Mundane Fashion: Women, Clothes and Emotional Durability

MUNDANE FASHION: WOMEN, CLOTHES AND EMOTIONAL DURABILITY Milada Burcikova A thesis submitted to the University of Huddersfield in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy September 2019 School of Art, Design and Architecture, University of Huddersfield Volume 1 of 2 ABSTRACT This research investigates emotional durability of clothing through the lens of a designer-maker practice. The current discourse on fashion futures urgently recognizes that a deeper understanding of the behavioural drivers behind long-term use of clothing is critical in order to move beyond symptombased solutions to fashion and sustainability such as closed loop recycling and technological innovation. A considerable body of work exists on design strategies for emotional durability. However, empirical evidence that examines their relationship to users’ everyday experiences with clothing is missing. I set to remedy this gap through my own designer-maker practice that investigated women’s routine relationships with the clothes in their wardrobes. Focusing specifically on what matters in everyday use, I examine the possible applications of emotionally durable design in fashion design and making. This approach challenges the imperative of disposability in fashion and foregrounds instead a long-term value-creation enabled through the continuous use of familiar clothes. The thesis structure has three interrelated elements that outline the linear narrative of the research as well as the conceptual and methodological developments. The first part of the thesis outlines the global challenges in fashion production and consumption. The second part introduces and applies ethnographic methods to understanding the sensory wardrobe, and the third concluding stage includes the findings and practical application in the One Thing Collection. Conceptually, the thesis moves from comprehending the macro towards a practical application in the micro. The methodology employs a combination of practical explorations through designer-maker practice with in-depth wardrobe conversations. Adopting methods from narrative enquiry and sensory ethnography, ten women aged between 29-69 were interviewed in their homes. Rich imagery of clothes in use and extended excerpts of wardrobe conversations are essential components of the thesis ethos, these became framed as individual portraits of each of the women. It is stressed that these portraits are significant to the research findings presented in the thesis; the portraits are presented in the Appendices as the nature of sensory ethnography results in details of visual and textual data beyond the confines of the thesis. The findings show that designable characteristics of garments such as shape, style, fit, colour, material, details, or easy care are all significant in contributing to a garment’s emotional durability. However, a truly long-lasting relationship with a piece of clothing results from a complex dynamic between its design, the mode of its acquisition, expectations, fluctuation of personal circumstances, and each woman’s perspective on the relationship between continuity and change. The key insights are articulated through the four themes identified in thematic cross-case analysis of the wardrobe conversations: (1) Enablers, (2) Sensory experiences, (3) Longing and Belonging, and lastly (4) Layering. Each theme is also interpreted through the process of making a corresponding everyday garment that captures the essence of the women’s narratives. This research contributes to the current discourse on emotional durability in fashion design and making and provides new contextual data on user experience of clothing; [See Chapter 7.3 Contribution to knowledge summarized, p. 300]. The research demonstrates that fashion design for emotional durability requires an empathic approach that readily embraces the complexity of everyday life as an opportunity, rather than a hindrance to creative expression. These conclusions are also now embodied in my studio practice with future development of the One Thing Collection that resulted from this thesis. TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Appendices: Volume 2 5 List of figures 6 List of tables 10 Copyright statement 11 Acknowledgements 12 PROLOGUE 13 INTRODUCTION 16 PART ONE 22 1 23 2 3 IS THIS FASHION AND DOES IT MATTER? MY BACKGROUND – REFLECTIVE PRACTICE 24 FASHION, CLOTHING AND EVERYDAY LIFE 27 DESIGN FOR CHANGE – HUMAN PERSPECTIVES ON FASHION 31 CONSUMPTION AND MATERIAL CULTURE 38 FASHION, CLOTHING, DURABILITY 43 SLOWING DOWN FASHION 44 LIFE-CYCLE ASSESSMENT AND CLOTHING LIFETIMES 47 LONGER LASTING CLOTHING 49 HOW LONG IS DURABLE: PHYSICAL DURABILITY AND EMOTIONAL DURABILITY 51 EMOTIONALLY DURABLE DESIGN DESIGN AND EMOTION 57 59 EMOTIONAL ATTACHMENT TO OBJECTS AND DESIGN FOR EMOTIONAL DURABILITY 64 DESIGN STRATEGIES FOR EMOTIONALLY DURABLE DESIGN 67 DESIGN STRATEGIES FOR CLOTHING LONGEVITY 71 RESEARCH IN PRACTICE: TEMPORARY DESIGN RESPONSES 80 3 PART TWO 97 4 98 SENSORY WARDROBE RESEARCH APPROACH AND PHILOSOPHY 5 99 RESEARCH DESIGN: WARDROBE CONVERSATIONS 102 EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE: KEY STUDIES 108 SENSORY METHODOLOGY 117 WARDROBE CONVERSATIONS 124 ENTERING THE PRIVATE SPACE 125 OPENING WARDROBES 133 UNDERSTANDING WARDROBES - THE PROCESS OF ANALYSIS 141 PART THREE 159 6 160 7 WARDROBE NARRATIVES LEARNING FROM THE WARDROBE 161 SENSORY EXPERIENCES 173 ENABLERS 193 LONGING AND BELONGING 211 LAYERING 230 RESEARCH IN PRACTICE: ONE THING COLLECTION 245 CONCLUSION 291 CONCLUDING THE RESEARCH OBJECTIVES 292 POINTS OF DISCOVERY AND CONTRIBUTION TO KNOWLEDGE 296 CONTRIBUTION TO KNOWLEDGE SUMMARIZED 300 LIMITATIONS 303 FUTURE DEVELOPMENT 305 REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY 307 4 List of Appendices: Volume 2 A. WARDROBE NARRATIVES 342 B. THEME TABLES 517 C. INTERVIEW SCHEDULES 525 D. INTERVIEW TRANSCRIPT EXAMPLES 530 E. CODE BOOK EXAMPLES 535 F. CONSENT DOCUMENTS 562 5 List of figures Figure 1.1 Tanya’s repaired dress with inserted front panel ........................................................................... 14 Figure 1.2 Tanya’s repaired dress with side patches over worn seams .......................................................... 15 Figure 2.1 Don Norman's concept of three level design - Adapted from Norman, 2004 ................................ 55 Figure 3.1 Cross-analysis of design recommendations from the design and emotion and clothing longevity contextual review ................................................................................................................................... 82 Figure 3.2 Documenting the making process: hand-sewing of hems .............................................................. 83 Figure 3.3 Design example 1 - frontal view ..................................................................................................... 86 Figure 3.4 Design example 1 – folds for waist adjustment .............................................................................. 87 Figure 3.5 Design example 1 - wear option 1 .................................................................................................. 88 Figure 3.6 Design example 1 - wear option 2 .................................................................................................. 88 Figure 3.7 Design example 2 (light pink version) - wear option 1, front ......................................................... 90 Figure 3.8 Design example 2 (black version) - wear option 1, back................................................................. 90 Figure 3.9 Design example 2 (light pink version) - detail of hand-stitching .................................................... 91 Figure 3.10 Design example 2 (black version) - wear option 2 ........................................................................ 92 Figure 3.11 Design example 2 (black version) - attaching modular parts for wear option 3........................... 93 Figure 3.12 Design example 2 (black version) - wear option 3 ........................................................................ 93 Figure 5.1 Studio inspiration board in progress (Year 2) ............................................................................... 142 Figure 5.2 Sketchbook experimentation - collating materials from the studio inspiration board with primary research materials ................................................................................................................................ 143 Figure 5.3 Sketchbook experimentation - collating materials from the studio inspiration board with primary research materials ................................................................................................................................ 143 Figure 5.4 Garment selections from primary research displayed on my studio wall .................................... 147 Figure 5.5 Analytical notes from reading of transcripts and garment selections: example 1 ....................... 148 Figure 5.6 Analytical notes from reading of transcripts and garment selections: example 2 ....................... 148 Figure 5.7 Refining codes and categories for the final stage of coding: example 1 ...................................... 150 Figure 5.8 Refining codes and categories for the final stage of coding: example 2 ...................................... 150 Figure 5.9 Refining codes and categories for the final stage of coding: example 3 ...................................... 151 Figure 5.10 Collating codes into categories and preliminary themes: example 1 ......................................... 152 Figure 5.11 Collating codes into categories and preliminary themes: example 2 ......................................... 152 Figure 5.12 Collating codes into categories and preliminary themes: example 3 ......................................... 153 Figure 5.13 Collating codes into categories and preliminary themes: example 4 ......................................... 153 Figure 5.14 Iterative review of categories: example 1 .................................................................................. 154 6 Figure 5.15 Iterative review of categories: example 2 ...................................................................................154 Figure 5.16 Iterative review of categories: example 3 ...................................................................................155 Figure 5.17 Sketchbook selections for final themes: example 1 ....................................................................156 Figure 5.18 Sketchbook selections for final themes: example 2 ....................................................................157 Figure 5.19 Sketchbook page on the Layering theme - process.....................................................................157 Figure 6.1 Golraz demonstrating her issues with fit.......................................................................................162 Figure 6.2 Deep satisfaction with a garment demonstrated in facial expression (Hanka) .............................163 Figure 6.3 “Unloved” garments held at a physical distance from the body ...................................................164 Figure 6.4 Appreciated garment details .........................................................................................................165 Figure 6.5 A hidden detail as a trace of garment's long history .....................................................................165 Figure 6.6 Soft feel of fabric demonstrated by Julie ......................................................................................166 Figure 6.7 The Emotionally Durable Clothing Model .....................................................................................168 Figure 6.8 The Sensory experiences theme and categories ............................................................................173 Figure 6.9 Annabelle's 20 years old jeans ......................................................................................................177 Figure 6.10 The little plastic pearl that gave name to Louise's Pocahontas skirt...........................................181 Figure 6.11 The zip that proves to Golraz that she is taking care of herself ..................................................182 Figure 6.12 Mismatched buttons - one of Julie's favourite details on her jacket ..........................................183 Figure 6.13 Mary's favourite colour combinations ........................................................................................187 Figure 6.14 Mary loves combining patterns, colours and textures ................................................................187 Figure 6.15 Golraz's loved dress that she is keeping for her future daughter: front .....................................189 Figure 6.16 Golraz's loved dress that she is keeping for her future daughter: back ......................................190 Figure 6.17 The Enablers theme and categories ............................................................................................193 Figure 6.18 The Longing and belonging theme and categories .....................................................................211 Figure 6.19 Emma loves Chinese and Japanese patterns and prints..............................................................215 Figure 6.20 A jacket Tanya could not resist because of its pattern ................................................................216 Figure 6.21 Tanya's beloved cherry patterns tied with childhood memories: jacket ....................................216 Figure 6.22 Tanya's beloved cherry patterns tied with childhood memories: skirt .......................................217 Figure 6.23 Annabelle's unusual dresses chosen by her partner ...................................................................221 Figure 6.24 Julie's same dresses that make her feel comfortable .................................................................223 Figure 6.25 Annabelle's dull work skirts .........................................................................................................224 Figure 6.26 Annabelle's deliberate attempt to try break away from brown beige ........................................225 Figure 6.27 Left: Jacket with a diagonal zip that used to belong to Emma's mother. Right: Jacket with a diagonal zip that Emma bought some years back .................................................................................226 Figure 6.28 Left: Emma's grandmother's skirt that she used to try on as a child. Right: Emma's wedding skirt ...............................................................................................................................................................226 7 Figure 6.29 The Layering theme and categories............................................................................................ 230 Figure 6.30 Design considerations in One Thing Collection .......................................................................... 246 Figure 6.31 Material sampling - wash tests ................................................................................................... 249 Figure 6.32 Material sampling - wash tests ................................................................................................... 250 Figure 6.33 Material sampling - testing texture and feel of materials .......................................................... 250 Figure 6.34 Material sampling - testing combinations of final materials ...................................................... 250 Figure 6.35 Sketchbook page referencing reoccurring patterns (stripes and polka dots) from wardrobe conversations ........................................................................................................................................ 251 Figures 6.36 Material sampling – testing combinations of final materials with threads for hand-stitching details.................................................................................................................................................... 251 Figure 6.37 Sketchbook page – the Sensory experiences theme ................................................................... 256 Figure 6.38 One Dress - the toiling process. Testing placement of folds, size, and shape of pockets (Toile 1) .............................................................................................................................................................. 