Psychological Testing and Assessment

00-M3084 7/1/04 11:49 AM Page i Psychological Testing and Assessment G&S Typesetters PDF proof 00-M3084 7/1/04 11:49 AM Page ii G&S Typesetters PDF proof 00-M3084 7/1/04 11:49 AM Page iii Psychological Testing and Assessment An Introduction to Tests and Measurement SIXTH EDITION Ronald Jay Cohen Mark E. Swerdlik ILLINOIS STATE UNIVERSITY ONLINE LEARNING CENTER www.mhhe.com/cohentesting6 Boston Burr Ridge, IL Dubuque, IA Madison, WI New York San Francisco St. Louis Bangkok Bogotá Caracas Kuala Lumpur Lisbon London Madrid Mexico City Milan Montreal New Delhi Santiago Seoul Singapore Sydney Taipei Toronto G&S Typesetters PDF proof 00-M3084 7/1/04 11:49 AM Page iv PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING AND ASSESSMENT: AN INTRODUCTION TO TESTS AND MEASUREMENT, SIXTH EDITION Published by McGraw-Hill, a business unit of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1221 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10020. Copyright © 2005, 2002, 1999, 1996, 1992, 1988 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written consent of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., including, but not limited to, any network or other electronic storage or transmission, or broadcast for distance learning. Some ancillaries, including electronic and print components, may not be available to customers outside the United States. ISBN 0-07-288767-2 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 CCI/CCI 0 Editor-in-chief: Emily Barrosse Publisher: Stephen D. Rutter Sponsoring editor: John Wannemacher Marketing manager: Melissa Caughlin Production services manager: Jennifer Mills Production service: Fairplay Publishing Services Manuscript editor: April Wells-Hayes Art director: Jeanne M. Schreiber 9 8 7 6 5 4 Design manager and cover designer: Violeta Diaz Interior designer: Michael Remener Art manager: Robin Mouat Photo researcher: LouAnn Wilson Illustrators: Judith Ogus, Robin Mouat Production supervisor: Tandra Jorgensen The text was set in 10/12 Palatino by G&S Typesetters, Inc., and printed on acid-free, 45# New Era Matte by Courier Kendallville, Inc. Cover image: Naomi Shea The credits for this book begin on page C-1, a continuation of the copyright page. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Cohen, Ronald Jay. Psychological testing and assessment : an introduction to tests and measurement / Ronald Jay Cohen, Mark E. Swerdlik. — 6th ed. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-07-288767-2 1. Psychological tests— Textbooks. 2. Psychometrics— Textbooks. I. Swerdlik, Mark E. II. Title. BF176.C63 2004 150⬘.28⬘7— dc22 www.mhhe.com G&S Typesetters PDF proof 2004040325 00-M3084 7/1/04 11:49 AM Page v This book is dedicated with love to the memory of Edith and Harold Cohen. G&S Typesetters PDF proof 00-M3084 7/1/04 11:49 AM Page vi G&S Typesetters PDF proof 00-M3084 7/1/04 11:49 AM Page vii Contents Preface xvii P A R T I An Overview 1 Psychological Testing and Assessment 1 TESTING AND ASSESSMENT 1 Psychological Testing and Assessment Defined 1 The Tools of Psychological Assessment 5 WHO, WHAT, WHY, AND WHERE? 16 Who Are the Parties? 16 In What Types of Settings Are Assessments Conducted, and Why? 20 Where to Go for Authoritative Information: Reference Sources 26 CLOSE-UP Types of Computer-Generated Psychological Reports 13 EVERYDAY PSYCHOMETRICS “The Following Film Is Rated PG-13” . . . But Whodunnit? How? And Why? 19 SELF-ASSESSMENT 30 WEB WATCH 30 2 Historical, Cultural, and Legal/Ethical Considerations 31 A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE 31 Antiquity to the Nineteenth Century 31 The Nineteenth Century 32 The Twentieth Century 35 CULTURE AND ASSESSMENT 37 Evolving Interest in Culture-Related Issues 38 Some Issues Regarding Culture and Assessment 40 Tests and Group Membership 43 LEGAL AND ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS 45 The Concerns of the Public 45 The Concerns of the Profession 49 The Rights of Testtakers 57 CLOSE-UP Assessment, Admissions, and Affirmative Action: Grutter v. Bollinger et al. (2003) 50 EVERYDAY PSYCHOMETRICS Life-or-Death Psychological Assessment 55 SELF-ASSESSMENT 60 WEB WATCH 61 vii G&S Typesetters PDF proof 00-M3084 7/1/04 11:49 AM Page viii P A R T II The Science of Psychological Measurement 3 A Statistics Refresher 62 SCALES OF MEASUREMENT 63 Nominal Scales 64 Ordinal Scales 65 Interval Scales 66 Ratio Scales 66 Measurement Scales in Psychology 66 DESCRIBING DATA 68 Frequency Distributions 69 Measures of Central Tendency 74 Measures of Variability 77 Skewness 81 Kurtosis 82 THE NORMAL CURVE 83 The Area Under the Normal Curve 83 STANDARD SCORES 86 z Scores 87 T Scores 87 Other Standard Scores 88 EVERYDAY PSYCHOMETRICS Consumer (of Graphed Data), Beware! 