society, London, 1976. Irving, T., Maunders, D. and Sherington, G. (1995), Youth in Australia, Policy Administration and Politics, A History since World War II, Melbourne, Macmillan Education Pty Ltd. Jackson, P. (1978), "Counselling and Gestalt", in Arthy (1978), no.6, November. Jackson, R. (1962), Emergent Needs in Australian Education, Melbourne, Australian Council for Educational Research. Jones, A.J. (1945), Principles of Guidance, 3rd Edition, New York, McGraw Hill, (first published in 1930). Kamin, L. (1977), The Science and Politics of IQ, London, Penguin. Kanner, L., (1960), "Itard, Seguin, Howe - Three Pioneers in the Education of Retarded Children", in American Journal of Mental Deficiency, July, vol.65, no.1, pp.2-10. Kearney, G.E. and McElwain, D.W. (1976), Aboriginal Cognition, Retrospect and Prospect, Canberra, Australian Institute of Aboriginal Studies. Keepes, B.D. and Keepes, J.M. (1974), "Practices in the U.S.A. and their Relevance to Australia", in Dunn (1974). Keller, F. and Viteles, M.S. (1937), Vocational Guidance Throughout the World, A Comparative Survey, London, Jonathan Cape. Kelvin Grove CAE (1979), Accreditation Submission to the Board of Advanced Education for Approval of a Course Leading to the Award of Graduate Diploma in Counselling, Brisbane, Kelvin Grove CAE, September. Kerlinger, F. N. (1973), Foundations of Behavioural Research, Second Edition, New York, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc, (first published in 1964), (see Appendix 1). Kinnier, R., Brigman, S. and Noble, F. (1990), "Career Indecision and Family Enmeshment", in Journal of Counselling & Development, v.68, January/February. Kirk, S.A. and Gallagher, J.J. (1983), Educating Exceptional Children, Boston, Houghton Mifflin Company. Knudsen, P. (1977), "The Guidance Officer a new role?", in Quest, v.21, p.33. Lawry, J.R. (1972), "Charles Lilley and his Vision of the Queensland System", in Pioneers of Australian Education, Volume 2 Studies in the Development of Education in the Australian Colonies 1850 - 1900, edited by C.Turney, Sydney, Sydney University Press. Lewontin, R.C. (1991), "Facts and the Factitious in Natural Sciences", in Critical Enquiry 18 Autumn. Linz, C.C. (1938), The Establishment of a National System of Education in New South Wales, Melbourne, published for Australian Council for Educational Research by Melbourne University Press. Logan, G.N. and Clarke, E. (1984), State Education in Queensland: A Brief History, monograph on the History of Education in Queensland, Brisbane, Department of Education. Lopez, G. and Andrews, S. (1987), "Career Indecision: A Family Systems Perspective", in Journal of Counselling and Development, February, v.65, pp.304-7. Loos, N. (1982), Invasion and Resistance, Aboriginal-European relations on the North Queensland frontier 1861 - 1897, Canberra, Australian National University Press. - 265 Lovell, H.T. (1932), "Educational Measurement and the Curriculum", in Cole (1932). Lovell, H.T. (1935), "Psychological and Social Characteristics of Adolescence" in Cole (1935). Lukes, S. (1979), Individualism, Oxford, A Blackwell Paperback. Lynch, K. (1989), The Hidden Curriculum, Reproduction in education, an appraisal, London, The Palmer Press. Lynagh, I. (1977), "Feeling Well by Thinking Straight", in Throssell (1977), no.2, July. Lynagh, I. (1978), "Counselling: Luxury Service.. Or is it?", in Arthy (1978), no.5, August. Lynagh, I. (1979), "Let's Relax", in Arthy (1979), no.9, November. Lynagh, I. (1980), "Baby Let Your Mind Roll On", in Arthy (1980), no.11, September. Lynagh, I. (1980a), "On Stress", in Arthy (1980), no.11, September. Mackie, A. (1936), "The Education Needs of Today", in Duncan (1936). Magary, J.F. (ed.) (1967), School Psychological Services, In Theory and Practice, A Handbook, New Jersey, Prentice-Hall, Inc, (see Appendix 1). Malherbe, E.G. (1938), in Cunningham and Radford, (1938). Martin, A.H., (1931), "Some Problems of Vocational Guidance and some Useful Books", in The Australasian Journal of Psychology and Philosophy, v.9, pp.299-306. Martin, L., Gutman, H. and Hutton, P. (eds), (1988), Technologies of The Self, London, Tavistock Publications Ltd. Martinson, R. and Smallenburg, H. (1958), Guidance in Elementary Schools, New Jersey, Prentice-Hall, Inc, (see Appendix 1). Marshall, T.H. (1963), Sociology at the Crossroads, London, Heinemann. Matarazzo, J.D. (1976), Wechsler's Measurement and Appraisal of Adult Intelligence, Fifth Edition, Baltimore, The Williams & Wilkins Company, (first published in 1939). Mauss, M. (1985), "A category of the human mind: the notion of person; the notion of self", in Carrithers, et al, (eds) (1985). McCallum, D. (1990), The Social Production of Merit: Education, Psychology and Politics in Australia 1900 - 1950, London, The Palmer Press. McCowan, C. (1987), Career Education & Counselling in Secondary Schools and Colleges, Canberra, Curriculum Development Centre. McCulloch, R. (1964), "The Grouping of Pupils as a Changing Aspect of School Administration", in Bassett (1964), pp.53-65. McDaniels, C. and Watts, G. (eds) (1994), Journal of Career Development, A Thematic Issue of the Life and Work of Frank Parsons, v.20, no.4 Summer. McDonell, W. (1975), Testing for Student Selection at Tertiary level: A Literature Review, Hawthorn, Vic., Australian Council for Educational Research. - 266 McIntyre, G.A. (1938), The Standardization of Intelligence Tests in Australia, Melbourne, Melbourne University Press. McRae, C.R. (1934), Psychology and Education, Third Edition, Sydney, Whitcombe and Tombs Limited. Meadmore, D. (1989), "The ideology of intelligence: its origins and its effects", in Education Links, vol.35, autumn, pp.9-11. Meadmore, D. (1990), Selection and Control: Secondary Schooling in Queensland 1860 - 1964, Queensland University of Technology, paper presented to T.A.S.A. conference held at University of Queensland, Brisbane in December. Medley, J.D.G. (1943), The Future of Education No 1, Education for Democracy, Melbourne, Australian Council for Educational Research. Meredyth, D. and Tyler, D. (eds) (1993), Child and Citizen genealogies of schooling and subjectivity, Brisbane, Institute of Cultural Policy Studies, Faculty of Humanities, Griffith University. Miller. P. and Rose, N., (eds) (1986), The Power of Psychiatry, Cambridge, Polity