257 Figure 6.39 Adjusting size and shape of pockets (Toile 2) ............................................................................. 257 Figure 6.40 Cutting out in the final material ................................................................................................. 258 Figure 6.41 Top with pre-stitched neckline. Background: wall printouts from wardrobe conversations ..... 259 Figure 6.42 Skirt with pre-stitched, extra wide hemline ............................................................................... 259 Figure 6.43 Details in polka dot printed cotton. Left: top pocket bag. Right: neckline facings ..................... 260 Figure 6.44 Top and skirt final assembly ....................................................................................................... 260 Figure 6.45 One Dress – pre-stitched for hand-stitching in contrast colours ................................................ 261 Figure 6.46 One Dress with optional belt – pre-stitched for hand-stitching in contrast colours .................. 262 Figure 6.47 Sketchbook page – the Enablers theme ..................................................................................... 265 Figure 6.48 Sketchbook page - yokes on favourite skirts. ............................................................................. 266 Figure 6.49 Modern Workwear toiling - testing the balance of folds (Toile 1) ............................................. 266 Figure 6.50 Experimenting with side panel adjustments .............................................................................. 267 Figure 6.51 Skirt side panel adjustments with snap fasteners, hand-stitching in contrasting colours ......... 267 Figure 6.52 Experimenting with skirt side panel adjustments, detail............................................................ 268 Figure 6.53 Cutting out in the final material ................................................................................................. 268 Figure 6.54 Pattern pieces in the final materials, including materials for hidden details ............................. 269 Figure 6.55 Skirt pocket construction ............................................................................................................ 269 Figure 6.56 Construction of skirt yokes, folds, side panels and pockets ....................................................... 270 Figure 6.57 Hand-finishing of top facings ...................................................................................................... 270 Figure 6.58 Modern Workwear top and skirt - pre-stitched for hand-stitching in contrast colours ............. 271 Figure 6.59 Sketchbook page – the Longing and Belonging theme .............................................................. 274 Figure 6.60 Pinafore fastening (Toile 1) ......................................................................................................... 275 8 Figure 6.61 Trying the fit and feel (Toile 1) ....................................................................................................275 Figure 6.62 Trying the fit and feel (Toile 2) ....................................................................................................276 Figure 6.63 Fitting over the One Dress ...........................................................................................................276 Figure 6.64 Front panel pleating sample for Toile 3 .......................................................................................277 Figure 6.65 Pinafore top front and back (Toile 3) ..........................................................................................277 Figure 6.66 Trying the fit and feel (Toile 3) ....................................................................................................278 Figure 6.67 Fitting over the Modern Workwear (Toile 3) ..............................................................................278 Figure 6.68 Pinafore top in the final material - front and back ......................................................................279 Figure 6.69 Pinafore construction - pocket bags, pleated front panel and facings ........................................280 Figure 6.70 Pinafore in combination with Modern Workwear ......................................................................280 Figure 6.71 Pinafore top detail .......................................................................................................................281 Figure 6.72 Sketchbook page – the Layering theme ......................................................................................283 Figure 6.73 Coat Toile 1 before the insertion of the collar ............................................................................284 Figure 6.74 Coat collar (Toile 2)......................................................................................................................284 Figure 6.75 Testing the size and placement of pockets (Toile 2) ...................................................................285 Figure 6.76 Coat Toile 3 after wash test .........................................................................................................285 Figure 6.77 Cutting out in the final material ..................................................................................................286 Figure 6.78 Cutting out in the final material, markings for placement of buttons ........................................286 Figure 6.79 Reverse side of sleeves, hand-finished seam details ...................................................................287 Figure 6.80 Insertion of sleeves......................................................................................................................287 Figure 6.81 Coat before the insertion of the collar ........................................................................................288 Figure 6.82 Collar insertion ............................................................................................................................288 Figure 6.83 Coat in combination with One Dress ...........................................................................................289 Note: Copyright of all images belongs to the author. Photo credits Figures 3.2 – 3.12: Petra Lajdova Photography. 9 List of tables Table 1.1 Thesis structure 21 Table 5.1 Overview of interviews 139 Table 5.2 Overview of garments discussed with each woman 140 Table 6.1 Overview of the four empirical themes and their constituting categories (* denotes overlapping categories) Table 6.2 Materials used for One Thing Collection 169 249 10 Copyright statement The author of this thesis (including any appendices and/ or schedules to this thesis) owns any copyright in it (the “Copyright”) and s/he has given The University of Huddersfield the right to use such Copyright for any administrative, promotional, educational and/or teaching purposes. Copies of this thesis, either in full or in extracts, may be made only in accordance with the regulations of the University Library. Details of these regulations may be obtained from the Librarian. This page must form part of any such copies made. The ownership of any patents, designs, trademarks and any and all other intellectual property rights except for the Copyright (the “Intellectual Property Rights”) and any reproductions of copyright works, for example graphs and tables (“Reproductions”), which may be described in this thesis, may not be owned by the author and may be owned by third parties. Such Intellectual Property Rights and Reproductions cannot and must not be made available for use without permission of the owner(s) of the relevant Intellectual Property Rights and/or Reproductions. 11 Acknowledgements I would like to thank: The University of Huddersfield for providing the funding that enabled this research. Professor Alison Goodrum for her invaluable support and inspiration at a key stage of this research journey. Dr. Tatyana Karpenko-Seccombe and Dr. Elizabeth Caldwell for helping me to figure out how to write about it in a way that felt most true to the topic. Professor Nicole Pohl for having been a true mentor to me for the last nine years. I would also like to thank my partner Steve, for his infinite support, encouragement and understanding during these four years. I want to thank my family in Slovakia, who trusted that all the time I spent researching, sewing, and writing abroad, instead of being home with them, will be worth it. I want to thank Deirdre and Sophie who became my second family in the UK and whose support helped me to get to the finishing line. I am immensely grateful to Golraz, Hanka, Julie, Tanya, Louise, Emma, Kathryn, Annabelle, Mary, and Nicola, without whose generosity and trust with sharing their wardrobe stories this research would not be possible. I am also grateful to all the clients of my studio, especially Tanya, who inspired me to venture on this long but fascinating journey. Finally, this thesis is dedicated to my grandfather Andrej, who passed to me the curiosity and the courage to dare to do what I love, and to my grandmother Milada, who would be immensely proud that I keep doing it. 12 PROLOGUE Six years ago, at the airport in my hometown in Slovakia, I noticed a strikingly looking woman, probably in her early sixties, sitting a few seats away from me as we were both waiting to board the same flight to London. She was on her phone but must have noticed me because she smiled, and so I smiled back. Later, as we both joined the queue for the inevitable luggage check, popular with low-cost airlines, I was making sure not to lose sight of her. There was something about this woman that attracted me and made me curious. I passed through the luggage check first and then noticed that the stranger I wanted to keep my eye on was stopped by the airline staff. They insisted that her suitcase was bigger than their standard allowed size and so she was only let through after a young man gentlemanly offered to put some of her things in his luggage for the journey. This seemingly insignificant episode marked the beginning of an exceptionally inspiring personal and professional relationship that has lasted since. The memory of my first encounter with Tanya is important for this thesis because I still remember very vividly the way she, despite all the airport rush and the impatient gaze of the airline staff, carefully re-folded a blue jacket when moving a part of her possessions into the young man’s luggage. Her beautiful earrings (adaptations of Henri Matisse’s cut-outs of birds) aptly complemented the way in which she handled the things in her suitcase. All that I witnessed during this chance encounter seemed to suggest that each piece in this woman’s wardrobe had been chosen for a reason and was well loved and cared for. I was interested in Tanya, because she seemed to be exactly the kind of woman that I have always hoped to design for. Now, a few years later, the navy jacket I remember Tanya re-folding the day we first met is hanging in my studio. Since then, I learned that the jacket used to belong to her daughter but was later ‘handed down’ to Tanya. It is now well over fifteen years old, still perfectly wearable, and Tanya would like to have another one just like that in another colour. She says it is difficult to find a jacket that would fit and suit her in the same way as this one. She would buy another one from the original producer, but the style is no longer available. Tanya’s struggle to re-buy a piece of clothing that worked well for her is not unusual. Over the last eight years of running my slow fashion studio, I heard a few similar stories from many other clients. A few of them had a piece of clothing they liked and wore out, but to their disappointment they later 13 found that a replacement was no longer available in the market. Similarly, Skjold (2014), who explored everyday sartorial practices in Denmark, notes the frustration of her informant Torben who tried to replace his favourite green shirt but found that it was impossible to find one just like it (p. 70). The participants of the international Local Wisdom project that culminated in Fletcher’s Craft of Use (2016), shared similar experiences: “I’m actually just going to have to go to a tailor with this coat and ask her to recreate it in another fabric of her choice”, says a participant from New York about a loved coat which is now “absolutely shot” (p. 164). About a month after our first brief airport meeting, Tanya visited me in my Oxfordshire studio and brought two dresses which she hoped could get a second lease of life [Figures 1.1 & 1.2]. Both were over twenty years old and she said she loved them. She also liked the ever more prominent holes which reminded her of all the years she lived through wearing them. In Tanya’s eyes, the value of these dresses did not depreciate because of the obvious wear and tear. On the contrary, the holes were there “to authenticate” (Woodward, 2007, p. 55) that the dresses were much “worn and loved” (Ibid). Figure 1.1 Tanya’s repaired dress with inserted front panel 14 At the same time, she felt that wearing clothes full of holes is perhaps less socially acceptable at her age and so she gave me a free hand in repairing or altering the dresses in any way I liked. Later, I heard that Tanya received many compliments on her ‘new dresses’ and I have repaired many more for her and other clients since. Figure 1.2 Tanya’s repaired dress with side patches over worn seams All these cherished clothes I have worked on over the years re-shaped my practice in two respects. Firstly, they shifted my focus from solely making new clothes to working with those that already exist, much in the way described by Gill & Lopes (2011), for whom the next challenge in sustainable design practices is “in terms of a negotiation with those things already in existence and a sensitization to their potential wear ability” (p. 312-313). Secondly, the continuous satisfaction and pleasure that these garments have brought to their owners aroused my curiosity in whether such long-term relationships with clothes could be fostered through design and making. This led to my decision to embark on this research. *** 15 INTRODUCTION The aim of this study, focused in the UK, is to identify how the concept of emotional durability can be applied in fashion design and making to reflect women’s experiences with clothing. In the currently dominant model of fashion production and consumption, designers and makers are pushed to meet increasingly faster trend turnarounds, sometimes left with the pressure of only twenty-five minutes to produce a design (Rissanen, 2016). Fashion users, on the other hand, face frustration with low quality garments (Niinimäki, 2014; McLaren et al., 2015; MISTRA Future Fashion, 2017 (7), House of Commons, 2019) and homogenous styles (Connor-Crabb, 2017; Townsend et al., 2017, 2019), often trapped in what Chapman calls “endless cycles of desire and disappointment” (2015 [2005], p. 21). As a result, large quantities of fully functional clothes are routinely discarded in the UK and worldwide (WRAP, 2017a; Global Fashion Agenda & Boston Consulting Group, 2017; European Parliament, 2019). Just half of these are collected for reuse and recycling (European Parliament, 2019) and only a small fraction can be recycled into new clothes because of issues with material quality and technology (Ellen MacArthur Foundation, 2017; WRAP, 2019). It is clear that the current situation is not sustainable, and that fashion future must be radically different. The United Nations Fashion Industry Charter for Climate Action (2018) stresses that the fashion industry “needs to embrace a deeper, more systemic change”. The urgency of this transformation is also recognized by the Fashion Pact initiated by the French president Emanuel Macron ahead of the G7 summit in Biarritz in August 2019 (Fashion United, 2019). Over the past two decades, the alarming social and environmental consequences of the current model of fashion production and consumption received considerable scholarly attention (Alwood et al. 2006; Fletcher & Grose, 2011; Black, 2011 [2008]; WRAP, 2012; Fletcher & Tham, 2016; Gardetti & Torres, 2017 [2013]; Niinimäki, 2018). Research has shown that consumption patterns associated with fast fashion can reduce active lifetime of a garment to less than a season (WRAP, 2013). It is estimated that the number of times a piece of clothing gets used decreased by 36% worldwide over the last two decades (Ellen MacArthur Foundation, 2017, p. 19). 