73 CLOSE-UP The Normal Curve and Psychological Tests 84 SELF-ASSESSMENT 90 WEB WATCH 91 4 Of Tests and Testing 92 SOME ASSUMPTIONS ABOUT PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING AND ASSESSMENT 92 Assumption 1: Psychological Traits and States Exist 92 Assumption 2: Psychological Traits and States Can Be Quantified and Measured 94 Assumption 3: Test-Related Behavior Predicts Non-Test-Related Behavior 95 Assumption 4: Tests and Other Measurement Techniques Have Strengths and Weaknesses 96 Assumption 5: Various Sources of Error Are Part of the Assessment Process 96 Assumption 6: Testing and Assessment Can Be Conducted in a Fair and Unbiased Manner 97 Assumption 7: Testing and Assessment Benefit Society 97 WHAT’S A “GOOD TEST”? 98 Reliability 98 Validity 98 Other Considerations 99 viii G&S Typesetters PDF proof Contents 00-M3084 7/1/04 11:49 AM Page ix NORMS 99 Standardization, Sampling, and Norming 103 Types of Norms 106 Fixed Reference Group Scoring Systems 109 Norm-Referenced Versus Criterion-Referenced Evaluation 110 CORRELATION AND INFERENCE 114 The Concept of Correlation 114 The Pearson r 115 The Spearman Rho 117 Graphic Representations of Correlation 118 Regression 122 INFERENCE FROM MEASUREMENT 125 Meta-Analysis 125 Culture and Inference 125 EVERYDAY PSYCHOMETRICS Putting Tests to the Test 100 CLOSE-UP Good Ol’ Norms and the GRE 111 SELF-ASSESSMENT 127 WEB WATCH 128 5 Reliability 129 THE CONCEPT OF RELIABILITY 129 Sources of Error Variance 130 RELIABILITY ESTIMATES 132 Test-Retest Reliability Estimates 132 Parallel-Forms and Alternate-Forms Reliability Estimates 133 Split-Half Reliability Estimates 135 Other Methods of Estimating Internal Consistency 137 Measures of Inter-Scorer Reliability 140 USING AND INTERPRETING A COEFFICIENT OF RELIABILITY 141 The Purpose of the Reliability Coefficient 141 The Nature of the Test 142 Alternatives to the True Score Model 146 RELIABILITY AND INDIVIDUAL SCORES 149 The Standard Error of Measurement 149 The Standard Error of the Difference Between Two Scores 152 CLOSE-UP The Reliability of the Bayley-II 143 EVERYDAY PSYCHOMETRICS The Reliability Defense and the Breathalyzer Test 147 SELF-ASSESSMENT 155 WEB WATCH 155 6 Validity 156 THE CONCEPT OF VALIDITY 156 Face Validity 158 Contents G&S Typesetters PDF proof ix 00-M3084 7/1/04 11:49 AM Page x CONTENT VALIDITY 159 The Quantification of Content Validity 159 Culture and the Relativity of Content Validity 161 CRITERION-RELATED VALIDITY 163 What Is a Criterion? 163 Concurrent Validity 164 Predictive Validity 164 CONSTRUCT VALIDITY 175 Evidence of Construct Validity 176 VALIDITY, BIAS, AND FAIRNESS 181 Test Bias 181 Test Fairness 184 CLOSE-UP Base Rates and Predictive Validity 172 EVERYDAY PSYCHOMETRICS Adjustment of Test Scores by Group Membership: Fairness in Testing or Foul Play? 186 SELF-ASSESSMENT 188 WEB WATCH 189 7 Test Development 190 TEST CONCEPTUALIZATION 190 Some Preliminary Questions 191 Pilot Work 193 TEST CONSTRUCTION 194 Scaling 194 Writing Items 201 Scoring Items 210 TEST TRYOUT 211 What Is a Good Item? 212 ITEM ANALYSIS 212 The Item-Difficulty Index 212 The Item-Reliability Index 214 The Item-Validity Index 214 The Item-Discrimination Index 215 Item-Characteristic Curves 217 Other Considerations in Item Analysis 220 Qualitative Item Analysis 222 TEST REVISION 225 Test Revision as a Stage in New Test Development 225 Test Revision in the Life Cycle of an Existing Test 226 EVERYDAY PSYCHOMETRICS Psychometrics in the Classroom 195 CLOSE-UP Designing an Item Bank 207 SELF-ASSESSMENT 231 WEB WATCH 231 x G&S Typesetters PDF proof Contents 00-M3084 7/1/04 11:49 AM Page xi P A R T III The Assessment of Intelligence 8 Intelligence and Its Measurement 232 WHAT IS INTELLIGENCE? 232 Intelligence Defined: Views of the Lay Public 233 Intelligence Defined: Views of Scholars and Test Professionals 234 Factor-Analytic Theories of Intelligence 236 The Information-Processing View 241 MEASURING INTELLIGENCE 243 Types of Tasks Used in Intelligence Tests 243 Theory in Intelligence Test Development and Interpretation 244 INTELLIGENCE: SOME ISSUES 246 Nature Versus Nurture 246 The Stability of Intelligence 250 Other Issues 251 A PERSPECTIVE 261 EVERYDAY PSYCHOMETRICS Being Gifted 252 CLOSE-UP Culture Fair/Culture Loaded 258 SELF-ASSESSMENT 262 WEB WATCH 263 9 Tests of Intelligence 264 THE STANFORD-BINET INTELLIGENCE SCALES 265 The Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales: Fifth Edition 268 THE WECHSLER TESTS 273 The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Third Edition (WAIS-III) 275 The Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Fourth Edition (WISC-IV) 279 The Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence-Third Edition (WPPSI-III) 282 Wechsler, Binet, and the Short Form 284 The Wechsler Tests in Perspective 286 OTHER MEASURES OF INTELLIGENCE 286 Tests Designed for Individual Administration 286 Tests Designed for Group Administration 291 Measures of Specific Intellectual Abilities 296 