Press. Miller. P. and Rose, N., (eds) (1994), "On therapeutic authority; psychoanalytical expertise under advanced liberalism", History of the Human Sciences, v.7 no.3, pp.29-64. Mittler, P. (ed) (1981), The Psychological Assessment of Mental and Physical Handicaps, London, Tavistock Publications, (first published in 1970), (see Appendix 1). Moor, C.H. (1976), From School to Work - Effective Counselling and Guidance, London, Sage Publications, Volume 3. Moore, W.E. (1974), "Some Functions of Examinations", in Dunn (1974). Moyle, D. and Moyle, L. (1972), Modern Innovation in Teaching of Reading, London, University of London Press Ltd, (see Appendix 1). Muscio, B. (1974), Lectures on Industrial Psychology, Second Edition (Revised), Easton, Hive Publishing Company, (first published in 1920). Mussen, P.H., Conger, J.J. and Kagan, J. (1970), Readings in Child Development and Personality, Second Edition, New York, Harper & Row, Publishers, (first published in 1965), (see Appendix 1). Newling, C.B. (1962), "Methods of Promoting Pupil Responsibility", in Bassett (1962). Nixon M. and Taft R. (eds) (1977), Psychology in Australia, Achievements and Prospects, Sydney, Pergamon Press. Norris, W., Zeran, F. and Hatch, R. (1969), The Information Service in Guidance, Occupational/ Educational/ Social, Chigago, Rand McNally & Company, (see Appendix 1). O'Brien, M. (1980), "Helping Students", in Arthy (1980), no.10, March. O'Brien, M. (1981), "Stress and Concentration", in Arthy (1981), no.13, August. O'Brien, M. (1983), "Being Evaluated - Being of Value", in Arthy (1984), no.17, August. O'Donnell, D. (1977), "How much should the Guidance Officer tell?", in Queensland Teachers Journal, v.82, pp.288-90. Oeser, O.A. (ed.) (1960), Teacher, Pupil, and Task: Elements of Social Psychology applied to Education - A - 267 - Practical Manual for Teachers, London, Tavistock. Okun, B. (1976), Effective Helping, Interviewing and Counseling Techniques, North Scituate, Duxbury Press. O'Neil, W.M. (1944), From School to Work, A Plea for Vocational Guidance, Melbourne, Australian Council for Education Research. O'Neil, W.M. (1977) in Nixon and Taft (1977). O'Neil, (1982), The Beginnings of Modern Psychology Second Revised Edition, Sydney, Sydney University Press. O'Neil, W.M. (1987), A Century of Psychology in Australia, Sydney, Sydney University Press. O'Neil, W.M. and Young, J.P. (1944), Vocational Guidance of the Disabled Soldier, Sydney, Government Printer for the Technical Education Branch. Osipow, S. (1973), Theories of Career Development, Second Edition, New Jersey, Prentice-Hall, Inc, (first published in 1968), (see Appendix 1). O'Sullivan, M. (1972), Let the Client Choose, London, Bedford Square Press. Parker, H.T., (1935), The Background of American Education As an Australian Sees It, Melbourne, Melbourne University Press for the Australian Council for Educational Research. Parsons, F. (1967), Choosing a Vocation, New York, Agathon Press, Inc, original edition published in 1909. Phillips, G.E. (1924), Measurement of General Ability: An Australian Revision and Extension of the Binet-Simon Scale, Sydney, Teachers College Press and Angus and Robertson. Peters, H.J. and Hansen, J.C. (eds) (1977), Vocational Guidance and Career Development, Selected Readings, Third Edition, New York, Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc, (first published in 1966), (see Appendix 1). Portus, G.V. (1937), Free, Compulsory, and Secular. A Critical Estimate of Australian Education, London, Published for the Institute of Education by the Oxford University Press. Powell, H. and Chansky, N. (1967), "The Evaluation of Academic Disablities", in Magary (1967), pp.523-55, (see Appendix 1). Queensland Teachers' Union, (QTU) (1941), "Vocational Guidance", Queensland Teachers Journal, v.46 (6), pp.1-2. Radford, W.C. (1962), "Evaluating, Recording and Reporting Pupil Progress", in Bassett (1962). Radford, W.C. (1966), Staying Longer at School, An examination of some statistics of enrolments and discussion of certain features of the tendency to stay longer at school, Hawthorn, Australian Council for Educational Research, Information Bulletin, No.2, Series No: 47. Radford, W.C. (1974), "Trends in Australia, New Zealand and Scotland", in Dunn (1974). Rechter, B. (1970), Admission to tertiary studies - an account of an experimental test battery and a proposal for its use, Hawthorn, Vic, Australian Council for Educational Research. Richmond, W.K. (1973), The School Curriculum. London, Methuen & Co. Ltd, (first published in 1971), (see Appendix 1). Rogers, C. (1951), Client Centred Therapy: Its Current Practice, Implications and Theory, Boston, - 268 Houghton/Mifflin and Company. Rogers, C. (1973), Encounter Groups, London, Penguin. Rose, N. (1985), The Psychological Complex. Psychology, Politics and Society in England 1869 - 1939, London, Routledge & Kegan Paul. Rose, N. (1988), "Calculable minds and manageable individuals", in History of the Human Sciences, Vol 1. No 2. Rose, N. (1990), Governing the soul - The shaping of the private self, London, Routledge. Rose, N. (1994), Identity, Genealogy, History, London, Department of Sociology, paper for S. Hall and P. du Gay, eds., Questions of Cultural Identity, London, Sage, 1995. Rose, S., Lewontin, R.C. and Kamin, L. (1988), Not In Our Genes Biology, Ideology, and Human Nature, London, Penguin Books. Rosenthal, R. and Jacobson, L. (1968), Pygmalion in the Classroom, New York, Rinehart and Winston. Rowlands, R.G. (1974), "Moderation", in Dunn (1974). Samelson, F. (1979), "Putting Psychology on the Map: Ideology and Intelligence Testing", in Buss (1979). Sanders, C. (1958), Report on Academic Wastage and Failure among University Students in Australia and Other Countries, 1928-58; A Review Of Research and Opinion, Perth, Faculty of Education, University of Western Australia. Sanders, C. (1961), Psychological and Educational Bases of Academic Performance, Melbourne, Australian Council for Educational Research. Schonell, F. (1965), Backwardness in the Basic Subjects, Fourth Edition, London, Oliver & Boyd, (first published in 1942) Schonell, F.J., Meddleton, I.G. and Watts, B.H. (1960), School Attainment and Home Backgrounds of Aboriginal Children in Queensland, Brisbane, The University of Queensland Press. Schonell, F.J., Roe, E. and