16 Yet, a substantial body of evidence also confirms that people often wear clothes for a long time and form deep attachments to some garments (Solomon, 1986; Schultz Kleine, Kleine III and Allen, 1995; Heti, Julavits & Shapton, 2014; Skjold, 2014; Fletcher, 2016). Empirical studies conducted by Skjold (2014), Holgar (forthcoming 2019) or Valle-Noronha (forthcoming 2019) prove that despite the seemingly overpowering presence of fast and disposable fashion scenarios, there is also a parallel world in which clothes get the chance to transform from a product into a process (Fletcher, 2016, p.1). A world where they are appreciated for the layers of meaning and emotion accumulated through time and repeated use. A growing body of research now recognizes that a deeper understanding of behavioural drivers behind fashion consumption and premature disposal of garments is needed to move beyond the symptom-based, material focused solutions to sustainability such as closed-loop recycling or technological innovation (Chapman, 2015 [2005]; Niinimäki, 2013, 2014; Skjold, 2014; Fletcher, 2016; Gwodz et al. 2017; Bruggeman, 2018; von Busch, 2018c). My research contributes to this effort by drawing on a combination of methods from sensory and visual ethnography alongside practical explorations through my designer-maker practice. During the initial stages of the research I became wholly immersed in the ‘global’ aspects of the research problem; within the breadth and depth of what is to be done. It is in this context the research started to orientate into a more traditional theoretical approach, only for the practice of sensory ethnography and fashion studio practice to take shape upon this initial contextual foundation during the middle and latter part of the research process. This is also reflected in transitions between the language of theory and everyday language of users, to enable continuous mutual dialogue and knowledge sharing. Wardrobe conversations with women aged between 29-69 accompanied by “making, observing and describing” (Ingold, 2011, p. 2) constituted my research methodology. The conversations took place in my interviewees’ homes in several location across the UK and focused on narratives around the clothes women selected from their wardrobes as our conversations progressed. While the thesis is largely textual, my tacit knowledge of making clothes provided me with a lens through which to interrogate, distil and interpret the questions, answers, and new paths for exploration that emerged over the course this research journey. 17 Throughout the thesis I use the term mundane fashion to refer to women’s everyday experiences with the clothes they own. It is however important to stress that ‘mundane’ is here by no means seen as ‘trivial’, rather, it refers to that which is often overlooked - the way a woman’s relationship with a piece of clothing develops over time, once she brings it home and wears it on a more or less regular basis. By drawing attention to considerations linked to everyday use, mundane fashion echoes Fletcher’s point that the current business model encourages designers to imagine fashion objects that will sell but not those that will stand the test of use (2016, p. 117). With the origin of ‘mundane’ in the Old French ‘mondain’ and late Latin ‘mundanus’, both meaning ‘world’, mundane fashion also serves as a metaphor for a holistic understanding of fashion and its implications on individual, social and environmental levels. In line with the approach adopted by Buckley and Clark (2017), through this thesis I aim to contest the dominant fashion business model “by understanding fashion as a manifestation of routine daily lives that remains with people over time” (p.4). In one of the most evocative accounts of human experience of making and wearing clothes, the acclaimed documentary Notebooks on Cities of Clothes (1990), the director Wim Wenders describes his first reaction as he was approached with the project brief: “The world of fashion? I’m interested in the world, not fashion.” This remark is important to this study because it captures the essence of my own philosophy in embarking on this project as both a researcher and a maker. In this thesis, ‘fashion’ and ‘the world’ are not seen as separate entities. Mundane fashion is a part of the whole, it only exists in the relationship to the people who wear it and to the world and the environment they live in. This research has three objectives: 1. To critically review relevant emotional design theories and explore the possibilities of their practical application in fashion design and making. 2. To identify how the different ways in which women experience and engage with fashion affect the emotional durability of clothing. 3. To create a series of garments that reflect women’s experiences with emotionally durable clothing and propose new ways of extending emotional durability by design and making. 18 The thesis is interwoven with images and extended excerpts from women’s wardrobe narratives [in Italics]. A strong focus on the voices of the women I spoke to is also reflected in my approach to articulating the findings. These are captured through an illustrated written analysis, women’s’ wardrobe narratives, and garments that I made in response to each of the four empirical themes that emerged from my research. A NOTE ON THE THESIS STRUCTURE The thesis is structured in three parts that outline a linear approach on the movement from a contextual ‘global’ understanding of the research problem, through to the practices of ethnography and fashion design and making. The thesis structure is visualised in Table 1.1 [p.21]. Thesis Part One: The first part introduces the key theories and concepts on fashion, clothing, physical and emotional durability in design that informed my approach and helped to build the foundations for this study. This contextual foundation serves as a larger backdrop to negotiating the research problem in the second and final applied part of the research. Chapter 3.5 [p.80] Research in practice: Temporary design responses is the key link between the first part and the rest of the thesis; parts two and three. The designs in this section are presented as an impression of the first, exploratory stage of my research that trials the design and thinking through making. The research problem here is how absorbing the contextual foundation and design for longevity can be applied in the move from theory to practice. Thesis Part Two: The second part introduces and applies sensory ethnography during a series of wardrobe conversations. The second part is concerned with the philosophical underpinnings of this research and my research methodology, with emphasis upon ethnographic practices. It details the overall research design and explains how the approach I have chosen reflects the aim and objectives of this research. Here I also clarify how my role of researcher-practitioner played out during this research, how the experience from my practice informed various stages of the research process. Chapter 5 Wardrobe conversations [p. 124] then focuses on the process of preparation and conducting my 19 fieldwork. It looks at the ethical concerns linked to this research and reflects on the process of interviewing women in their homes. The second part of the chapter explains how the material collected during the fieldwork was analysed. Thesis Part Three: The third part of the thesis is composed of two chapters that look back on the learnings and the questions that emerged from this research journey and offer a look forward towards expanding this work further. Chapter 6 [p. 160] articulates my research findings, by first discussing the four themes that emerged from my analysis and continues by their practical interpretation through the concept of the One Thing Collection. This is seen both as a logical development of my practice through this research and as a conclusion to this project that also extends this study into the future. Chapter 7 offers a retrospective look on the thesis, summarizes the key insights [See Chapter 7.3 Contribution to knowledge summarized p. 300] and suggests avenues for future development of this research. A key aspect of the thesis is the status and location of the Appendices. My concern is that the Appendices are not seen as supplementary material but are read as a vital source of information to provide the rich ‘thick description’ necessary for comprehending the depth and significance of the research findings. A note here is on the generosity of each woman in participating in an intimate study of their wardrobes. It is equally worth noting the richness and breadth of the visual material presented in the portraits of each woman that hung on my studio wall throughout two-thirds of the study [see Chapter 5.3, p. 141, Figure 5.4]. Table 1 on the next page illustrates the structure of the thesis and clarifies how each chapter contributes to the research aim through three research objectives. 20 Chapter 1. IS THIS FASHION AND DOES IT MATTER? OBJECTIVE 1 Global Context Chapter 2. Part One To critically review relevant emotional design theories and CONTEXT FASHION, CLOTHING, DURABILITY Chapter 3. explore the possibilities of their practical application in fashion design and making. EMOTIONALLY DURABLE DESIGN Chapter 4. OBJECTIVE 2 Part Two Ethnographic Methods METHODOLOGY SENSORY WARDROBE Chapter 5. ways in which women experience and engage with fashion affect Part Two the emotional durability of PROJECT WARDROBE CONVERSATIONS clothing. Chapter 6. OBJECTIVE 3 Fashion Design and Making Part Three FINDINGS To identify how the different WARDROBE NARRATIVES To create a series of garments that reflect women’s experiences AND Chapter 7. with emotionally durable clothing and propose new ways of CONCLUSION extending emotional durability by CONCLUSION design and making. Table 1.1 Thesis structure 21 PART ONE 22 1 IS THIS FASHION AND DOES IT MATTER? My background Fashion, clothing, and everyday life Design for change – Human perspectives on fashion Consumption and material culture 23 In this chapter, divided into four sections, I discuss the key theories and concepts that underpinned my research. In the first section, I introduce my background and include reflections on how my professional experience and my role of researcher-practitioner informed the research process. I also explain how the principles of reflexivity have been applied throughout my research. Following on from there, I continue with an overview of definitions and approaches to the complex and often overlapping concepts of fashion and clothing. I also clarify my own approach to fashion in the context of everyday life and my focus on users’ everyday experiences with clothing. Section three then explains how my research fits in with some of the latest research that calls for a human perspective on fashion, namely the visions outlined in two recent publications Dissolving the Ego of Fashion (Bruggeman, 2018) and Vital Vogue - A Biosocial Perspective on Fashion (von Busch, 2018a). The section also positions my research in the context of Kate Fletcher’s plea for ‘post-growth fashion’ introduced in her Craft of Use (2016). In the concluding section, I consider the relationship between consumption and material culture and explain how blurring the distinction between the two is unhelpful for the current efforts to negotiate more sustainable futures. MY BACKGROUND – REFLECTIVE PRACTICE As I outlined in the Prologue [p. 13], my research interest in clothes whose appeal lasts well beyond the first few months or even years, has emerged from my designer-maker practice. It has particularly developed over the last eight years of my conversations with the clients of my slow fashion studio MISENSE by Mila B. In my practice I make one-off pieces and bespoke garments, united by the ideas of durability, versatility, and easy care. Provenance is critical in my sourcing. I use end of line fabrics, quality vintage materials and haberdashery, and fabrics produced in the UK and Europe wherever possible. Repair and alteration services are also essential for my studio’s ethos, and as I explained earlier, in the recent years these have been a significant part of my commissions. Although I happily take repair commissions for menswear when the opportunity arises, the focus of my practice and my key skills are in womenswear. The day to day operation of my studio reflects my designer-maker philosophy in which personal contact with clients is at the core of all my work on both new and repaired or altered pieces. I started my practice with initial training in ethnography and cultural theory, which led me to a long-term focus on craft, activism, and socially responsible design. My later professional involvement in 24 a Design for All consultancy only further contributed to my strong belief that designers and makers need to work closely with users and develop a deep understanding of users’ everyday practices. In this respect, I fully identify myself with Norman’s (2004) claim that “designers who believe they do not need to watch the people who use their products are a major source of the many poor designs that confront us” (p.74). Each of my studio commissions starts with an informal discussion during which I try to learn as much as possible about my client’s lifestyle, the kind of clothes they feel comfortable wearing and their expectations of the garment I will be making or repairing/altering for them. I have found that these discussions become even more enlightening if they can take place in my clients’ homes. Zygmunt Baumann defined home as “the place where nothing needs to be proved and defended, as everything is just there, obvious, familiar” (cited in Malicki, 2014, p. 4). In line with this, I have found that being at home helps clients to feel less self-conscious, less pressed for time and much more empowered to explain what they truly want in terms of style, fabric choice and fit. The home environment seems to be more conducive to discussions of ideas and possible alternatives, it gives me the valuable context of the rest of their possessions (Miller, 2008; Woodward, 2007) and it also helps my clients to better imagine any new garments in relation to their whole wardrobes and the clothes they already own (see also Skjold, 2014). All this gives me invaluable information as well as inspiration for my work. Over the years of conversations with my clients, I have heard numerous stories of clothes that looked exciting in a shop but somehow did not meet the same high expectations when they were brought back home. Many of them get worn once, or never at all, some are discarded straight away, others are kept for months or even years before they eventually end up in a charity shop or a landfill (see also Woodward, 2007; WRAP, 2013). What concerns me then is that these “failed relationships” (Chapman, 2015 [2005], p. 24) not only waste the natural and human resources that were invested in the production of these clothes but they also seem to perpetuate people’s dissatisfaction, anxiety and frustration with the current fashion market (Woodward, 2007; WRAP, 2013; Twigger-Hollroyd, 2014; Skjold, 2014; Niinimäki, 2014). The overriding ambition of my studio has therefore been to offer a more user-focused alternative to mainstream fashion, with an approach that is informed by my clients’ everyday experiences and needs. I aim to design versatile garments that will be worn and enjoyed for a long time. The care and 25 the attention to detail I invest in this process (Sennett, 2009) makes me want to create a piece that my customers will not want to throw away (Maclachlan, 2011). In the words of British potter Edmund de Waal, “you must hope, if you make things as I do, that they can make their way in the world and have some longevity” (2010, p. 232). A NOTE ON REFLEXIVITY Jane Elliot (2005) notes that qualitative researchers committed to research that aims to contribute to positive societal change often consider explicit reflexive approach to their research in order to address the issues of validity (p. 154). She argues: While acknowledging that all research accounts will be partial and will be shaped by the intellectual biography of the author, there is a desire to make those accounts as informative as possible and to provide insights into the means and circumstances of their production. An approach to conducting and writing up research which