CLOSE-UP Factor Analysis 287 EVERYDAY PSYCHOMETRICS The Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery (ASVAB): A Test You Can Take 293 SELF-ASSESSMENT 298 WEB WATCH 298 Contents G&S Typesetters PDF proof xi 00-M3084 7/1/04 11:49 AM Page xii 10 Preschool and Educational Assessment 300 PRESCHOOL ASSESSMENT 300 Tools of Preschool Assessment 301 ACHIEVEMENT TESTS 305 Measures of General Achievement 306 Measures of Achievement in Specific Subject Areas 307 APTITUDE TESTS 311 The Elementary School Level 313 The Secondary School Level 314 The College Level and Beyond 316 DIAGNOSTIC TESTS 318 Reading Tests 319 Math Tests 320 Other Diagnostic Tests 321 PSYCHOEDUCATIONAL TEST BATTERIES 321 The Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children (K-ABC) 322 The Differential Ability Scales (DAS) 324 The Woodcock-Johnson III (WJ III) 327 OTHER TOOLS OF ASSESSMENT IN EDUCATIONAL SETTINGS 329 Performance, Portfolio, and Authentic Assessment 329 Peer Appraisal Techniques 331 Measuring Study Habits, Interests, and Attitudes 332 EVERYDAY PSYCHOMETRICS First Impressions 302 CLOSE-UP Tests of Minimum Competency 309 SELF-ASSESSMENT 333 WEB WATCH 333 P A R T IV The Assessment of Personality 11 Personality Assessment: An Overview 335 PERSONALITY AND PERSONALITY ASSESSMENT DEFINED 335 Personality 335 Personality Assessment 336 Traits, Types, and States 336 PERSONALITY ASSESSMENT: SOME BASIC QUESTIONS 340 Who? 341 What? 345 Where? 347 How? 347 DEVELOPING INSTRUMENTS TO ASSESS PERSONALITY 355 Logic and Reason 356 Theory 356 xii G&S Typesetters PDF proof Contents 00-M3084 7/1/04 11:49 AM Page xiii Data Reduction Methods 357 Criterion Groups 359 PERSONALITY ASSESSMENT AND CULTURE 370 Acculturation and Related Considerations 370 EVERYDAY PSYCHOMETRICS Some Common Item Formats 350 CLOSE-UP Assessing Acculturation and Related Variables 372 SELF-ASSESSMENT 374 WEB WATCH 375 12 Personality Assessment Methods 376 OBJECTIVE METHODS 376 PROJECTIVE METHODS 378 Inkblots as Projective Stimuli 379 Pictures as Projective Stimuli 384 Words as Projective Stimuli 391 Sounds as Projective Stimuli 394 The Production of Figure Drawings 395 Projective Methods in Perspective 399 BEHAVIORAL ASSESSMENT METHODS 402 The Who, What, When, Where, Why, and How of It 404 Approaches to Behavioral Assessment 407 Issues in Behavioral Assessment 414 A PERSPECTIVE 417 EVERYDAY PSYCHOMETRICS Confessions of a Behavior Rater 408 CLOSE-UP Personality, Life Outcomes, and College Yearbook Photos 415 SELF-ASSESSMENT 418 WEB WATCH 418 P A R T V Te s t i n g a n d A s s e s s m e n t i n A c t i o n 13 Clinical and Counseling Assessment 419 AN OVERVIEW 419 Clinical Assessment and Managed Care 421 The Diagnosis of Mental Disorders 421 THE INTERVIEW 423 Types of Interviews 424 Psychometric Aspects of the Interview 428 Cultural Aspects of the Interview 429 CASE HISTORY DATA 434 PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS 435 The Psychological Test Battery 435 SPECIAL APPLICATIONS OF CLINICAL MEASURES 436 The Assessment of Addiction and Substance Abuse 436 Contents G&S Typesetters PDF proof xiii 00-M3084 7/1/04 11:49 AM Page xiv Forensic Psychological Assessment 438 Custody Evaluations 446 Child Abuse and Neglect 448 THE PSYCHOLOGICAL REPORT 452 The Barnum Effect 452 Clinical Versus Mechanical Prediction 455 CLOSE-UP Assessment of Dangerousness and the Secret Service 440 EVERYDAY PSYCHOMETRICS Elements of a Typical Report of Psychological Assessment 453 SELF-ASSESSMENT 457 WEB WATCH 457 14 Neuropsychological Assessment 458 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM AND BEHAVIOR 458 Neurological Damage and the Concept of Organicity 459 THE NEUROPSYCHOLOGICAL EXAMINATION 462 History Taking, the Case History, and Case Studies 464 The Interview 466 The Physical Examination 467 Neuropsychological Tests 469 Neuropsychological Test Batteries 482 Other Tools of Neuropsychological Assessment 485 CLOSE-UP Fixed Versus Flexible Neuropsychological Test Batteries and the Law 483 EVERYDAY PSYCHOMETRICS Medical Diagnostic Aids and Neuropsychological Assessment 486 SELF-ASSESSMENT 488 WEB WATCH 488 15 The Assessment of People With Disabilities 490 AN OVERVIEW 490 Disability Defined 491 Assessment and Accommodation 497 Disability, Assessment, and the Workplace 500 ASSESSMENT AND SPECIFIC DISABILITIES 504 Visual Disabilities 504 Hearing Disabilities 507 Visual/Hearing Disabilities 510 Motor Disabilities 511 Cognitive Disabilities 512 Biopsychosocial Assessment 516 Disability as a Diversity Issue 517 EVERYDAY PSYCHOMETRICS Public Law 105-17 and Everyday Practice 493 xiv G&S Typesetters PDF proof Contents 00-M3084 7/1/04 11:49 AM Page xv Expert Testimony 502 SELF-ASSESSMENT 518 WEB WATCH 519 CLOSE-UP 16 Assessment, Careers, and Business 520 CAREER CHOICE AND CAREER TRANSITION 520 Measures of Interest 521 Measures of Ability and Aptitude 524 Measures of Personality 531 Other