Meddleton, I.G. (1962), Promise and Performance, A Study of Student Progress at University Level, Brisbane, joint publication by University of Queensland Press and University of London Press. Shertzer, B. and Stone, S. (eds.) (1970), Introduction to Guidance: Selected Readings, Boston, Houghton Mifflin Company, (see Appendix 1). Shute, R. (1995), "Inaugural Constance Davey Memorial Lecture", in Australian Journal of Guidance & Counselling, v.5, no.1. Sobel, R. (1980), "Tools for Transformation - Keeping a Psychological Journal", in Arthy (1980), no.11, September. Sobel, R. (1981), "Journey in Self-Transformation", in Arthy (1981), no.13, August. Spaull, A. (1987), A History of the Australian Education Council 1936-1986, Sydney, Allen & Unwin. Spencer, J. (1992), The Thomas Report - 1980 A Study Guide, Armidale, University of New England. Spokane, A. and Glickman, I. (1994), "Light, Information, Inspiration, Cooperation: Origins of the Clinical Science of Career Intervention", in McDaniels and Watts (1994). - 269 - Stefflre, B. and Grant, W.H. (Eds) (1972), Theories of Counselling, Second Edition, New York, McGraw Hill Book Company, (first published in 1965), (see Appendix 1). Stephenson, S. (1923), Annals of the Brisbane Grammar School, 1869-1922, Brisbane, Govt Printer. article by Roe, R.H. (1923), "Looking Backward", in Stephenson (1923). Stephenson, W. (1949), Testing Schoolchildren, An Essay in Educational and Social Psychology, London, Longmans, Green and Co. Super, D.E. and Crites, J.O. (1962), Appraising Vocational Fitness by Means of Psychological Tests, Revised Edition, New York, Harper & Row Publishers. (first edition published in 1949). Sweet, R (1975), "Women and Vocational Misguidance", in Education News, vol.15, pp40-5. Tansley, A.E. and Gulliford, R. (1977), The Education of Slow Learning Children, London, Routledge & Kegan Paul, (first published 1960), (see Appendix 1). Tate, F. (1935), "Some Problems of Administration", in Cole (1935). Taylor, H. (1994), "A Senior Practitioner's Perspective of Frank Parsons", in McDaniels and Watts (1994). Throssell, H. (ed), (1977-78), Grope, QIT Counselling Centre, newsletter publication, numbers 1-4, Brisbane. Torrance, E.P. (1965), Gifted Children in the Classroom, New York, The Macmillan Company, (see Appendix 1). Traxler, A.E., and North, R.D. (1957), Techniques of Guidance, 3rd Edition, New York, Harper & Row, (first published in 1945). Tronc, K. (1977), "Nurturing individuality programmes of pastoral care", in Education Australia, v.1, 3-4), 42-3. Tyler, L. E. (1971), Tests and Measurements, Second Edition, Englewood Cliffs, N.J., Prentice-Hall, Inc, (see Appendix 1). Vernon, P.E. (1961), The Measurement of Abilities, London, University of London Press, (first published in 1940). Vernon, P.E. (1969), Personality Assessment, A Critical Survey, London, Methuen & Co Ltd, (first published in 1964), (see Appendix 1). Walker, E.R. (1931), "Some Economic Aspects of Vocational Guidance", Australasian Journal of Psychology and Philosophy, vol.9, no.2, pp.62-9. Wallin, J. and Ferguson, D. (1967), "The Development of School Psychological Services", in Magary (1967), pp.1-29, (see Appendix 1). Want, R.L. (1970), "The history of psychology in the Royal Australian Air Force", in Australian Psychologist, vol.5, no.1, pp.2-8. Ward, A.P. and Murphy, L.J. (1960), "Problems and Effects of Changing the School Structure", in Oeser (1960). Warnken, R. and Siess, T. (1970), "The Use of the Cumulative Record in the Prediction of Behavior", in Shertzer and Stone (1970), pp.272-9, (see Appendix 1). Watson, R.I. (1968), The Great Psychologists from Aristotle to Freud, Second Edition, Philadelphia, J.B. Lippincott Company. - 270 - Watts, G. (1994), "Frank Parsons: Promoter of a Progressive Era", in McDaniel and Watts (1994), p.269. Whitelaw, B. (1982), "Becoming a More Effective You", in Arthy (1982), no.15, August. Willey, K. (1968), The First Hundred Years, The Story of Brisbane Grammar School, 1868 - 1968, Melbourne, Macmillan of Australia. Willis, M. (1983), "New at QIT", in Arthy (1984), no.18, March. Williamson, E. (1972), "Trait-Factor Theory and Individual Differences", in Stefflre and Grant (1972), pp.13677, (see Appendix 1). Wood, W. (1949), "Cumulative record cards and Their place in an Educational System", in Queensland Teachers Journal, v.54(2), March 21pp.6-9. Wood, W. (1962), "Organising the School to Cater for Individual Differences in Pupils", in Bassett (1962) Wrenn, C.G. (1973), The World of the Contemporary Counsellor, Boston, Houghton Mifflin Company. Wyndham, H.S. (1932), Class grouping in the primary school, Melbourne, Melbourne University Press. Wyndham, H.S. (1934), Ability Grouping, Recent Developments in Methods of Class-Grouping in the Elementary Schools of the United States, Melbourne, Melbourne University Press for the Australian Council for Educational Research. Wyeth, E.R. (1953), Education in Queensland A History of Education in Queensland and in the Moreton Bay District of New South Wales, Melbourne, Australian Council for Educational Research. Zytowski, D.G. (1968), Vocational Behavior: Readings in Theory and Research, New York, Holt, Tinehart and Winston, Inc, (see Appendix 1). 2. OFFICIAL AND SEMI-OFFICIAL DOCUMENTS (a) Queensland Acts of Parliament, Bills and Parliamentary Papers Backward Persons Bill Bill To Improve the Law relating to Education, 1873 Bill To Provide for the Protection and Better Government of the Aborigines of Queensland Education Act 1964 - 1974 Employment Co-ordination Bill, 1941 Grammar School Act, 1860, 24 Vic. No. 7. Grammar schools Act Amendment Act, 1900 Grammar School Act 1860 - 1900 Labour and Industry Bill, 1946 Polynesian Laborers Act of 1868 - 271 - Queensland Parliamentary Papers, (QPP), from 1902. Queensland Parliamentary Debates, Brisbane, Government Printer. Queensland Primary Education Act, 1860 Religious Instruction in State Schools Referendum Act of 1908 State Aid Discontinuance Act, 1860, 24 Vic. No. 3. State Education Acts, 1875 to 1900 The Aboriginal Preservation and Protection Act of 1939 The Aboriginals Protection and Restriction of the Sale of Opium Acts, 1897. The Aboriginals Protection and Restriction of the Sale of Opium Acts, 1897-1901. The Brisbane Technical College, Incorporation Act of 1889 The Co-ordination of Employment