makes clear the perspective of the author and describes the practicalities of how the research has been conducted is therefore advocated. (p. 155) In line with this view, in the writing up of my thesis I choose to fully acknowledge and reflect on the ways in which my personal and professional background have shaped first my overall perspective and later the progress and the decisions I made at different stages of this research. Such approach corresponds with the widely discussed “reflexive turn” in anthropology (Aul Davies, 2008 [1998]; Bromley & Carter, 2001; May & Perry, 2011; Alvesson & Skoldberg, 2018 [2009]) that questions claims to objective truth and unbiased accounts in research. As Robert Murphy comments in his brilliant auto-ethnographic study The Body Silent (1990), subjective elements are inevitably present in “all research by humans on humans” (p. 177). For this reason, he argues: Our need to reduce all our data to a tidy system is just as much an attempt to cope with the sensory chaos of a world we do not fully understand as an exercise in science. And it is subject to the same errors and uncertainties. (Ibid, p. 176) As I made clear in the Prologue [p. 13], my decision to embark on this research was inspired by the experiences of the people I met through my designer-maker practice, especially the unusually 26 stimulating relationship I developed with one of my clients, Tanya. In addition to this, I am conscious that my attitudes to the topic I decided to study here, were also shaped by my own upbringing. I have now lived in the UK for nine years, but I originally come from Slovakia where I lived until the age of twenty before moving to Prague, Czech Republic to study. Czechoslovakia split when I was fourteen and until I was ten it was still a country under a communist regime. While my parents’ income was average and we lived in the capital, my childhood memories certainly do not include overabundance of clothing. Most of what we wore seemed to be brown and grey, as the choice of colours and styles was limited. Therefore, I have fond recollections of Sunday afternoon visits to my mum’s best friend house. Her family in Switzerland used to hand down clothes to her children, and when they too grew out of them, these clothes were handed down further to my brother and me. I especially remember a turquoise summer dress with a broderie anglaise collar, that I could not wait for my friend to grow out of. I thought this was the most beautiful dress I had ever seen, and I used every opportunity to wear it when it finally came to me. I feel these experiences deserve a mention here because they no doubt influenced my relationship to fashion and clothes in more than one way. What is perhaps most important in the context of this research, is that they taught me not to take clothes for granted. FASHION, CLOTHING AND EVERYDAY LIFE FASHION AND CLOTHING Fashion is difficult to pin down in a single definition that would embrace the full scope of its varied meanings and manifestations. As the fashion historian Elizabeth Wilson comments, “fashion is coherent in its ambiguity” (2003, p. 9). The same seems to apply to the distinction between “fashion” and “clothing”. Although the two terms have many overlapping connotations they cannot be used interchangeably. The typical delineation between the two is well described by Loschek (2009), who notes: On the one hand, clothing is very concrete; a product that apparently surrounds us all the time, one that permanently contains us. On the other hand, however, fashion is extremely 27 abstract, since it is negotiated within the society. The aforementioned social constructs are what makes clothing into fashion. (p.10) This understanding implies that clothing tends to be understood through its material qualities, as fiber and cloth, used to cover our bodies. However, body covering has never been the sole purpose of clothing. This is reflected in Steele’s remark that any attempts to understand clothing as purely functional “fall short of being able to explain what clothing means to the people who wear it and to others who see it” (2010, p. xvii). Fashion then, being widely seen as symbolic and communicative, an “aesthetic medium for the expression of ideas, desires and beliefs circulating in society” (Wilson, 2003, p. 9), seems to provide a cultural context for wearing clothing. As Kawamura (2004) notes then “trying to define a particular item of clothing as fashion is futile because fashion is not a material product but a symbolic product which has no content substance by/in itself” (p. 2). DRESS AND STYLE The matters of fashion terminology get further complicated when the terms ‘dress’ and ‘style’ come into the equation. A good example is Wilson’s definition of fashion as “dress in which the key feature is rapid and continual changing of styles” (2003, p. 3). The term ‘dress’, is particularly favoured by scholars that arrive at study of fashion from ethnographic and anthropological perspectives. Defined from this viewpoint by Eicher & Roach-Higgins (1992), dress is “an assemblage of modifications of the body and/or supplements to the body” (cited in Foster & Johnson, 2007, p. 2). This means that the term ‘dress’ embraces items that may not easily sit within the western concept of ‘fashion’ and so provides a more inclusive perspective on what people around the world wear on everyday basis. Tulloch (2010) then builds on this effort as she highlights that the western understanding of the terms ‘style-fashion-dress’, which are often used interchangeably, does not apply universally. When used in this format, “style-fashion-dress” as a term, Tulloch argues, “constitutes a system of concepts that signifies the multitude of meanings and frameworks that are always “whole-and-part” of dress studies. “ (2010, p. 275). While she does not further elaborate on the definitions of ‘fashion’ or ‘dress’, I find her understanding of the term ‘style’ particularly relevant for my own research. To explain what she means by style, Tulloch uses an example of her own scarf, “a treasured personal fashion accessory” (p. 276), which she had worn and appropriated for different purposes over the period of twenty years. In this context then, Tulloch views style “as agency - in the construction of 28 self through the assemblage of garments, accessories, and beauty regimes that may, or may not, be “in fashion” at the time of use” (Ibid). This understanding of style is akin to the views of Barthes (2013) who saw the difference between ‘style’ and ‘fashion’ in speed, style being characterized by much slower cycles of change. However, in the context of my research, it is Tulloch’s perspective that especially resonates. Her view of ‘style as agency’ highlights users’ active role in digesting, appropriating and quite possibly even redefining ‘fashion’ through their everyday ‘clothing’. STYLE NARRATIVES Related to this, Tulloch also introduces what she calls “style narratives”, which, she says, enable “to expound an aspect of autobiography of oneself through the clothing choices an individual makes” (Ibid). Similar take on narratives through material objects and clothing is adopted in ethnographic and anthropological studies such as for example Hoskin’s Biographical objects (1998), in which six women and men talk about their lives in connection to significant objects. Woodward’s Why Women Wear What They Wear (2007) famously examined how women express their individual and social identities through their wardrobes. More recent examples include studies by Dankl (2011), Sadkowska (2016) and Skjold (2014). With their respective focuses on ageing (Dankl and Sadkowska) and daily decisions about dressing (Skjold), the authors explored how people’s life narratives unfold through their wardrobes [see Chapter 4.3, p. 108]. The concept of style narratives is especially relevant for my project because it helps to capture women’s everyday experiences through their own words, as the examples from my research will demonstrate. My conversations with women confirm that despite the omnipresence of fashion in our contemporary society, people who go about their busy daily lives do not always preoccupy themselves with its latest quirks. This is well illustrated on an excerpt from one of my interviews: I mean I'm influenced by what other people are wearing. In fact, actually, you know that yellow skirt? I was looking for something like that. And I, actually, I said that about something else - haven't I? That I was - when I've seen somebody else? So, I suppose, that's following fashion in a way. Although, I've just gone: oh, that looks great on that person! Irrespective of whether it's particularly fashionable at the time. And sometimes - I NEVER buy magazines, 29 normally. But you know, if you're going to have your hair cut and looking at the magazines and looking in Vogue. I DO like looking at what's in Vogue. (Emma 962-974) Emma’s words reflect the views of many of my other interviewees. Most women I talked to also admit to the joy of flicking through and odd fashion magazine at hairdresser’s, or on a long flight, and they also mention scrolling through Instagram or fashion blogs in the evening, when children are in bed. At the same time, it is important to note that some of their most valued (and still worn) items of clothing are often many years old and so rarely in line with current trends. Most women also agree that they used to be much more interested in keeping up with fashion when they were younger. Again, Julie’s description of putting on her tight jeans resonates throughout other interviews: I'm finding that now I REALLY REALLY love wearing things that feel nice and are supercomfortable. Whereas when I was young, you know, in those days we'd lay on the bed for half an hour tryin' get our jeans zip up and then couldn't move afterwards. But that's what we did and that's how we wore our jeans and things like that. (Julie 569-572) It is clear from these excerpts that ‘fashion’ provides an important point of reference for my interviewees and cannot be denied its role in shaping their experiences with the clothes they wear (although the degree of its influence may change over time as we have seen). At the same time, like Skjold, I also believe that fashion is not “the only cultural script at play in people’s dress practice” (2014, p. 16). The fluidity of women’s everyday experience with clothes, described by Buckley and Clark as a “synthesis of new and old, bold and mundane” (2017, p. 9), is in many ways much better captured through Tulloch’s (2010) concept of “style narratives” FASHION AND EVERYDAY LIFE As I explained earlier in this section, ‘fashion’ and ‘clothing’ are terms with complex meanings and while it is important to acknowledge that they should not be used as synonyms, they also cannot be entirely dissociated from each other. This is well explained by Barnard (2002), who notes that ‘fashion’ and ‘clothing’ are in fact often used in mutual relationship because they define each other. What is also significant for this research, is the connection between the ‘everyday’ (’ordinary’) and the ‘special’ (’extraordinary’), also implied in the understanding of the relationship between ‘clothing’ and ‘fashion’. As Barnard also argues: 30 Clothing sounds like, or has connotations of, the sort of thing one wears every day and is mundane, fashion connotes glamour and sounds somehow special and different from clothing. However, if fashion is what people wear to go about their everyday lives (…) than fashion has to include what we would usually want to call clothing or ‘what people wear’.(2007, pp.3-4) Strikingly, all the women that took part in my research spoke about ‘clothes’ and most of them never mentioned ‘fashion’, until I directly asked about their views on it in the final part of our conversation. It is for this reason that I resolved to use the terms ‘clothing’ and ‘clothes’ throughout this thesis. Nevertheless, as I explained in my Introduction [p. 16], I also chose to introduce the term mundane fashion, to emphasize the focus of this research on that which is often overlooked - the use stage of clothing. In their recent Fashion and Everyday Life, Buckley and Clark (2017) state that it is “the embodied ordinariness and everydayness of fashion (…) neither the wilfully ‘unfashionable’ nor obsessively ‘in’ fashion, but rather fashion as seen in day-to-day lives” (p.11) that interests them. I fully share this fascination with the rich and often complicated relationships between women and the clothes they wear when they go about their everyday lives. Through my thesis I set to extend the current understanding of such relationships through the lens of mundane fashion. DESIGN FOR CHANGE – HUMAN PERSPECTIVES ON FASHION DESIGN FOR CHANGE Since the rapid boost of production that was enabled by the industrial revolution, and the negative impacts that soon became palpable on individual, social and environmental levels, the need to rethink the ways in which we make and consume everyday goods has become increasingly urgent. Among the first to highlight the critical role that design has to play in this process was the poet, designer, and political activist William Morris (1824-1896). Morris strongly believed in design as a tool for social change and in his numerous public lectures he emphasized the responsibility that each of us, as individuals - designers, makers, or users - carry in this process. Characteristic of Morris’s views is his lecture At a Picture Show (1884), in which he urges his audience to be perceptive to the natural world, to the way we engage with it, and also to always staying alert to the fact that we all have an active role to play in the world. Therefore, we should “take a deep and thoughtful interest 31 in life (…) and not be merely drifted helplessly hither and thither by the force of circumstances, as we too often are” (1936 [1884]). Almost a century later, the designer and educator Victor Papanek 1923-1998) published his famous Design for the Real World. Human Ecology and Social Change (1971). The book has since become one of the key texts of design scholarship, with translations to twenty-three languages and numerous re-editions worldwide. Papanek, like Morris, was a strong advocate of socially responsible design and the book is his guide to how design can help tackle the most pressing environmental and social issues. What I find particularly pertinent for my research, is Papanek’s description of what he calls ‘Our Kleenex Culture’. By normalizing the mindset of disposability, Papanek claims, this culture not only has dire consequences for the environment and social justice, but it may also negatively affect our personal relationships. He argues: Throwing away furniture, transportation vehicles, clothing, and appliances may soon lead us to feel that marriages (and other personal relationships) are throwaway items as well, and that on a global scale, countries and, indeed, entire subcontinents are disposable like Kleenex. That which we throw away, we fail to value. When we design and plan things to be discarded, we exercise insufficient care in design. (Papanek, 1985 [1971], p. 87) This is important for my research, because what Papanek highlights here is essentially a lack of care for our immediate surroundings, starting with things we use on everyday basis. In this way, his view echoes Morris’s point that we should all take an active interest in the world around us and embrace the responsibility for our actions rather than just being “drifted helplessly hither and thither (1936 [1884], p. 409). Showing care in our everyday lives includes close attention and concern for the things we surround ourselves with and so recognizing their wider implications for the environment and people worldwide. As I will show throughout this thesis, care is critical in extending active lifetimes of everyday objects, including clothing. Moreover, exercising care in what we buy (or make), and how we use it, not only potentially promotes more sustainable consumption habits, but also encourages deep feelings of satisfaction and pleasure through repeated use of such things. Satisfaction and pleasure derived from long-term relationship with designed objects is widely addressed in the work of the Dutch engineer, design critic and educator Ed van Hinte, who is possibly best known for his association with the initiative Eternally Yours (now defunct). Eternally Yours was 32 started in mid-1990s to advance research in product lifetime