Measures 534 SCREENING, SELECTION, CLASSIFICATION, AND PLACEMENT 536 The Résumé and the Letter of Application 537 The Application Form 537 Letters of Recommendation 538 Interviews 538 Portfolio Assessment 539 Performance Tests 539 Physical Tests 541 PRODUCTIVITY, MOTIVATION, ATTITUDE, AND ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE 544 Measures of Cognitive Ability 544 Productivity 545 Motivation 547 Attitude 551 Organizational Culture 552 OTHER APPLICATIONS OF TOOLS OF ASSESSMENT 553 Consumer Psychology 554 The Measurement of Attitudes 556 Motivation Research Methods 559 CLOSE-UP Validity Generalization and the GATB 527 EVERYDAY PSYCHOMETRICS Assessment of Corporate and Organizational Culture 554 SELF-ASSESSMENT 564 WEB WATCH 564 References R-1 Credits C-1 Name Index N-1 Glossary/Index I-1 Contents G&S Typesetters PDF proof xv 00-M3084 7/1/04 11:49 AM Page xvi G&S Typesetters PDF proof 00-M3084 7/1/04 11:49 AM Page xvii Preface I remember walking with some of my fellow clinical psychology interns at Bellevue Hospital, entering a building in the NYU-Bellevue Medical Center complex, and hearing someone—pointing to a man in the distance—say, “There’s David Wechsler!” Indeed, there stood one of the living legends in the field of psychology. As a graduate student, I had learned to administer each of the Wechsler intelligence tests and had even been privileged enough to serve as an examiner in the restandardization of one of them. Seeing this psychologist in person, for the first time, as a fellow employee at Bellevue, inspired a sense of awe. It was during my internship year at Bellevue that I first began to think about writing a textbook on testing, assessment, and measurement in psychology. I was gaining a great deal of clinical experience in the area of assessment, was completing a doctoral dissertation involving assessment and impression management, and had access to some of the most renowned human resources in the field of clinical psychology. In settings as diverse as the Bellevue child/adolescent/adult in-patient services, psychiatric emergency room, prison service, adult out-patient clinic, and in-hospital courtroom, academic instruction was complemented by supervised experience with a wide variety of assessment-related dilemmas and solutions. This growing body of knowledge and experience reinforced my developing views about the need for a new measurement textbook. This new textbook would be authored by people who actually used tests with real people. It would address not only psychometric essentials but various areas of interest to students of assessment who have wondered about sundry aspects of the enterprise. My education and experience in the area of testing and assessment continued after my internship year with my appointment as senior psychologist on the NYU-Bellevue staff. I handled a regular stream of assessment cases and instructed and supervised clinical psychology interns. The work entailed daily immersion in all phases of clinical assessment, including routine case presentations to colleagues. One day, while chatting informally with David Wechsler—the luminary I had come to know as a colleague—he related a story about the time Dan Rather and a CBS camera crew had set up shop in his Upper East Side apartment. They had come to conduct an in-depth interview with him on the subject of intelligence, for use on CBS Reports. Dr. Wechsler quipped that it wasn’t until that day that the people in his building got an inkling that he must be kind of an important person; he had to be, if Dan Rather was coming to interview him! Even as Dr. Wechsler spoke, I envisioned a time when I, too, would request a formal interview with him, the better to provide some “insider” insights for this book. But the interview was not to be. Dr. Wechsler’s death preceded that request. Although we did not have the benefit of Dr. Wechsler’s personal input for the first edition of this textbook, we have been—through the more than quarter-century in which the present edition of this textbook has evolved—fortunate enough to obtain the input of dozens of other authorities in areas such as intelligence, personality, statistics, and culture. During that period, the authors collectively gained not only greater knowledge about how to effectively convey essential measurement principles in a textbook but also greater personal experience using tests and applying measurement principles in a truly wide array of clinical, school, and organizational settings. In these pages, you have the opportunity to reap the benefit of this accumulated experience and knowledge as well as countless hours of diligent research to make this work as current as possible. xvii G&S Typesetters PDF proof 00-M3084 7/1/04 11:49 AM Page xviii Reviewers of previous editions of this work have tended to praise its breadth and depth—which I dare say has only improved with