Facilities Act of 1941 The Education Act, 1860 The Employment Exchanges Acts, 1915 to 1941 The Freedom of Information Act, 1992 The Income (Unemployment Relief) Tax Act of 1930 The Infant Life Protection Act of 1905 The Juvenile Employment Bureau Constitution Act of 1941 The State Education Act of 1875 The Technical Instruction Act of 1908 The Technical Instruction Amendment Act of 1918 The Torres Strait Islanders Act of 1939 Votes and Proceedings of the Queensland Parliament, (V&P), from 1861 - 1901. (b) Queensland Department of Public Instruction/ Education Andrews, C. (1908), article entitled "The Individuality of the Child", an Address by the Inspector-General of Schools, Western Australia appearing in The Education Office Gazette, September, v.10, p.305. Berkeley, G.F. (1981), "The Place of Career Education in the Curriculum", Keynote address at Seminar for Non-Government Schools, Bardon, 17 August, in Selected Speeches of George G. Berkeley 1976-1986, Brisbane, Department of Education, unpublished. Blumenthal, G.A. (1896), "Phrenological and Physiognomical Chart of Character and Abilities", attached to Blumenthal (1896a). - 272 Blumenthal, G.A. (1896a), "Letter to the Hon. Minister for Education from G.A. de Blumenthal" dated 28 October, unpublished, filed at History Unit of the Queensland Department of Education, Brisbane. Brown, W.J. (1960), Research and Guidance Branch Report to the Director of Special Education Services of the Principal Research and Guidance Officer for the Year 1959, Brisbane, Department of Education. Brown, W. (1965), Research and Guidance Branch Report of the Principal Research and Guidance Officer for the Year Ending 31st December 1963, Brisbane, Department of Education, Queensland. Brown, W.J. (1966), Report on a Visit to the United States of America and England - 3rd September, 1965 to 20th March, 1966. Cameron, B. (1993), "Implications of Queensland Tertiary Entrance Arrangements for the Queensland School Curriculum", Tertiary Entrance Procedures Authority, October 1993, in Wiltshire Report (1994), v.3, pp.23-39. Guidance and Special Education Branch, (G&SE) (1973), Course of Training for Teachers Seconded for Guidance Duties, Handbook 1973, Brisbane, Department of Education, January. Guidance and Special Education Branch, (G&SE Report) (1966 to 1968), Guidance and Special Education Branch Annual Reports of the Principal Guidance Officer for the Year Ending 31st December, Brisbane, Department of Education. Guidance and Special Education Branch, (G&SE Report) (1969 to 1970), Guidance and Special Education Branch Annual Reports of the Staff Inspector, Brisbane, Department of Education. Guidance and Special Education Branch, (1973), Handbook 1973 - Course of Training for Teachers Seconded for Guidance Duties, Brisbane, Department of Education, January. Guidance Programme, (1949), The Guidance Programme in The Primary Schools, 1949, Brisbane, Department of Public Instruction. Hughes Report (1991), Managing Curriculum Development in Queensland, Report submitted to the Minister for Education by the Principal Reviewer, Professor Phillip Hughes, Brisbane, Queensland Department of Education. Queensland Department of Education (QDE) (1961), Interim Report of the Committee Appointed to Enquire into Secondary Education in Queensland, Brisbane, 22nd September. Queensland Department of Education (QDE) (1968), Report of the Minister of Education and Cultural Activities 1968, Brisbane. Queensland Department of Education (QDE) (1969), Report of the Minister of Education and Cultural Activities 1969, Brisbane. Queensland Department of Education (QDE) (1990), Focus on Schools, The future organisation of educational services for students, Brisbane, October. Queensland Department of Education (QDE) (1992), School Advisory Councils a discussion paper influencing the decision making in schools, Brisbane, Publishing Services for Regional Operations Directorate, May Queensland Department of Education (QDE) (1993), Schools and Discipline, Managing Behaviour - 273 - in a Supportive School Environment, Policy, Brisbane. Queensland Department of Education (QDE) (1994), Schools and Discipline, Managing Behaviour in a Supportive School Environment, Readings, Brisbane. Queensland Department of Education (QDE) (1994a), Queensland Curriculum Review, Shaping the Future, Summary of Recommendations, Brisbane, Office of the Minister for Education, November. Queensland Department of Education (QDE) (1995), The Year 2 Diagnostic Net - Shaping the Future, Brisbane. Queensland Department of Education (QDE) (1995a), The Year 2 Diagnostic Net 1995, Cleveland State Primary School. Queensland Department of Public Instruction (QDPI) (1899-1914), The Education Office Gazette, Queensland, vols.1-14, Brisbane. Queensland Department of Public Instruction (QDPI) (1930), "Proposed introduction of a scheme of vocational guidance into Queensland Schools", in Education Office Gazette, Queensland, v.32, pp.198-300, Queensland Department of Public Instruction (QDPI) (1932), "Proposed introduction of a scheme of vocational guidance into Queensland Schools", in Education Office Gazette, Queensland, v.34, 27-8. Queensland Department of Public Instruction (QDPI) (1933), "Proposed introduction of a scheme of vocational guidance into Queensland Schools", in Education Office Gazette, Queensland, Vol 35, 69-70. Queensland Department of Public Instruction (QDPI) (1935), Education Office Gazette, Queensland, Vol 37. Queensland Department of Public Instruction, (QDPI) (1940), "Backward Children, Particulars Required", in Education Office Gazette, Queensland, v.42, p.129. Queensland Department of Public Instruction, (QDPI) (1950), "Guidance in Schools, 1949", in Education Office Gazette, Queensland, v.52, pp.62-3. Queensland Department of Public Instruction, (QDPI) (1954), Education Office Gazette, Queensland, "Commonwealth Scholarship Scheme", v.56, pp.158-9. Radford Report, (1970), Report of the Committee Appointed to Review the System of Public Examinations for Queensland Secondary School Students and to Make Recommendations for the Assessment of Students' Achievements, with W.C. Radford as Chairman, Brisbane, May. Research and Curriculum Branch Bulletin, (R&C Bulletin) (1966), Bulletin Number 28, Studies in Primary School Reading, Brisbane, Department of