extension. It was motivated by the belief that the reason so many current products end up in landfill far too quickly is what van Hinte refers to as a “lack of psychological lifespan” (1997, p. 19). As he explains: We can only make products survive year after year if we realize that they are used and cared for by people who see them, feel them, understand them and dream about them. Products must have the material ability as well as the immaterial opportunity to age in a dignified way. (Ibid) Van Hinte’s approach, with its focus on the role of designers in extending the time for which people use and enjoy their products, links to Morris’s and Papanek’s emphasis on the potential of design to positively affect social and environmental change. At the same time, the quote above calls attention to another crucial aspect of socially responsible design - the recognition that our everyday interaction with designed objects is an intricate mixture of multi-sensory perceptions, including both tangible (’material’) and intangible (’immaterial’) experiences and expectations. This inevitably results in challenges for designers at all stages of their work. As Manzini (2017) puts it, “if you put a human being at the centre, you cannot escape complexity”. However, he also argues that complexity is in fact good and designers should be ready to embrace it (Ibid). It is in this wider context of design that acknowledges the impact of our everyday decisions as designers, makers and users of products, with all the inherent complexity of placing human beings at the centre, that I wish to position my research. With its aim “to identify how the concept of emotional durability can be applied in fashion design and making to reflect women’s experiences with clothing” my study has strong links to sustainable design theory and clothing longevity research. Despite this, I chose not to frame my thesis in the context of sustainable design. This decision is motivated by my strong belief that design cannot dissociate itself from its wider implications on individual, social and environmental levels. Just like the obscure fair-trade shelf in a supermarket, with a handful of products that painfully draw attention to the origin of the remainder of the offerings, the sole existence of the term sustainable design exposes the alarming fact that most products that we design, make and use on everyday basis still do not, by any stretch of imagination, put the environment and people first. From this point of 33 view, while I deeply recognize the relevance and necessity of continuous discourse on sustainable design (and indeed sustainable fashion), I also fully subscribe to Chapman’s (2015 [2005]) view that: (…) by failing to understand the actual drivers underpinning the human consumption and waste of goods, sustainable design resigns itself to a peripheral activity, rather than the central pioneer of positive social change that it potentially could be. (p.15) In line with Chapman and some of the latest research presented in the special issue ‘Utopia and Fashion’ (Burcikova, 2018), I support the view that the transformative potential of sustainable design is undermined by a myriad of primarily symptom based “eco-modernist” (Brooks et al., 2018, p. 483) and “less bad” (Rissanen, 2018, p. 531) approaches such as closed-loop recycling. These scenarios are generally focused on material aspects of products (including clothing) and hence do not give due consideration to the complex issues of human-product interaction discussed earlier in this section. Moreover, as Brooks et al. (2018) also point out, such approaches are underpinned by a flawed logic that does little to challenge the politics and business interests that are at the root of the environmental crisis (see also Walker, 2017). As a result, what they offer are technocentric “magic bullets”, promising that business will carry on as usual and the planet will be saved (Ibid). The same point is echoed by Von Busch (2018a), who argues that “most approaches to sustainability in fashion never ask what is really to be sustained in the first place, instead an anti-social model keeps reproducing itself, but now draped in eco-cotton” (2018a, p. 79). To reiterate then, I locate my research within the scope of thinking that acknowledges the need for a holistic perspective on design, a perspective that embraces the complexity of design’s impact on individual, social and environmental levels and considers the role of human agency throughout the lifetime of designed objects. As a result, my research is underpinned by a triad of concerns: 1. Focus on the human dimension of fashion through understanding user needs and expectations. 2. Identifying effective ways of extending the emotional durability of clothing through design. 34 3. Imagining alternatives to the status quo and promoting a parallel economy of fashion production through micro-business models. Here I will explain how these concerns relate to the current research focused on rethinking fashion futures. HUMAN PERSPECTIVES ON FASHION Post-growth Fashion Kate Fletcher (2016), one of the key figures in the current sustainable fashion research, introduces her concept of “post-growth fashion” within the wider call for post-growth futures, that stems from a deep concern for the social and environmental consequences of uninhabited growth within the finite resources of our planet. Post-growth theories acknowledge the benefits of economic growth; however, they argue that beyond certain point growth is detrimental to both human well-being and the environment. Post-growth economists therefore argue for fostering economic practices that allow prosperity without continuous exponential growth. This line of thinking in economics was pioneered by Fritz Schumacher (1911-1977), the author of Small is Beautiful: A Study of Economics as if People Mattered (1973) and a friend and close collaborator of the previously mentioned Victor Papanek. Schumacher was an outspoken proponent of human scale economy and his legacy is continued by organizations such as Practical Action, Schumacher College, or The New Economics Foundation, among others. More recently, the post-growth economy scenarios have been advocated and further developed by Peter Victor in Managing without Growth: Slower by Design, Not Disaster (2019 [2008]) and Tim Jackson Prosperity Without Growth: Foundations for the Economy of Tomorrow (2017 [2009]). Like the holistic approaches to design discussed earlier in this chapter, both post-growth economics and post-growth fashion draw attention to the fact that neither economy nor fashion exist as isolated systems, outside the environmental limits and without a connection to people, and so they need to give due consideration to either in the future. The philosophy of my own studio, a micro-enterprise, also stems from this line of thinking. Fletcher’s vision of post-growth fashion is best explained through the portraits of people photographed in a garment of their choice, each accompanied by a story linked to the garment, all presented in her Craft of Use: Post-growth fashion (2016). Craft of use, Fletcher argues, “starts with 35 people” (2016, p. 272) and “recognises that sustainability flows not from elemental compounds, but from synthesis, from what human and non-human actants do together” (Ibid, p. 271). What particularly resonates in the context of my research, are Fletcher’s points that craft of use sees the practice of using garments in a mutual relationship with the practice of making them (ibid) and, importantly, that it also “roams free from the expectations, ambitions and priorities of the ‘current condition’ in order to exercise its fashion intelligence in a broader field” (Ibid, p. 272). Dissolving the Ego of Fashion It is especially these last two statements that provide a link between Fletcher’s thinking and the work of Pascale Gatzen, who stands behind the development of an alternative fashion curriculum at the Parsons School of Design, New York. Gatzen, like Fletcher, puts special emphasis on craft. This is evidenced in her own design practice as a co-founder of a weaving cooperative Friends of Light, based in Hudson Valley, USA. Recently, Gatzen has also developed a new curriculum for the Fashion Design Master’s programme at ArtEZ University of the Arts in Arnhem, Netherlands. Her fashion philosophy, like that of Fletcher, is focused on rethinking fashion in a way that prioritizes people over profits: Choices are made because they yield the biggest profit margins, not because they make us happier. How you dress is about how you position yourself in the world. How do we take fashion back into our own hands and make it a catalyst for social change? (Gatzen, 2018, cited in Bollier, 2018) Gatzen also points out that conventional fashion education invariably builds on a disconnect between design and making. In contrast to this, she encourages her students to “design through making”, because she believes that it is crucial that students become familiar with a process in which they need to negotiate “the dynamic relationship between materials, ideas and the sensibility that emerges from their bodies and hands” (Gatzen, 2018, cited in Bollier, 2018). This is important for my research as the same mindset underpins my own practice as a designer-maker. The process described by Gatzen, deeply rooted in a mutually nourishing relationships between materials, concepts, makers’ tacit knowledge, their multi-sensory sensibilities and, I would add, people they design-make for, weaves through this thesis in a close connection with the wider critical discussion and the wardrobe narratives collected during my field research. 36 Gatzen’s thinking falls into the wider context of the vision and the research of the Fashion Professorship at ArtEZ introduced recently in Danielle Bruggeman’s Dissolving the Ego of Fashion. Engaging with Human Matters (2018). Here, Bruggeman argues that: In its current state of being, fashion is exploited as the supreme expression of consumer culture and the capitalist system. It is a system that incessantly forms, shapes and (re)constructs itself; it creates its own ‘I’. In this sense, fashion has an Ego, which is an illusionary construction of I. (…) In a society with many urgent socio-cultural, political and environmental challenges, fashion is thus always engaged with its own Ego-creation: it is a constant redefinition of what it is and what it means. (Ibid, p. 7) The Ego of fashion, Bruggeman also says, is supported by the glamorous runways, the ideas of star designers and the seducing desires linked to money, visuals, and excess (Ibid). All of this, she continues, “often denies the subjective dimension and lived experiences of the human beings who actually wear and/or make clothes” (iIbid, p. 7-8). The vision of ArtEZ presented in Dissolving the Ego of Fashion is therefore led by a strong emphasis on the need for both critical thinking and critical design practices that will help envision fashion futures in which material objects can be experienced “in a more human way” (Ibid, p. 9). Vital Vogue Also in line with this mindset is Von Busch’s proposal to re-imagine fashion in a richer way that would drift away from thinking about individual garments and to instead re-conceptualise fashion in terms of energies and sensibilities (2018b). “What if designers think of fashion as intimacy? What way could designers open emotional and sensorial closeness to their users? What form of intimacy with materials, processes and others can designers curate?”, Von Busch teases in his Vital Vogue. A Biosocial Perspective on Fashion. (2018a, p. 81). However, he also acknowledges that this process would involve an “explicit unlearning of fashion-as-we-know-it” because the omnipresence of fashion makes it almost impossible for most to imagine how the future of fashion could radically differ from the deceptive familiarity of the current scenario (Ibid, p. 83). My research sets out to contribute to this process of ‘unlearning of fashion-as-we-know-it’ by using the lens of mundane fashion, focused on women’s everyday relationships with clothes that rarely make it to catwalks. 37 What all the thinkers discussed in this section have in common, is their recognition that material objects (clothing included) are integral to the way we experience the world around us. Therefore, despite the urgent need for nurturing more sustainable, more human alternatives to the current fashion consumption, viewing our relationship with material world as inherently negative is unhelpful. In fact, as Bruggeman puts it, in the holistic vision of the future “matter deserves to matter more” (Bruggeman, 2018, p.9). The next section will address in more detail why this is necessary. CONSUMPTION AND MATERIAL CULTURE THE CHALLENGE OF EFFICIENCY Despite improved efficiency in water use and reduced carbon emissions, the continuous growth in quantity of sold clothing means that the savings made are lost (House of Commons, 2019, p. 37). For example, in the thirty years between 1980 and 2010 the fashion industry reported a 30% decrease in resources used per unit, yet by 2007 the number of new garments sold raised to more than two times (Grose, 2015, cited in Fletcher, 2016, p. 22). Drucker’s (1963) famous comment that “there is surely nothing quite so useless as doing with great efficiency what should not be done at all” irresistibly springs to mind here. Nevertheless, the fact is that the combination of growing efficiency of production with raising levels of disposable income in the countries of the global north, and later in the emerging economies of South Asia, enabled raising levels of fashion consumption throughout the twentieth century. But it was the rise of inexpensive fast fashion in the last twenty-thirty years that increasingly allowed people of all incomes to “regularly and routinely consume and discard clothing“ (Buckley & Clark, p.8). The statistics cited above is a clear indication that purely technological solutions to resource efficiency are insignificant as long as the market demand and consumer expectations continue to grow . Such concerns have been voiced by researchers from a range of disciplines for many years now (Jackson, 2005; Princen et al. 2002; Chapman, 2005 [2015]; Brooks et al. 2018), recently also in the report for the European Commission written by Centre for Sustainable Fashion, London College of Fashion (European Commission, 2019). The core issue that links all these studies is well summed up by Chapman, who comments that in the technology-driven scenario, “consumers continue wastefully on, but do so, now, with recycled materials instead of virgin ones” (2015 [2005], p. 15). What seems to be clear is that technological innovation must go 38 hand in hand with tackling overconsumption. However, the latter seems to be much more difficult to address. FACING CONSUMPTION The critique of excess connected to materialistic values, referred to as pleonexia, goes back as far as Plato (The Republic, Book I), Aristotle (Nicomachean Ethics) and the Greek New Testament (Gospel, St. Paul’s Epistles) (Hammond, 2009). Later, in Leviathan, Thomas Hobbes refers to Greek understanding of pleonexia as a violation of modesty through desiring more than one’s share (2018 [1651], p. 143). Rousseau criticized early industrial society for manufacturing “artificial needs”, Marx fiercely opposed the “fetishism of commodities”, William Morris viewed his time as “the Age of makeshift” in which “we know of many and many things which we ought to have and cannot, and not liking to sit down under the lack pure and simple, we get a makeshift instead of it” (1936 [1894]). Veblen’s The Theory of the Leisure Class (1995 [1899]) later famously introduced the term “conspicuous consumption” that became widely influential throughout the twentieth century. The contemporary critique of overconsumption is largely connected to the acute awareness that the social and environmental costs of low-price goods consumed in the global north are largely “outsourced” to the countries of the global south. These countries often provide cheap labour and generally still lack the strict environmental standards for production as well as sufficient protection of workers’ rights and issues of health and safety. This was sadly highlighted by the collapse of the Rana Plaza building, Bangladesh, in April 2013, in which one thousand one hundred thirty-four workers who produced clothing for international high street brands were killed and hundreds more