age. Beyond coverage, I believe you will find the writing style and level of this book to be somewhere between “most accessible” and “highly appealing.” As has been our custom, we have interspersed elements of humor in various forms (original cartoons, examples, and vignettes) throughout the text. The judicious use of humorous examples to engage and maintain student interest is something of a novelty among measurement textbooks. Where else would one turn for pedagogy that employs an example involving a bimodal distribution of test scores from a new trade school called The Home Study School of Elvis Presley Impersonators? What about the use of regression equations to predict prospective grade-point averages at the DeSade School of Dentistry? As readers learn about face validity, they discover why it “gets no respect” and how it has been characterized as “the Rodney Dangerfield of psychometric variables.” We could list more examples, but let’s reserve those smiles for a pleasant surprise when you come upon them in the text. Also in the interest of engaging and maintaining student interest, we draw heavily on various examples from popular culture, including popular media. Take note, for example, when you find mention of programs such as Trading Spaces, Wild On . . . , Iron Chef, South Park, and Survivor. These are television shows that students watch, and a (surprise) reference to one of them in order to illustrate an assessment-related point is designed to elicit a pleasant feeling of recognition—all in the context of involving students in the material. In the course of learning how to write a good matching-type item, for example, students are challenged to identify what actors Pierce Brosnan, Sean Connery, Timothy Dalton, George Lazenby, David Niven, and Roger Moore all have in common. Throughout, we have tried to incorporate timely, relevant, and intriguing illustrations of assessment-related material. For example, in the new Everyday Psychometrics box in Chapter 1, we introduce the subject of evaluation and ratings in the context of the Motion Picture Association of America’s film rating system. In the new Close-up box in Chapter 2, we take a detailed look at the Supreme Court case Grutter v. Bollinger et al. (2003). In that case, the Court grappled with issues of diversity as they affect the evaluation and selection of applicants for admission to public universities. Novel, thought-provoking, assessment-related material has been something of a tradition in each edition of this book. Intriguing discussion has been presented on topics as diverse as the Szondi Pictures Test (first edition), marital and family assessment (second edition), in-home evaluation of consumer response to television commercials (third edition), computer-assisted behavioral assessment in institutional settings (fourth edition), and “life-or-death” psychological assessment (fifth edition). The tradition continues in the present work. For example, in Chapter 12, many readers will be surprised to learn of B. F. Skinner’s flirtation with projective testing (yes, that B. F. Skinner). Beyond intriguing assessment-related sidebars, there is a great deal that is new to this edition, and new about it. Of course, we have updated the text with regard to new tests that have been published since our last edition. This updating includes descriptions of the new Wechsler, Stanford-Binet, Bender-Gestalt, GRE, and SAT tests, among others. Of course, we have updated the text with new test-related legislation, judicial decisions, and administrative regulations that have gone into effect since our last edition. Expanded and updated coverage is presented on a wide variety of topic areas, including culture-related issues, including specific recommendations for culturally informed psychological assessment the medical model of disability as compared to the new paradigm of disability test-item writing, including item writing for item-branched and item-banked tests geriatric assessment xviii G&S Typesetters PDF proof Preface 00-M3084 7/1/04 11:49 AM Page xix assessment in the military assessment for career change and career transition dynamic assessment biopsychosocial assessment the Big Five, Cattell’s “Big Five,” and Tellegen’s “Big Three” recent critiques of projective methods, along with rebuttals to those critiques quality assurance methods during the test revision process, including the introduction of new terms such as anchor protocol and scoring drift In the interest of conserving space while providing students with a quick and easy way to reference information, we have placed more material in tabular form. New tables in this edition include information regarding pros and cons of various sources of information about tests advantages and disadvantages of various item formats pros and cons of traditional group testing important legislation, litigation, and administrative