Education, March. Research and Curriculum Branch Bulletin, (R&C Bulletin) (1966a), Bulletin Number 29, An Evaluation of Achievement in and Attitudes Towards Grade 8 Science in Queensland, Brisbane, Department of Education, July. Research and Curriculum Branch Bulletin, (R&C Bulletin) (1966b), Bulletin Number 30, Experimental Use of a Programmed Learning Course in Calculus at Matriculation Level, Brisbane, Department of Education, August. - 274 Research and Curriculum Branch Bulletin, (R&C Bulletin) (1966c), Bulletin Number 31, An Evaluation of a Non-Graded Organisation in a Large Queensland Primary School, Brisbane, Department of Education, August. Research and Curriculum Branch Bulletin, (R&C Bulletin) (1967), Bulletin Number 32, An Evaluation of a Writing Skills Laboratory in a Queensland State High School, Brisbane, Department of Education, July. Research and Curriculum Branch Bulletin, (R&C Bulletin) (1967a), Bulletin Number 33, Prediction of Success in Matriculation and University Mathematics, Brisbane, Department of Education, December. Research and Curriculum Branch Bulletin (R&C Bulletin) (1968), Bulletin Number 34, Prediction of Success in Matriculation and University Mathematics, Brisbane, Department of Education, May, (in collaboration with N.W.M. Hart, Senior Lecturer in Education, Kedron Park Teachers College). Research and Curriculum Branch Bulletin, (R&C Bulletin) (1968a), Bulletin Number 35, The Physical, Behavioural and Learning Patterns of Rubella-Affected Children Report No 1, Brisbane, Department of Education, August. Research and Curriculum Branch Bulletin, (R&C Bulletin) (1969), Bulletin Number 36, Standards of Achievement in Reading, Spelling and Certain Study Skills of Queensland Grade 7 Pupils, Brisbane, Department of Education, January. Research and Curriculum Branch Bulletin, (R&C Bulletin) (1970), Bulletin Number 37, Research Findings Relating to Some Aspect of the Commonealth Scholarship Scheme in Queensland, Brisbane, Department of Education, June. Research and Curriculum Branch Bulletin, (R&C Bulletin) (1970a), Bulletin Number 38, A Follow Up Study of Entrants to Courses of Teacher Education in 1957, Brisbane, Department of Education, December. Research and Curriculum Branch Bulletin, (R&C Bulletin) (1972), Bulletin Number 39, Improving Reading Through an Oral Language Program, Brisbane, Department of Education, April. Research and Curriculum Branch Bulletin, (R&C Bulletin) (1972a), Bulletin Number 40, Predicting and Assessment of Success in the Senior Secondary School, Brisbane, Department of Education, August. Research and Curriculum Branch Bulletin, (R&C Bulletin) (1972b), Bulletin Number 41, Survey of Standards of Reading Achievement of Grade 5 Pupils, Brisbane, Department of Education, August. Research and Curriculum Branch Bulletin, (R&C Bulletin) (1974), Bulletin Number 42, Aspects of Mathematics in Grade 7, 8, 9, Brisbane, Department of Education, April. Research and Guidance Branch, (R&G) (1949), Premier's Policy Speech, handed to Mr Hill, Feb 6th, Brisbane, Department of Public Instruction. Research and Guidance Branch, (R&G) (1960), Submission to The Committee of Inquiry into Secondary Education, Brisbane, September. Research and Guidance Branch, (R&G) (1965), Outline of Information for Ministerial Statement on Reorganization of Research and Guidance Branch, Brisbane, Department of Education. Research and Guidance Branch Bulletin, (R&G Bulletin) (1950), Bulletin Number 1, The Prediction of Secondary School Examination Success, Brisbane, Department of Public Instruction, - 275 June. Research and Guidance Branch Bulletin, (R&G Bulletin) (1950a), Bulletin Number 2, The Occupations Entered by Secondary School Leavers 1949, Brisbane, Department of Public Instruction, October. Research and Guidance Branch Bulletin, (R&G Bulletin) (1951), Bulletin Number 3, Research Findings on Some Fundamental Facts and Processes in Arithmetic, Brisbane, Department of Public Instruction, February. Research and Guidance Branch Bulletin, (R&G Bulletin) (1951a), Bulletin Number 4, Selection for Secondary Education in Queensland, Brisbane, Department of Public Instruction, June. Research and Guidance Branch Bulletin, (R&G Bulletin) (1951b), Bulletin Number 5, Summary of Test Research, Brisbane, Department of Public Instruction, December. Research and Guidance Branch Bulletin, (R&G Bulletin) (1952), Bulletin Number 6, Research Findings on Spelling, Brisbane, Department of Public Instruction, October. Research and Guidance Branch Bulletin, (R&G Bulletin) (1953), Bulletin Number 7, Research Findings on Arithmetic, Brisbane, Department of Public Instruction, April. Research and Guidance Branch Bulletin, (R&G Bulletin) (R&G Bulletin) (1953a), Bulletin Number 8, Investigation on Clerical and Shorthand Aptitude, Brisbane, Department of Public Instruction, September. Research and Guidance Branch Bulletin, (R&G Bulletin) (1955), Bulletin Number 9, An Investigation of Methods of Teaching Reading in Infants Schools, Brisbane, Department of Public Instruction, March. Research and Guidance Branch Bulletin, (R&G Bulletin) (1956), Bulletin Number 10, Research Findings in Reading, Brisbane, Department of Public Instruction, February. Research and Guidance Branch Bulletin, (R&G Bulletin) (1956a), Bulletin Number 11, Tests and Examinations in the Prediction of Academic Success in the Secondary School, Brisbane, Department of Public Instruction, February. Research and Guidance Branch Bulletin, (R&G Bulletin) (1956b), Bulletin Number 12, Summary of Test Research, Brisbane, Department of Public Instruction, September. Research and Guidance Branch Bulletin, (R&G Bulletin) (1957), Bulletin Number 13, Reducing Wastage Among the Gifted, Brisbane, Department of Public Instruction, February. Research and Guidance Branch Bulletin, (R&G Bulletin) (1957a), Bulletin Number 14, Predicting Success in Electrical Apprenticeship Courses, Brisbane, Department of Public Instruction, March. Research and Guidance Branch Bulletin, (R&G Bulletin) (1957b), Bulletin Number 15, Predicting Success in Electrical Apprenticeship Courses, Brisbane, Department of Public Instruction, March. Research and Guidance Branch Bulletin, (R&G Bulletin) (1958), Bulletin Number 16, Studies in Spelling, Brisbane, Department of Education, March. Research and Guidance Branch Bulletin, (R&G