were left with debilitating injuries. An important contribution to this line of critique is the body of research that shows a low correlation of ever-growing material satisfaction with happiness and wellbeing (Scitovsky, 1992 [1976]; Pugno, 2016). Many researchers also point out that wider human needs, as theorized for example by Max-Neef, Elizalde & Hopenhayn (1991), cannot all be satisfied by material consumption. Indeed, some may even be violated by attempts to satisfy them in purely material ways (Kasser, 2002; Jackson & Marks, 1999; Diener, Ng, Harter & Arora, 2010). As Jackson well sums up, such critiques of modern consumption are united by the belief that: 39 In pursuit of an inappropriate concept of progress, we are not only damaging our environment but also degrading our own psychological and social well-being. (…) That environmental damage is an external cost of a misguided and unsuccessful attempt to achieve human well-being is tragic. Consumer society, in this view, appears to be in the grip of a kind of social pathology. (2005, p. 25) While this line of thinking no doubt raises a number of valid points that particularly resonate in the context of fast fashion, it is also important to recognize that voices calling for “voluntary simplicity” (Elgin, 1993), “downshifting” (Schor, 1998) or, with a wide popular appeal, for “decluttering” (Wallman, 2013; Kondo, 2014), invariably come from the position of plenty/abundance, without any real experience of alternatives. In short, it may be ‘fun’ to try and live with less when this is not a necessity forced on one by circumstances. As Miller points out, “not having things is no evidence that you don’t want them” (2009, p. 5). From this point of view, calls for a better life with fewer possessions could be seen at best as just another fad of wealthy consumption and at worst as “naive, absurd and moralistic” (Jackson et al., 2004). The latter, especially, is confirmed by the long history of failed utopian experiments that were fuelled by similar motivations. MATERIAL CULTURE While I fully acknowledge the complexity of the consumption debate, it is beyond the scope of this study to critically address all its facets as discussed by philosophers, cultural theorists, economists, sociologists, and psychologists. What is crucial for my research, however, is recognizing that despite the undoubtedly problematic nature of the current speed of consumption, the solution to the environmental crisis hardly lies in less care about material objects. In this project, therefore, I adopt Miller’s view that: (…) whatever our environmental fears or concerns over materialism, we will not be helped by either a theory of stuff, or an attitude to stuff, that simply tries to oppose ourselves to it (…) The idea that stuff somehow drains away our humanity, as we dissolve into a sticky mess of plastic and other commodities, is really an attempt to retain a rather simplistic and false view of pure and prior unsullied humanity. (2009, p. 5). 40 The point here is that conflating overconsumption and materialism with material culture is unhelpful because this creates a rather one-dimensional picture of our relationship with material objects. Edmund de Waal’s (2010) account of his family history seems particularly enlightening in this context. In his description of the moment when the Viennese Gestapo first started confiscating his grandparents’ property, potter de Waal notes: This is the strange undoing of a collection, of a house and of a family. It is the moment of fissure when grand things are taken and when family objects, known and handled and loved, become stuff. (p. 211) Here, De Waal exposes a different facet of our relationship with material objects. His short reflection is notable for two reasons. First, it echoes Miller’s (2008) point that despite the common assumption that stems from the critique of consumerism and materialism, our relationships with things do not necessarily compromise our relationships with those who are close to us. Indeed, as Miller demonstrates in his The Comfort of Things (2008), often “the closer our relationships are with objects, the closer our relationships are with people” (p. 1). Second then, De Waall’s perception of “stuff” as opposed to “grand things” and “loved objects”, as something that is disconnected from what, or indeed who, we care about and so devoid of any meaning, resonates strongly in my research through the experiences of the women I interviewed. De Waal’s description of his family history also fits well with the extensive body of research in material culture studies that highlights the vital importance of the process of making as well as using tangible things throughout our lives (Csikzentmihalyi & Rochberg-Halton, 1981; Moran & O’Brien, 2014; McCracken, 1990; Miller, 1987, 2008, 2009). In their now seminal study on the meaning of domestic objects Csikzentmihalyi & Rochberg-Halton refer to the work of Hannah Arendt (1958) and Martin Heidegger (1957) to argue that: (…) men and women make order in their selves (i.e. “retrieve their identity”) by first creating and then interacting with the material world. The nature of that transaction will determine, to a great extent, the kind of person that emerges. Thus the things that surround us are inseparable from who we are. The material objects we use are not just tools we can pick up and discard at our convenience; they constitute the framework of experience that gives 41 order to our otherwise shapeless selves. Therefore, the things we make and use have a tremendous impact on the future of humankind. (1981, p.16) Material culture studies thus recognize that material objects do not exist in an opposition or in isolation from our lives but are closely interconnected with the social context in which they are used, appropriated, appreciated (or not, for that matter) and eventually discarded. In this respect, the focus shifts from consumption to usership (Fletcher, 2016), or from what is described by Reisch as “material satisfaction” to what she calls “nonmaterial satisfaction” (2001, p. 378). In Reisch’s view, material satisfaction is derived from the acquisition of things whereas non-material satisfaction is linked to experiences of use which require time, attention, and involvement (Ibid). Thus, they offer an expanded view of the active agency we possess in relationship to material objects. In sum, as Attfield puts it, material culture studies concern themselves with the biography of objects, the process that follows once a thing “passes through the retail check-out into everyday life” (2000, p. 6). This is a suitable point of departure for my study that explores how women relate to the clothes that made their way into their wardrobes, whether through a retail checkout, a high-end boutique, a charity shop or as gifts from family or friends. CHAPTER SUMMARY The purpose of this chapter was to outline the key theories and concepts that underpin this research. The first section introduced my role as researcher-practitioner and explained how reflexivity is applied throughout this thesis to acknowledge the ways in which my personal and professional background framed my inquiry. The second section continued with an overview of definitions and approaches to the complex and often overlapping concepts of fashion and clothing. I also clarified that my own approach is focused on users’ everyday experiences with the clothes in their wardrobes. Later I discussed how my research fits in with the recent call for human perspective on fashion and I positioned my research in the context of Kate Fletcher’s (2016) plea for ‘post-growth fashion’. Section four considered the relationship between consumption and material culture and I also explained how conflating the two is unhelpful for the efforts to encourage more sustainable relationships with the material world. The following chapter will focus on the current research on clothing and longevity, discussed in connection to the existing emotional design theories. 42 2 FASHION, CLOTHING, DURABILITY Slowing down fashion Life-cycle assessment and clothing lifetimes Longer lasting clothing How long is durable – Physical durability and emotional durability 43 This chapter is divided into four sections and opens with an introduction of the discourse on fashion rhythms. This section positions my study in the context of slow fashion research practice, also aligned with Clark’s (2008, 2018) proposition that slow fashion unsettles the current hierarchies of designersproducers-consumers. The opening section also explains how the emphasis on slow living is closely linked to cultivating a long-term view of the products we design, buy and use in our everyday lives. Production and consumption of clothing are therefore inseparable and must always be considered in their mutual interconnections. This then provides both a link and a rationale for the following section that focuses on recent research in life-cycle assessment and its main challenges. Predicting consumer behaviour and everyday use of clothing are here identified as the core difficulties in life-cycle assessment (LCA) studies that by their very nature draw on ‘hard’ data of environmental performance. Section three then highlights that despite these inevitable uncertainties, extending the active life of clothing is still considered the most effective way of reducing its environmental impact and enhancing the sustainability of the industry. I here also first draw attention to studies that emphasize the need for a cultural shift towards longevity as a sought for attribute of clothing, and later to those that point out that longevity brings few benefits if users are not ready to embrace and profit from it. This latter point is addressed in more detail in the concluding section that analyses the distinction between physical and emotional durability and the complex interplay between the two. Here, the focus is especially on Don Norman’s (2004) concept of three level design that I identified as a key reference point for my research. SLOWING DOWN FASHION The Slow + Design Manifesto co-authored by Ezio Manzini, one of the most prominent current researchers in design and sustainability, explains slow approach as “the simple, but in current times revolutionary, affirmation that it is not possible to produce and appreciate quality if we do not allow ourselves the time to do so ” (2006, p. 2). The “slow” concept is perhaps best known in connection with the growing success of the Slow Food movement that originated in Italy in the late 1980s as an attempt to return transparency and appreciation of quality to global food chains. The principles of “slow” living are associated with rediscovering the values of local resources, reviving regional microeconomies, and standing up for transparency in production through strengthening direct links between material suppliers, producers, and consumers. What is particularly important in the context 44 of my study is the emphasis that the concept of “slow” places on “good work” (Hesmondhalgh & Baker, 2011) and the wider cultural significance of manual (craft) skills (Sennett, 2009). The overarching view that underpins the principles of slow living hence cannot be dissociated from cultivating a long term view of the products we design, buy, and use in our everyday lives (Strauss & Fuad-Luke, n.d.). There is a strong affinity between the slow movement and the work of the design thinkers and theorists that I discussed in Chapter 1.3 Design for Change - Human perspectives on fashion[p. 31]. For example, the philosophy of the slow movement has many crossovers with William Morris’s emphasis on the dignity of manual (as opposed to intellectual) work, with his advocacy for the value of craft in the face of fast advancing industrial production methods, as well as with his well-known plea to surround ourselves with only such things that we “believe to be useful or believe to be beautiful” (Morris, 1882). Papanek’s call for the appreciation of the environment that immediately surrounds us, his focus on using locally available resources wherever possible, and his concern for the consequences of disposability in design also clearly resonate with the agenda of the slow movement. Same applies to Ed van Hinte, Jonathan Chapman, Kate Fletcher, Pascale Gatzen, Danielle Bruggeman and Otto von Busch, who all put emphasis on cultivating our abilities to appreciate quality over quantity and building stronger links between producers and consumers of material objects, including fashion and clothing. For over ten years now, the “slow” concept has been gaining increasing resonance also in fashion. In a research context, among its most vocal advocates have been Hazel Clark (2008, 2018) and Kate Fletcher (2004, 2014 [2008], 2010, 2016). Clark, whose first article on this topic followed from her attendance of the Slow + Design symposium mentioned above, points out that “slow fashion” should not be seen in a direct opposition to the current fast model. The term is [instead] used to identify sustainable fashion solutions, based on the repositioning of strategies of design, production, consumption, use, and reuse, which are emerging alongside the global fashion system, and are posing a potential challenge to it. The slow approach offers more sustainable and ethical ways of being fashionable that have implications for design, production, consumption and use. (Clark, 2008, p. 428) 45 The slow fashion approach, Clark argues, unsettles the current hierarchies of designers-producersconsumers. Fashion is then repositioned as an “individual creative choice rather than a group mandate” (Ibid, p. 444). Kate Fletcher, whose work I introduced in more detail in the context of Human perspectives on fashion in Chapter 1 [p. 31], in addition argues that slow fashion is associated with a systems change and active questioning of the paradigm of uninhibited economic growth (2010). Slow, she too highlights, is not an opposite of fast. It is a vision of fashion that radically breaks from the logic of the current (fast) model because it is based on an entirely different set of values and goals (Ibid, p. 262). Slow fashion therefore is: (…) a different worldview that names a coherent set of fashion activity that promotes variety and multiplicity of fashion production and consumption and that celebrates the pleasure and cultural significance of fashion within biophysical limits. (Ibid) While positions of both Clark and Fletcher have noticeable cross overs to socio-cultural criticism of fashion practice, a slightly different angle is offered by Earley and Goldsworthy (2015, 2017; see also Goldsworthy, Earley & Politowicz, 2018), who addresses the question of fashion speeds mostly from the viewpoint of material and product development. Their research strongly echoes Fletcher’s point that a systems view requires a balance of rhythms in fashion, to reflect a range of needs and activities, that mirror self-regulation capabilities of natural systems (2010, p. 265). Earley and Goldsworthy hence argue that a spectrum of speeds, fast and slow, are needed in fashion. Decisions should be context dependent, with careful consideration of product categories as well as raw material recovery and renewal speeds (see also Fletcher & Tham, 2004; Fletcher 2014 [2008]). For example, renewal speed for biological materials such as cotton is relatively high and so such materials lend themselves for use in fast, mass-produced items that are suitable for chemical recycling at the end of their useful life. On the other hand, synthetic materials such as polyester have slow renewal speed which results in high environmental impact. These, Earley and Goldsworthy argue (2017), can be used in slower hand-made production processes and their useful lifetime should be extended through re-use and up-cycling for as long as possible. Considering their slow character and high environmental footprint, synthetics should not be used in fashion products with short expected life such as fashion products of low quality (2017, p. 132). 