regulations major entrance examinations for professional or occupational training essential “dos” and “don’ts” of cultural sensitivity in assessment Complementing all of the new material is an expanded glossary. More than 100 new terms have been added to the glossary in this edition. With all of the new and enhanced coverage, the length of this book could easily have been increased significantly over previous editions. Instead, through thoughtful writing and rewriting, careful editing, and the liberal use of tables to summarize information, the book’s size is about the same as previous editions’. The initial, introductory material has been reduced in length so that students can obtain a general overview of the field relatively quickly. Throughout the book, the size of most of the paragraphs has been reduced compared to previous editions. Essential material from the former Chapter 17, “Computer-Assisted Psychological Testing and Assessment,” was transferred as appropriate into other chapters throughout the book. Indeed, less can be more. One thing that has not changed in this edition is our dedicated resolve to develop a leading-edge, much-emulated-but-never-duplicated, measurement textbook that introduces students to the assessment enterprise and overviews the wide range of instruments and procedures they may encounter familiarizes students with the reasoning behind the construction of tests and the rationale of various approaches to assessment leaves students with a sense of the appropriate uses of tests leaves students with a sense of the inappropriate uses of tests compels students to think actively about issues related to testing and assessment Along the way, there has been a concerted effort to humanize the material, the better to involve students with it. Such humanizing of the material can be seen in the writing and in the illustrations, as when we include interesting biographical facts on historical figures in assessment. See, for example, the new photo and brief biographical statement of MMPI senior author James Butcher (Figure 11-4). Throughout the text, an attempt has been made to truly involve students via intriguing, real-life illustrations of points. Some examples: Preface G&S Typesetters PDF proof xix 00-M3084 7/1/04 11:49 AM Page xx life-or-death psychological assessment and the ethical issues involved (pages 55 –56) human emotion in the context of categorical cutoffs (page 7) the breathalyzer as a point of departure to discuss reliability (page 147) the confessions of a behavior rater (pages 408 – 409) assessment through means such as evaluation of college yearbook photos (page 415) the utility of tests to measure aggressiveness (page 338) and dangerousness (pages 440 – 441) The first proposal for this book was sent to a publisher in the mid-1970s. In that document, I envisioned a measurement text that was different in key ways from any existing book. As it happened, the first edition of this text would begin a tradition in terms of setting the standard and then raising the bar for measurement textbooks to follow. It would be a textbook that stood in stark contrast to any other of the day in terms of content, organization, style, originality, and pedagogy, among other variables. With regard to content, for example, it contained material not seen before—but now rather standard—in measurement textbooks. Contrary to prevailing beliefs, I believed that topics such as forensic assessment, neuropsychological assessment, and assessment for custody evaluations merited coverage in a measurement textbook. Having acted as a consultant to businesses and commercial test development firms such as Educational Testing Service, I appreciated how valuable it would be to cover business-related applications, including consumer assessment. Having been employed full-time as a clinician who regularly administered tests, I wanted to write a chapter on clinical assessment that imparted a firsthand sense of what clinical assessment is about. Having taught testing and assessment, I knew that many students entered the course “rusty” or downright unsure of themselves with regard to basic statistics—hence the development of the “Statistics Refresher” chapter. The style of the book—somewhat informal in tone— complemented the new content well. Because I found my sense of humor to be a valuable asset in the classroom, I attempted to intersperse some “personality” and humorous illustrations in the writing. Because I always enjoyed reading about historical aspects of the enterprise, I included photos of historical figures in assessment, complete with interesting biographical facts. In these and other ways, the first edition of this book represented a major departure from what was then available in measurement textbooks. Our new way of defining what a measurement textbook could be might best be characterized as magical, judging from the