Bulletin) (1958a), Bulletin Number 17, Reading Methods for Queensland Infant Schools, Brisbane, Department of Education, April. Research and Guidance Branch Bulletin, (R&G Bulletin) (1959), Bulletin Number 18, A Survey of - 276 - Teacher and Student Attitudes to Junior Public Examinations, Brisbane, Department of Education, April. Research and Guidance Branch Bulletin, (R&G Bulletin) (1959a), Bulletin Number 19, The Progress in Secondary Schools of Students Failing in the State Scholarship Examination, Brisbane, Department of Education, October. Research and Guidance Branch Bulletin, (R&G Bulletin) (1960), Bulletin Number 20, The College Achievement and Occupations Entered by Queensland Agricultural High School and College Leavers 1955 - 59, Brisbane, Department of Education, August. Research and Guidance Branch Bulletin, (R&G Bulletin) (1960a), Bulletin Number 21, Two Studies in Reading, Brisbane, Department of Education, December. Research and Guidance Branch Bulletin, (R&G Bulletin) (1961), Bulletin Number 22, A Survey of Migrant Children and Children of Migrants in Queensland State Schools 1959, Brisbane, Department of Education, June. Research and Guidance Branch Bulletin, (R&G Bulletin) (1962), Bulletin Number 23, An Evaluation of the Modified Course in Five Brisbane High Schools 1961, Brisbane, Department of Education, April. Research and Guidance Branch Bulletin, (R&G Bulletin) (1962a), Bulletin Number 24, The Wastage of Academically Talented Pupils in Queensland Schools, Brisbane, Department of Education, July. Research and Guidance Branch Bulletin, (R&G Bulletin) (1963), Bulletin Number 25, Standards of Achievement in the Basic Subjects - Queensland Grade 7 Pupils, Brisbane, Department of Education, August. Research and Guidance Branch Bulletin, (R&G Bulletin) (1965), Bulletin Number 26, A Comparative Study of Queensland Teachers College Students 1956 and 1964, Brisbane, Department of Education, March. Research and Guidance Branch Bulletin, (R&G Bulletin) (1965a), Bulletin Number 27, Studies in Primary School Mathematics, Brisbane, Department of Education, March. Research and Guidance Branch Report, (R&G Report) (1949 to 1956), Research and Guidance Branch Annual Reports of the Principal Research and Guidance Officer for the Year Ending 31st December, Brisbane, Department of Public Instruction. Research and Guidance Branch Report, (R&G Report) (1957 to 1965), Research and Guidance Branch Annual Reports of the Principal Research and Guidance Officer, Brisbane, Department of Education. Richmond, C. (1994), "The Challenge: Managing Difficult Behaviours without Punishment", Guidance Officer, Beenleigh School Support Centre, in Department of Education, (1994), p.59. University of Queensland, (1962), Second Conference on School Administration, Brisbane. University of Queensland, (1963), Third Conference on School Administration, Brisbane. Viviani Report (1990), The Review of Tertiary Entrance in Queensland 1990, Report Submitted to the Minister of Education by the Tertiary Entrance Reviewer Professor Nancy Viviani, Brisbane, Queensland Department of Education. Wiltshire Report, (1994), Report of the Review of the Queensland School Curriculum 1994 - - 277 - SHAPING THE FUTURE, Volumes One to Three, Brisbane, Queensland Department of Education, March. Wood, W. (1948), Report on the Establishment of A Guidance Service in Queensland Schools, Brisbane, Department of Public Instruction, 31 July. Wood, W. (1948a), Report of Acting Senior Guidance Officer for 1947 - 48, Brisbane, Department of Public Instruction. Wood, W. (1949), Guidance Programme in the Primary Schools, 1949., Brisbane, Department of Public Instruction. Wood, W. (1949a), Report of Principal Research and Guidance Officer 1948-49, Brisbane, Department of Public Instruction. Wood, W. (1951), Notes on the History of Education in Queensland, Report to the Director General of Education on 75th Jubilee History, 1951, Principal Research and Guidance Officer, Research & Guidance Branch, Brisbane, Department of Public Instruction, 12th June. (c) Commonwealth of Australia Australian Archives (Qld) (1945): J1453/3 Box 16, Department of Labour and National Service, Staffing Policy Files, Confidential Memorandum to all Officers from Office of the Director General of Man Power, Sydney, "General Outline of the Proposed Organization and Method of Operation of the Commonwealth Employment Service", 28th September. Australian Archives (Qld) (1946): J1454/3, Box 29, Department of Labour and National Service, Establishment of Commonwealth Employment Service, K.F. Walker, Assistant Director Industrial Welfare Division, article "The Commonwealth Employment Service", undated c1946. Australian Archives (Qld) (1946a): BP81/3, 1/CP/1, Department of Education and Science, "Future Scheme of Financial Assistance, Confidential notes for Officers-in-Charge of Branch Offices", c1946. Australian Archives (Qld) (1948): BP81/3, 7/RP/L, Department of Education and Science, Policy Files, "Notes on Future Scheme of Financial Assistance", January. Australian Archives (Qld) (1950): 1/SP/B1PT, BP831/1, Department of Education and Science, letter from Secretary, Commonwealth Office of Education, Sydney to Universities Commission, Brisbane, 24th May. Australian Archives (Qld) (1950a): 1/SP/B1PT, BP831/1, Department of Education and Science, letter to Universities Commission from State Public Service Commissioners' Department, 28th September. Australian Archives (Qld) (1957): J1454, Box 16, Department of Labour and National Service (CES), Manual for Use with Filmstrip, "The Commonwealth Employment Service". Australian Archives (Qld) (1957a): BP339/2, B9 Special Cases, Department of Education and Science, letter from Mr E.J. Gaven to A/Officer-in-Charge, Commonwealth Scholarship Scheme, George St Brisbane, 27th February. Australian Archives (Qld) (1957b): BP339/4, Q4308/P, Department of Education and Science, Policy Files 1957-1960, letter from Director of the Commonwealth Office of Education, Sydney to the Director-General of Education, Queensland, 24th December. - 278 - Australian Archives (Qld) (1958): BP339/4, Q4308/P, Department of Education and Science, Benefits - Failures Policy, letter from J.J. Pratt, Acting Director of Commonwealth Office of Education to Director General of Education, Queensland dated 8th December 