46 While I recognize the necessity of multiple research perspectives and parallel strands of innovation, it is my strong belief that low-quality and “fast” fashion products should not be produced at all. As I indicated in the Introduction to this thesis [p. 16], the environmental and social consequences of producing such items have been shown to strongly outweigh any potential benefits on individual, social or economic levels. It is for this reason that I position my research in the context of “slow” fashion as theorized by Clark and Fletcher. The blurring divisions between the roles of designers, producers, and consumers as well as the inseparability of production and consumption patterns of fashion goods provide the frameworks to lead my research-practice. LIFE-CYCLE ASSESSMENT AND CLOTHING LIFETIMES In the section on Consumption and material culture [Chapter 1.4, p. 38], I pointed to the fact that the ever faster fashion cycles inevitably compromise the potential benefits of technological innovation across all stages of the fashion value chain. Despite radical improvements of efficiency in water and resource use and overall reduction in carbon emissions, the continuous growth in quantity of sold clothing is reflected in a sad balance where savings made throughout the value chain are outweighed by the sheer volume of material throughput (House of Commons, 2019 (16); European Commission, 2019; Fletcher & Tham, 2016, Niinimäki & Hassi, 2011). To specifically target those stages of clothing lifetimes that incur most significant environmental footprint, numerous research initiatives have attempted to assess and compare the impact of material requirements, production, transportation, use and disposal of garments (see Allwood et al., 2006; ECAP, 2017). Life-cycle assessment (LCA) is a growing area of research (van der Velden et. al., 2014; Muthu, 2015; van der Velden, 2016; MISTRA Future Fashion, 2018) and multiple tools such as European Clothing Action Plan (ECAP) Footprint Tool (2017), Sustainable Apparel Coalition (SAP) Higg Index (2012) or Circle Economy Circle Fashion Tool (testing ongoing) have been developed in recent years. However, despite the accumulating theoretical evidence and advanced modelling, the true impact of clothing in real life scenarios is difficult to assess for multiple reasons. These include problems related to the transparency of the fashion value chains and the resulting issues with verifiability and comparability of data (e.g. the impact of cotton depends on where and how it is grown (ECAP, 2017c; MISTRA Future Fashion, 2019). Van der Velden et al.(2014) also point out that the process is further 47 complicated by non-disclosure of up-to-date life-cycle assessment (LCA) data by companies and nonexistence of life-cycle inventories (LCI). Further variations occur across material and product categories. Due to frequent washing, most significant impact of cotton T-shirts in terms of energy use has been associated with their use stage. For example, a comparison of washing scenarios for a cotton T-shirt and a viscose blouse conducted by Alwood et al for their influential Well Dressed report (2006) confirmed that cotton products require most energy in their use stage, whereas for viscose the majority of energy impact is linked to production. However, more recent research also suggests that due to changing consumption habits – e.g. increasing number of T-shirts owned and decreased use rate – the impact levels of production and use stages tend to be much less clear cut (MISTRA Future Fashion, 2018; Laitala, Klepp & Henry, 2017). In addition, consistency in considering materials, product categories and the seemingly minor yet significant variables such as yarn size is also needed (Van der Velden et. al., 2014; Laitala et al., 2017). Still, the core difficulty linked to life-cycle assessment is in predicting consumer behaviour, especially laundry habits. Clothing care practices are known to vary not only from family to family but also between the individuals in one family (Shove, 2003; Rigby, 2016). As Laitala, Klepp & Henry (2017) highlight, what LCA cannot tell us, is the tacit knowledge and everyday use experiences of consumers. Yet, despite the difficulties in accessing comparable longitudinal production and use phase data for LCA analysis, extending the active life of clothing is currently considered the most effective way of reducing the environmental impact of clothing, if combined with reduced material throughput and less frequent purchases (WRAP, 2017; ECAP, 2017). Keeping clothes in use for longer can release pressures on exploitation of virgin materials and can also reduce the impact of production and processing stages of the value chain (Alwood et al., 2006; ECAP, 2017; WRAP, 2017). Research conducted by WRAP shows that if active life of 50% of UK clothing is extended by extra 9 months, the potential savings of carbon (8%), water (10%) and waste (4%) could be made per tonne of clothing (2017a, p. 47). Similarly, the LCA conducted during the European MISTRA Future Fashion research programme on five commonly used garments, showed that if garments are used three times longer a reduction of 65% in carbon footprint and 66% in water use can be achieved (MISTRA Future Fashion, 2015, p. 7). 48 However, as I previously signposted, any potential savings are contingent on reducing and slowing down the material throughput in the value chain. This means a radical paradigm shift in the current production and consumption patterns. Both producers and consumers have an active role to play in this process. Consumers need to wear clothes for longer and businesses need systemic innovation in the design and production processes as well as in the end of life strategies. Embracing new business models that encourage longer use through second and third lives, sharing, leasing and repairs is also essential in the process of rethinking how we design, make and use our clothes (MISTRA Future Fashion, 2015, p. 7; European Commission, 2019; MISTRA Future Fashion, 2019 (4)). LONGER LASTING CLOTHING For the reasons discussed in detail in the previous section, extending clothing lifetimes now belongs to the key priorities of both the European Clothing Action Plan (ECAP), that informs policies on the EU level, and the UK Sustainable Clothing Action Plan (SCAP), that informs the UK government policy. In section Design for Change [Chapter 1.3, p. 31], I introduced the work of the Dutch engineer, design critic and educator Ed Van Hinte whose initiative Eternally Yours, with two key publications in 1997 and 2004, provided a key ground for discussion and knowledge sharing on product lifetimes. The UK network on Product Life Spans later built on the legacy of Eternally Yours. Another significant publication, Longer Lasting Products, edited by Professor Tim Cooper from Nottingham Trent University, followed in 2010. Currently, the Product Lifetimes and the Environment (PLATE) network supports product lifetime research across Europe and beyond. Its bi-annual conferences bring together researchers from across all areas of design, including fashion and textiles, and increasingly also attract interest of environmental economists and policy makers (the latest edition taking place in Berlin in September 2019). Several researchers involved in these initiatives were also on the research team behind the Design for Longevity: Guidance on increasing the active life of clothing (2013) report. The report was published by the UK Waste and Resources Action Programme (WRAP), who are responsible for the Sustainable Clothing Action Plan on behalf of the UK Government Department for the Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA). Aimed at product development teams, the Design for Longevity report built on the findings of a report published by WRAP a year earlier, Valuing our clothes: The 49 true cost of how we design, use and dispose of clothing in the UK. Both reports highlighted that changes at product design stage significantly influence the length of time for which an item of clothing can still be worn (WRAP, 2012; WRAP, 2013). Four principal areas in which design impacts the active lifetime of clothing were then identified through workshops with sustainable design researchers and fashion industry professionals (WRAP, 2013): • Size and fit • Fabric quality • Colours and styles • Care The Design for Longevity report concludes that a careful consideration of these aspects and their appropriate balance in the design process for each of the product categories identified (childrenswear, occasion wear, knitwear, tailoring, denim, sportswear, casualwear, underwear) can positively affect a garment’s longevity (Ibid). The authors also argue that to truly challenge the imperative of disposable fashion; it is essential: To create an environment where longevity is a desirable attribute of the product. This would require a cultural shift, driven by consumer re-education, corresponding marketing promotion and, perhaps, new business models. (WRAP, 2013, p.14) Since the publication of the report, further guidelines on clothing longevity such as the Clothing Longevity Protocol (2014), Clothing Durability Report (2015), Sustainable Clothing Guide (2017) were also commissioned by WRAP. At the European level, the Design for Longevity on-line platform with resources for both designers and users was launched in 2015 as part of the European Clothing Action Plan (ECAP) project. Although many of these resources do recognize the significance of behavioural factors such as care and washing habits, fashion orientation, or personal preferences in fit and texture for influencing clothing lifetimes, their primary focus is on the designable characteristics of garments and pragmatic concerns of product endurance. Yet, researchers whose work focuses on “softer” factors of longevity 50 emphasize that physical characteristics of products alone are only one part in the complex puzzle of a truly long-lasting product. As Fletcher (2012) argues: Expending resources and effort to extend the life of products pays few dividends unless, as users, we make use of the utility provided by longer-life products, and subsequently change our patterns of consumption. (p.222) The potential longevity of products, including fashion and clothing, therefore always needs to be considered in a close connection to their life in the hands of their users. Jonathan Chapman, the author of the influential Emotionally Durable Design: Objects, Experiences, Empathy (2015 [2005]) and another advocate of asking more fundamental questions about product longevity contends that “unsustainability is a crisis of behaviour and perception, not one of energy and materials.” (2016, p. 74) The next section will therefore examine the complex interplay between the different components of longevity, as they play out through both physical and emotional aspects of products. HOW LONG IS DURABLE: PHYSICAL DURABILITY AND EMOTIONAL DURABILITY “Lifetime”, “life-span” and “longevity” are terms that extend beyond design, material specifications, or manufacturing quality, because the actual time for which a product gets used is influenced by individual users and socio-cultural expectations (Cooper, 2010, p. 8). A product’s longevity is thus intricately linked to both its physical and emotional durability. The Clothing durability Report (2015) by the Waste and Resources Action Programme defines physical durability as a product’s robustness and resistance to wear and tear (p. 9). Emotional durability, on the other hand, refers to the length of time for which a product remains relevant and attractive to the user (Ibid). As I pointed out in the previous section, physical and emotional durability of products are closely interconnected and both need to be carefully considered because “there is little point designing physical durability into consumer goods if consumers lack the desire to keep them” (Chapman, 2015 [2005], p. 13). 51 COGNITION, MEANING, PLEASURE The relationships between the physical and the emotional aspects of products are examined in detail by Don Norman (2004) in his concept of three-level design [Figure 2.1]. Norman has background in usability engineering, user-centred design and cognitive science and he claims that humans process experience on three levels, associated with different levels of the brain. Each of the three levels, as introduced in his Emotional design: Why we love (or hate) everyday things (2004), correlates with a different level of experience processing by the human brain. The first, visceral level, he explains, is ‘automatic’ and helps to make rapid judgments between good and bad, sending signals to the rest of the brain. Next is the more advanced behavioural level that affects most of the everyday human behaviour. The third and highest is the reflective level that refers to the contemplative part of the brain. Each of the three levels play different, yet important roles in our everyday interactions with the world around us, including, of course, the products we use (2004). Norman therefore argues that each level requires a different approach to design. The first, visceral level of design, requires a focus on appearance and immediate appeal through its haptic qualities – the way things look and feel. The second, behavioural level of design, needs to consider the pleasure and effectiveness of use – the way things work. The third and last level, reflective design, is then directed towards the self-image and memories associated with the product – in other words, the meaning of things. In response to the question how these three levels would compare in importance, Norman highlights that “no single product can hope to satisfy everyone” and so it is essential that designers know their audiences (p. 39). Things that we “love” usually appeal to us on more than one of the levels. However, strong emotional experiences can also be linked with objects that perform particularly well on just one of them. Norman’s approach shows some similarities with the research of Gerald Cupchik (1999) who studied the varieties in meaning attached to industrial design objects and the ways these relate to emotional processes. Cupchik’s views, however, stand in a slight opposition to Norman’s theory. Norman argues that emotions are an inseparable part of cognition because they help us in making prompt decisions, “usually, you react emotionally to a situation before you assess it cognitively, since survival is more important than understanding” (2004, p. 13). Yet, Cupchik considers cognitive meaning to be a prerequisite for subsequent emotional reactions. He believes that emotional experience of design begins with the first impression of an object, it then continues through the experiences of using it, 52 and eventually results in various degrees of emotional attachment to it. Cupchik thus distinguishes three levels of meaning attached to products: sensory/aesthetic meaning which includes the qualities that have an immediate effect on experience, cognitive/behavioural meaning related to product’s performance and ease of use and personal/symbolic meaning which is not necessarily related to product function or appearance. The more a person can relate to one or more of these levels, the deeper will be the attachment (1999). In addition to Norman (2004) and Cupchik (1999), user response to products was also analysed by Jordan (2000), whose approach stems from his human factors background. Basing his argument on Maslow’s hierarchy of needs (1943), Jordan claims that designers need to extend their design considerations beyond pure usability of products. With a reference to Maslow’s hierarchy, he urges designers to recognise that as soon as people satisfy their needs on one level, they will demand more. Jordan’s model of consumer needs therefore starts with the most fundamental Level 1 – functionality (product performance). It then continues through Level 2 – usability (ease of use) and it culminates with Level 3 – pleasure. According to Jordan, the implications of these hierarchies for the design profession are that once people have “become used to usable products” (2000, p. 6) they will soon expect more than just usability. They will demand “products that are not merely tools but ‘living objects’… products that bring not only functional benefits but also emotional ones” (Ibid). To illustrate his argument further, Jordan adopts four pleasure categories identified by the American anthropologist Lionel Tiger (1992) and proposes a framework of four pleasures to be considered by designers in the design process. These include physio-pleasure (bodily and sensory experiences), social pleasure (interaction and relationships with others), psychological pleasure (cognitive and emotional responses) and ideological pleasure (which is related to values) (pp. 13-14). Jordan suggests that the four pleasures framework enables designers to gain a much more accurate understanding of the people they