overwhelmingly positive response it elicited from instructors who taught measurement courses. Upon publication of the first edition, I learned that many people in the field found the unique aspects of the book most appealing. One of those people was Lee J. Cronbach, who shared with me, when we met at an APA meeting, how very much he enjoyed the book. I was so grateful to Lee for his encouragement, and felt so uplifted by our meeting, that I subsequently requested a photo from him for use in the second edition. The photo he sent me was indeed published in the second edition of this book—in spite of the fact that Lee had out at the time a measurement book that could be viewed as a direct competitor in the textbook marketplace. Regardless, I wanted Lee’s place in history acknowledged, and I wanted to thank him in my own way for his kind words and “seal of approval.” Beyond content and style, the first edition of this book was unique in terms of its organization. Here, there really was no magic involved, only logic. We started with a few chapters to overview the field, gave some historical perspective, and provided important background related to legal, ethical, and cultural issues. After the statistics refresher, xx G&S Typesetters PDF proof Preface 00-M3084 7/1/04 11:49 AM Page xxi we proceeded with several chapters designed to impart the essential basics of measurement. Logic dictated that prior to any discussion of the assessment of intelligence, personality, or whatever, some preliminary information regarding definitional and related issues must precede it. What followed next were several chapters designed to illustrate sundry aspects of measurement in various applied contexts. Having served as a consultant to many businesses and organizations, and being the founder and editor-in-chief of a scholarly journal (Psychology & Marketing) that regularly features articles detailing business applications of assessment, I felt I had unique and valuable information to offer students taking a course in measurement. As it turns out, the organization of our book has been so appealing that almost every major textbook on the subject published since we first submitted our proposal follows the same or a similar formula. In fact, reviewers have sometimes referred to these similar books as “Cohen clones” or “Cohen wannabes.” My own characterization would lean more toward “wannabes” than “clones,” as a clone is an exact replica; all of the “wannabe” measurement textbooks are but pale copies. Imitation is the sincerest form of flattery, and we look on with some sense of gratification as others try to capitalize on our success. But while the wannabes may copy our organization, and even some of the illustrations and features, there is so much that they cannot copy. They do not (and seem unable to) copy our style. They do not humanize the material in the way that we do. They cannot copy our leading-edge content because they are, by their self-evident nature, followers. It will take them an edition or two, for example, to incorporate some of the new material in this edition. For some topics, such as culture-related issues in assessment, the wannabes have a particularly long way to go to catch up. Some of the wannabes depart from our chapter organization by covering legal/ethical issues near the end of the book rather than at the beginning. Personally, I view such placement as ill-advised. Legal and ethical issues set a context for the assessment enterprise. Discussion of legal and ethical issues helps place the discussion of measurement, assessment, and testing in perspective. Also, unless chapters are assigned from the rear of such books early on, the possibility exists that some students will receive no exposure at all to this most important information. Another key way in which this book parts company with comparable books is in the way that issues of testing and assessment are distinguished. In a bygone era, we believe every reason existed to entitle a book such as this Psychological Testing and then proceed to clump issues of testing with issues of assessment in all discussion. Today, in an era when it is important to distinguish between testing and assessment, we believe a title such as Psychological Testing can be anachronistic, if not misleading, in terms of the material that is actually being covered. We believe that it is incumbent upon contemporary textbook authors to make a clear distinction between testing and assessment. We do that in the first few pages in an effort to orient the student to all that follows. We also believe that it is a sound teaching practice to maintain the definitional distinction between testing and assessment throughout the book. We heartily encourage instructors to exercise some critical thinking with regard to how well many of the competing measurement textbooks make a distinction between testing and assessment—beginning