1958. Australian Archives (Qld) (1959): BP339/4, Q4308/P, Department of Education and Science, Benefits - Failure Policy, letter from Principal R&G Officer, W.J. Brown to Director, Commonwealth Office of Education, 7th December. Australian Archives (Qld) (1959a): J1454, Box 16, Department of Labour and National Service (CES), Manual for use with Filmstrip, "Choosing a Career". Australian Archives (Qld) (1961): BP339/2, Item B1, Department of Education and Science, Eligibility and Selection of Scholarships - all scholarships - general business, 1951-1964, letter to Director-General of Education Queensland from Director Commonwealth Office of Education, Sydney, 27th December. Australian Archives (Qld) (1961a): BP 339/2, Item B1, Department of Education and Science Policy Files, Eligibility and Selection of Scholarships - all scholarship - general business, 1951 - 1964, letter dated 15 Dec 1961 from Wm. J. Weeden, Director of Commonwealth of Australia Office of Education to Director-General of Education, Queensland. Australian Archives (Qld) (1963-1973): J1454, Box 25, Dept. of L.& N.S. Queensland, Dept. News. Aulich Report (1990), Priorities for Reform in Higher Education, A report by the Senate Standing Committee on Employment, Education and Training, Chairman Senator Terry Aulich, Canberra, Australian Government Publishing Service, June. Commonwealth Department of Employment and Youth Affairs and The Department of Education Queensland, (1981), Vocational Guidance Services in Queensland, Brisbane, April. Commonwealth Parliamentary Debates (CPD), 1945, Vol. 182. Commonwealth Parliamentary Papers (CPP), 1945-46, Vol.4, "Full Employment in Australia", pp.1193-1211. Commonwealth Public Service Amendment Act, 1945 Department of Education and Employment, Queensland, (DEET), (1980), The Commonwealth Labour Departments in Queensland, Brisbane, a Commonwealth Employment Service publication. Finn Report (1991), Young People's Participation in Post-compulsory Educationa and Training, Report of the Australian Education Council Review Committee, Canberra, Australian Governmnet Publishing Service. Karmel Report, (1973), Schools in Australia, Report of the Interim Committee for the Australian Schools Commission, Canberra, Australian Government Publishing Service, Peter Karmel, Chairman. Murray Report, (1957), Report of the Committee on Australian Universities, Canberra, September. National Board of Employment, Education and Training, (NBEET) (1990), Careers Advisory Services in Higher Education Institutions, Canberra, Australian Government Publishing Service. National Board of Employment, Education and Training, (NBEET) (1991), Strengthening Careers Education in Schools, Canberra, Australian Government Publishing Service. - 279 - National Board of Employment, Education and Training, (NBEET) (1992), A National Training Framework for Careers Coordinators: A Proposal, Commissioned Report No. 14, Canberra, Australian Government Publishing Service. National Board of Employment and Education and Training, (NBEET) (1994), The Role of Schools in the Vocational Preparation of Australia's Senior Secondary Students, Discussion Paper, Canberra, Schools Council, Australian Government Publishing Service. National Security (Manpower Regulations), 1942 Re-establishment and Employment Bill, 1945 (d) Other Australian States and Governments Dettman Report (1972), Discipline in Secondary Schools in Western Australia, Perth, Government Secondary Schools Discipline Committee chaired by H.W. Dettman. Thomas Report, (1980), Self Discipline and Pastoral Care, A Report of the Committee of Inquiry into Pupil Behaviour and Discipline in Schools, Sydney, under the Chairmanship of Mr M.E. Thomas, (reprinted in Spencer, 1992). Votes and Proceedings, New South Wales Legislative Council, 21st June, 1844 Wolff Royal Commission (1942), Report of the Royal Commissioner, The Hon. Mr. Justice Wolff on the Administration of the University of Western Australia, Perth, Government Printer. Wyndham Report, (1957), Report of the Committee Appointed to Survey Secondary Education in New South Wales, Sydney. 3. THESES AND DISSERTATIONS Arthy, D. (1996), The Vocational Personality: Guidance and Counselling Practices in Queensland Education, Brisbane, an unpublished thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Faculty of Humanities, Griffith University. Arthy, D. (1980), The Counselling Practice and Sex Discrimination in Professional Employment, Brisbane, an unpublished dissertation submitted for a Bachelor of Arts Honours Degree, School of Humanities, Griffith University, 31st October. Arthy, D. (1983), Technology and Professional-Managerial Employment, Brisbane, an unpublished dissertation submitted for the M.Sc. in Science, Technology and Society at the School of Science, Griffith University, 14th November. Erickson, F.J. (1966), A Study of the Queensland Grammar School Movement: Its Origins and its Role in the Development of Secondary Education in Queensland before the First World War, Sydney, unpublished thesis submitted to the University of Sydney for the degree of Master of Education, 13th December. Kearney, G. (1966), Some Aspects of the General Cognitive Ability of Various Groups of Aboriginal Australians as Assessed by the Queensland Test, Brisbane, Department of Psychology, University of Queensland, November, being an unpublished report of an investigation submitted as a partial requirement of the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy at the University of Queensland. - 280 Smith, B. (1991), Governing Classrooms Privatisation and Discipline in Australian Schooling, Brisbane, unpublished thesis for Doctor of Philosophy in the School of Humanities, Griffith University, July. 4. NEWSPAPER ARTICLES Berry, D. (1951), "Scholarship Exam. on the way out? Cabinet to Consider", in Sunday Mail, Brisbane, June 17. Bryan, A.J. (1950), "Vocational Guidance Experts Use Science To Detect The Potential Misfit, Their Aim is: No Square Pegs in Round Holes", in Courier Mail, Brisbane, January 25. Bundaberg News-Mail (1956), "Career Planning Now More Difficult", Bundaberg, July 12. Butler, G. (1995), "Disabled kids row widens", "Parents fear student row at flashpoint", "It's too tough to cope in class: staff", in Courier Mail, August 11. Butler, G. (1995a), "Reading between the lines", in Courier Mail, August 19. Courier Mail (1949), "Case Histories of All Pupils", Brisbane, March 25. Courier Mail (1950), "New Education Branch Talent Test Helps Child", Brisbane, January 18. Courier Mail (1951), "State needs 2000 more teachers", Brisbane, June 19. Courier Mail (1960), "500 'Entrants' every week in talent quest", Brisbane, January 23. Courier Mail (1963), "Secondary school course should aid pupil's choice", Brisbane, December 18. Courier Mail (1992), "Editorial: We need to heed the basic rules", April 7. Courier Mail (1993), "Judgement was 'wrong'", Brisbane, March 10. Courier Mail (1993a), "Editorial: The Top Schools - the Order of Merit", Brisbane, March 10. Courier Mail (1994), "Call for external exams", Brisbane, December 2. Courier Mail (1995a) "Uni targets keep mature students out", Brisbane, February 7. Courier Mail (1995b), "Special Needs not being Met", Brisbane, January 31. Courier Mail (1995c), "Unis bid to scrap targets, concern over funds", Brisbane, February 20. Courier Mail (1995d), "The OP Lists", March 22. Courier Mail (1995e), "The OP Lists", March 23. Daily Mercury (1959), "Helping Students to Choose Their Careers", Mackay, July 1. Davies, K. (1990), "QUT Moves Towards General Education - New Corporate Trend Backs Liberal Arts", Brisbane, Communique, produced by Journalism students at QUT, Brisbane, June 8. Devine, F. (1990), "Schools Test and the Shocking Results of our Children - Why the state of our learning offers a sobering education", lead article in The Weekend Australian, Brisbane, October 27-28. Devine, F. (1990a), "Little learning is a Dangerous Thing", in Australian, Brisbane, October 29. - 281 Dibben, K. (1994), "Stop Drift Plea", in Sunday Mail, Brisbane, May 8. Dibben, K. and Hay, J. (1993), "Anguish for Students - Uproar as results bring real university challenge", in Sunday Mail, Brisbane, March 7. Hele, M. (1995), "The OP versus Reality", in Courier Mail, Brisbane, March 22. Lack, C. (1953), "Your Child Has Left School; Are You Guiding His Future?", in Telegraph, Brisbane, May 5. Johnson, B. (1992), "Prof lashes student's grammar", in Courier Mail, Brisbane, April 6. Ketchell, M. (1993), "Queensland's Top 20 Schools - Private schools top list", in Courier Mail, Brisbane, March 9. Koopman, D. (1991), "Falling standards a scandal, Education crisis in Australia: prof", in Courier Mail, Brisbane, August 2. Laws, E.F. (1961), "What Shall I Do? That vital Question for Parents and Children", by B.F. Lawes, Regional Director, Department of labour and National Service, in Courier Mail, Brisbane, January 28. LLoyd, G. (1995), "'The essential question is the parents' view about what they believe is appropriate for their child' CLASS RIGHTS", in Courier Mail, August 11. Moore, S. (1990), "Our Students lack essential knowledge", in The Weekend Australian, Brisbane, October 27-28. O'Brien, M. (1948), "Tinker, Tailor, Soldier or Sailor?", Courier Mail, Brisbane, November 9. O'Connor, T. and Ketchell, M. (1994), "Handle with care", in Courier Mail, Brisbane, March 16. O'Donnell, D. (1995), "A matter of results versus fair play", in Courier Mail, Brisbane, February 28. O'Malley, B. (1994), "Teaser test core skills, Students struggle to score uni places", in Courier Mail, Brisbane, September 3. Oliphant, J. and Maher, S. (1995), "School leavers loose uni priority", in Courier Mail, Brisbane, 16 September. Richards, A. (1960), "University failures are appalling waste", in Courier Mail, Brisbane, March 17. Rockhampton Bulletin (1959), "Parents Still Have a Big Responsibility", Rockhampton, July 10. Roma (1959), "Need for Higher Education for Girls Now Realised", Roma, October 13. Rowan, V. (1994), "Students need to be taught how to learn", in Courier Mail, Brisbane, December 15. Sleeman, A. (1960), "Our Thousand 'Geniuses'", Daily Mirror, Sydney, May 23. Smith, W. (1995), "Timebomb of the Disabled", in Courier Mail, Brisbane, March 23. Smith, W. (1995a), "CLASS RIGHTS, Good intentions not enough", in Courier Mail, August 11. Sunday Mail (1951), "Near Crisis in Schools", Brisbane, June 24. Sunday Mail (1951a), "To Extend Guidance", Brisbane, June 17. Sunday Mail (1994), Editorial "Core Skills", December 4. - 282 - Telegraph (1963), "Record Card for schools", Brisbane, December 19. Turner, M. (1995), "Class Wars - Problem children bring even bigger concerns for teachers who are becoming punching bags in disruptive classrooms. Megan Turner reports on the latest strategies educators are putting in place for behaviour management", in Courier Mail, December 26. Western Star 1959, "First Visit to Roma School by Research-Guidance Team", Friday, Oct 16 Williams, B. (1994), "Uni system produces ignorance: professor", in Courier Mail, Brisbane, June 4. 5. INTERVIEWS Counselling Interviews (1990 - 1994): fifty interviews with prospective QUT (Queensland University of Technology) and QUT students documented over a period of five years. Interview with Mr Michael Duran (1993), 15th February: Mr Duran was employed in the Department of Labour and National Service from the mid 1960s to 1973 as a Psychologist (Psyche) and a Vocational Guidance Officer (VGO). He was appointed to the Careers Reference Centre in Brisbane in 1973 as the Manager. Interview with Dr Howell (1994) 14th April: Dr Howell was appointed as Head Master of the Brisbane Grammar School in 1965. He pioneered the introduction of guidance and counselling practices in the private and independent sector of Queensland secondary level education. He was a member of the Radford Committee in 1969 which transformed the school-aged secondary level education assessment system in Queensland from external public examination to school based assessment moderated by then "experimental" psychological testing of ASAT (Australian Scholastic Aptitude Test). Interview with Mr Frank Hughes (1993), 8th February: Mr Hughes was a primary school teacher from 1948 to 1963. He was transferred to secondary teaching as a consequence of the abandonment of the scholarship examination in 1963. He taught at the secondary level from 1964 to 1967. In 1968 he was appointed as a trainee guidance officer. He worked as a Guidance Officer until 1973. In 1974, he moved into the Catholic Education system to establish guidance and counselling practices in the State wide Catholic Education system.