with the book’s title—and then maintain that distinction in their writing. And speaking of critical thinking . . . Critical thinking may be defined as “the active employment of judgment capabilities and evaluative skills in the thought process” (Cohen, 1994, p. 12). Generative thinking may be defined as “the goal-oriented intellectual production of new or creative ideas” (Cohen, 1994, p. 13). The exercise of both of these processes, I believe, helps optimize one’s chances for success in the academic world as well as in more applied pursuits. In previous editions, questions to stimulate critical and generative thinking were raised “the old-fashioned way.” That is, they were right in the text, and usually part of a paragraph. Preface G&S Typesetters PDF proof xxi 00-M3084 7/1/04 11:49 AM Page xxii Acting on the advice of reviewers, we have made this special feature of our writing even more special by writing more questions and setting them in the margins. Now it is up to motivated students to do their part and actually think about the Just Think questions. In this context, instructors, too, may consider thinking about one question related to student motivation: Will awarding extra credit for writing responses to selected Just Think exercises further motivate students? In addition to critical thinking and generative thinking questions called out in the text, other pedagogical aids in this book include original cartoons created by the authors, original illustrations created by the authors (including the model of memory in the neuropsychological assessment chapter), and original acronyms created by the authors. We have offered a student workbook, an instructor’s manual, and a test item bank as part of the teaching package with every edition of this book since the very first. Recent editions have further supplemented this excellent teaching package with Internet-based study aids for students, as well as teaching tips and a discussion forum for instructors. The authors have been very focused and very diligent in their efforts to bring you a leading-edge measurement textbook that involves students in the subject matter and imparts a wealth of academic and applied information essential to understanding psychological testing and assessment. Mark Swerdlik persevered in these objectives under very challenging conditions since the last edition. During that time period, Mark lost his mother, Edna (1912 –2003); his father, Al (1910 –2002); and his uncle, Aaron Swerdlik (1917–2002), who holds the distinction of being a layperson with no background in psychology who actually read our book cover to cover. Mark dedicates his contributions to this edition to the memory of these cherished family members. As we were completing work on this edition, I received the most unexpected news that my mother had suffered a massive stroke. She did not survive. It is impossible to express the sense of sadness and loss experienced by myself, my brother, and my sister, as well as the countless other people who knew this gentle, loving, and much loved person. We will miss her counsel, her sense of humor, and just knowing that she’s there for us. We will miss her genuine exhilaration, which in turn exhilarated us, and the image of her welcoming, outstretched arms whenever we came to visit. Her children were her life, and the memory of her smiling face, making each of us feel so special, survives as a private source of peace and comfort for us all. She kept a copy of this book proudly displayed on her coffee table; one need not be an expert in evaluation to understand the significance of that. My dedication of this book is only one small way I can acknowledge how very special she was to me. In looking through family albums for a photo to include, it was perhaps not surprising that few photos existed of Mom by herself. For this reason, I decided to use my parents’ wedding photo in the dedication. They were so good together. And so there she is, reunited with Dad. Now, that is something that would make her very happy. Our thanks go out to the wonderfully professional editorial, production, and marketing staff at McGraw-Hill, including John Wannemacher, Jane Acheson, Jen Mills, Melissa Caughlin, Courtney Cooney, and the always-great-to-work-with freelancer April Wells-Hayes. Thanks to graduate assistant Adam Godfrey for careful library research that exceeded expectations. Thanks to Rajan Nataraajan for impromptu quantitative consultations whenever there was a plethora of Greek letters in reference sources. Finally, the authors thank their family members—I thank my wife, Susan, and son, Harrison; Mark thanks his wife, Peggy, his son, Danny, and his daughter, Jenny, along with her husband, John—for their support during the many hours, days, months, and years we devoted to this labor of love. Ronald Jay Cohen, Ph.D., ABAP xxii G&S Typesetters PDF proof Preface