design for. In this way, the framework helps designers to develop concepts that will better respond to the pleasures which could be associated with particular products. Lastly, design theorist and advocate of sustainable design Stuart Walker (1995, 2006) uses similar categorisations in his exploration of material artefacts and their possible significance for sustainability in product design. Through the observation of museum collections, Walker identifies three main categories of objects: firstly, objects that are primarily functional; secondly, 53 social/positional objects, and thirdly, objects with strong inspirational/spiritual meaning (2006). Neither of these categories are exclusive, there are many overlaps, and some (often the most enduring) objects fall into all three categories. Like Jordan, Walker also links his categorisation to Maslow’s hierarchy of human needs (see above). Hence, the first, functional objects, fulfil our basic physiological and psychological needs and are appreciated for their utility, safety, and ease of understanding. Second, social/positional objects appeal to our higher psychological needs such as being loved and accepted within society and a social group. They also address our aspirations, achievements, and our sense of self-worth. Third, inspirational/spiritual objects reflect our deeply held beliefs and as such it is these objects that carry the most significant meanings. In Walker’s categorisation, fashion items fall into the combination of functional and social/positional objects which is problematic from the sustainability perspective because both functionality and social/positional aspects are quickly outdated due to advances in technology and changing styles. The links between the approaches taken by Norman (2004), Cupchik (1999), Jordan (2000) and Walker (1995, 2006), with their respective focus on cognition, meaning, pleasure and sustainability, highlight the complex interconnections between the physical properties of products (including appearance and functionality), their symbolic meaning, and their potential emotional value to users. In addition to all this, relationships between users and products take time to develop (van Hinte, 1997; Norman, 2004; Chapman, 2015 [2005]). As Norman again argues, strong emotional bond can hardly be established without a “sustained interaction” between the user and the product over time (2004, p.46). As a result, emotional durability is rarely possible if products fail (i.e. deteriorate in terms of look or function) before the emotional bond between the user and the product has had a chance to develop. On the other hand, physical durability has little relevance without emotional durability as the danger lies in “designing of durable waste” (Chapman, 2015 [2005], p. 62). This point is also mirrored in three dimensions of lifespan - technical, economical, and psychological - highlighted by Van Hinte (1997) in his introduction of the Eternally Yours initiative. Norman’s concept of three level design provided a key point of reference throughout my research. The reason I was especially interested in Norman’s approach was that his explanation of the levels of product experience in many ways reflected the experiences and the insights that my clients shared with me over the years of my practice. In addition to this, Norman’s emphasis on the critical role of emotions in our everyday decisions, corroborated by growing evidence from behavioural economics 54 research (Thaler & Sunstein, 2008; Partnoy, 2013; Thaler, 2015; Roberts, 2015), resonated in the wider context of my research and sustainable consumption. VISCERAL BEHAVIOURAL REFLECTIVE Appearance and first impressions Pleasure and effectiveness Self-image and memories How things look and feel How things work The meaning of things Figure 2.1 Don Norman's concept of three level design - Adapted from Norman, 2004 CHAPTER SUMMARY This chapter offered an overview of the key approaches to clothing longevity, in the context of reducing the damaging impacts of the current production and consumption patterns on the environment. Section one introduced the current discourse on fashion rhythms and here I positioned my research in the context of slow fashion research-practice, where the current hierarchies of designers-producers-consumers are unsettled as proposed by Clark (2008, 2018). The opening section also explained how slow living links to cultivating a long-term view of designed objects. Following on from this, section two focused on recent research in life-cycle assessment and its main challenges in predicting how clothing is used in everyday life. Section three highlighted that extending the active life of clothing is currently considered the most effective way of reducing its environmental impact. This section drew attention to the need for a cultural shift towards longevity of clothing, but it also pointed to the necessity of careful consideration of user values and expectations in this process. 55 Finally, section four analysed the distinctions between the concepts of physical and emotional durability, with special focus on Don Norman’s concept of three level design, that was identified as a key reference point for my research. The following chapter explores the relationship between design and emotion in more detail. 56 3 EMOTIONALLY DURABLE DESIGN Design and emotion Emotional attachment and design for emotional durability Design strategies for emotionally durable design Design strategies for clothing longevity Research in practice: Temporary design responses 57 Chapter 3, divided into four sections, focuses on examining a range of theoretical perspectives in research on design and emotion. In the first section I introduce the history and main strands of enquiry in emotional design. Among these, I identify design for emotional durability as an area with key relevance for my study, due to its interest in sustained and reflective emotional bonds with designed objects, as opposed to short and reflexive emotional reactions that have been explored in other areas of research on design and emotion. Jonathan Chapman’s emphasis on the uneasy relationship between physical and emotional durability of designed objects then underpins and leads my approach to this research. Section two discusses how many everyday objects have significance well beyond their material value and the potential that such relationships may have in combatting the culture of excess and disposability. At the same time, critical perspectives on design and emotion that point to uncertain links between emotional attachment to objects and replacement behaviour and hence reducing consumption volumes, are also examined here. In sections three and four I focus on the current design strategies for emotional durability and clothing longevity. Here, I discuss the key attempts to formulate guidelines that could lead designers in the application of emotionally durable design in practice. The main focus here is on Chapman’s six-point experiential framework and its later development into an extended design toolkit. Finally, section four addresses the ways in which some of the strategies developed in design for longevity and design and emotion research have been used in propositions for the extending durability of clothing. Here, I critically review the key strategies that have been repeatedly cited in the context of fashion and sustainability. Following on from here, I discuss the studies that question the impact of these strategies on extending active lifetimes of clothing. In this context I identify a significant gap in knowledge on the links between design research and lived experience of clothing, which gives a clear direction to my research. Chapter 3 concludes with a reflective section that provides a link between my contextual review and the empirical stage of my research. The designs in this section are presented as an impression of the first, exploratory stage of my research that explored how some of the key concepts and theories that I identified through my contextual review could be translated into practice. 58 DESIGN AND EMOTION INTRODUCTION Emotional design is a relatively new branch of design research that has evolved over the last twenty years to explore the role of emotions in the process of perception and interaction with designed objects. Desmet & Hekkert (2009) place the beginning of the design and emotion movement around the year 1999, the time when the 1st International Conference on Design and Emotion was organized at the Delft University of Technology in the Netherlands. The conference led to the establishment of The Design and Emotion Society, with a mission to facilitate discussions between practitioners, designers and the industry “ to integrate salient themes of emotional experience into the design profession” (The Design and Emotion Society, 2016). However, as Desmet & Hekkert also point out (2009), the interest in emotional experiences was not a phenomenon limited to design research. The beginnings of the design and emotion movement coincided with the publication of several seminal books. Among these was The Experience Economy (1999) by Pine II & Gilmore who argued that to remain competitive in the future, businesses must provide memorable events for their customers. Memory itself then becomes the product – “the experience”. Pine & Gilmore’s concept of experience economy (now also known as ‘exponomy’) builds on previous research in this area, notably Toffler’s Future Shock (1970) in which Toffler anticipates the arrival of the “experiential industry”, a time when people will be willing to spend a high percentage of their earnings to live amazing experiences. A similar concept was later also explored by the German sociologist Gerhard Schulze in his The Experience Society (1992). Two other publications, The Dream Society by Rolf Jensen from the Danish think tank Copenhagen Institute for Future Studies and Experiential Marketing by Bernd H. Schmitt from Columbia Business School in New York, both published in 1999, highlighted the shift towards an economy where emotional experiences will play a key role in both product design and marketing. Interestingly, one aspect of the Dream Society highlighted by Jensen is that companies can no longer rely on for-profit-only models because the ever-raising consumer expectations demand that businesses stand for more than just profit generating. One example of such shift, Jensen says, could be that: 59 (…) nearly all companies in the affluent countries have turned their attention to their own production processes; most of them even prefer to keep a couple of steps ahead of the minimal requirements set by legislation – and they do so because they are courting an environment-conscious consumer. (1999, p. 219) In addition to the above, several publications from an entirely different strand of enquiry have also had a major influence on design and emotion research since its very beginnings. Firstly, it was Csikszentmihalyi’s & Rochberg-Halton’s now seminal work The meaning of things: Domestic symbols and the self (1981), that examined the significance of material possessions in people’s daily lives. Based on a survey of eighty families in Chicago area, analysing their feelings about everyday household objects and the meanings they attached to them, The meaning of things has since had a lasting impact on material culture related research. Another influential contribution to the field was the previously mentioned Eternally Yours: Visions of product endurance, edited by Van Hinte (1997) with an expanded re-edition in 2004. Dutch design writer and researcher Ed van Hinte brought together similarly minded scholars and doctoral students to highlight the fact that current products end up in landfill far too quickly. According to Van Hinte, this is a result of “a lack of psychological lifespan – the time products are able to be perceived and used as worthy objects” (1997, p. 19). His use of the term references Packard’s famous critique of the culture of obsolescence introduced in his The Waste Makers (1963) through the dual terms of functional and psychological obsolescence. Van Hinte therefore argues: We can only make products survive year after year if we realize that they are used and cared for by people who see them, feel them, understand them and dream about them. Products must have the material ability as well as the immaterial opportunity to age in a dignified way. (1997, p. 19) RESEARCH ON DESIGN AND EMOTION Twenty years since the first conference, the main centre of research around design and emotion still remains at the Delft University of Technology, but other Dutch universities and institutions such as University of Twente, Amsterdam University of Applied Sciences, Design Academy of Eindhoven and Waag Society have also significantly contributed to the research in this area. In the UK, Professor Tim Cooper at Nottingham Trent University and previously also Professor Jonathan Chapman at the 60 University of Brighton (currently at Carnegie Mellon University) have had long lasting links to the international design and emotion movement. A key part of research on design and emotion has been published in the proceedings of the International Conference on Design and Emotion as well as in scholarly journals such as the International Journal of Design, Journal of Consumer Research, The Design Journal or Advances in Consumer Research. Both the Journal of International Design and the Journal of Engineering Design have published special editions on Design and Emotion in the anniversary year 2009. Among the most influential of these studies, is the research conducted by Sirgy & Johar (1999) with eight product categories tested on 492 respondents. Sirgy & Johar based their study on the self-congruity theory proposed by Gardner & Levy (1959), who were the first to highlight that congruity between selfconcept and brand image affects consumer behaviour. In Levy’s view “modern goods are recognized as essentially psychological things which are symbolic of personal attributes and goals and of social patterns and strivings” (cited in Klipfel, Barclay & Bockorny, 2014, p. 133). In line with this thinking, Sirgy & Johar’s findings confirm that consumers are more likely to be attracted and to get attached to products that are aligned with their own self-concept. Self-concept here includes: the ideal self (the person you would like to be), the public self (the image one thinks other people have of you) and the real self (what you really think about yourself). Factors influencing emotional attachment to products were also studied by Richins (1994), who explored the relationship between possessions and personal values among ‘high-materialism’ and ‘low-materialism’ consumers. Richins focused on the significance of public and private meanings associated with possessions and the differences in the ways the two groups of consumers, highmaterialist and low-materialist, generated meaning from material objects. Her findings suggest that ‘low-materialism’ consumers tend to value possessions with interpersonal/symbolic value and those with a hedonic potential (for example recreational equipment). The ‘high-materialism’ group showed more preference toward utilitarian possessions and was more concerned with appearance and status expression. The study by Schultz-Kleine, Kleine III & Allen (1995) approached attachment to objects as a reflection of people’s life stories and their behaviour related to self-development. They also studied how the mode of acquisition influences the attachment to possessions. Their findings showed that the most favourite objects either reflect the ‘desirable connections’ with others (affiliation) or reflect 61 aspects of one’s individuality (autonomy seeking). The least favourite objects represented a disconnection from a part of one’s self (self-change) (p. 335). Schultz-Kleine et al. therefore conclude that: A possession’s potency for self-significance arises indirectly via its link to a meaningful life narrative episode. Thus, possessions are not literally the self, but artefacts of the self. (1995, p. 341). In addition to this, they also challenged the hypothesis that gifted items could have strong potential for encouraging emotional attachment. Schultz-Kleine with her co-authors make clear that in their study most objects that people felt only weakly attached to were actually received as gifts (p. 340). The findings of their research are in line with the conclusions made by the above mentioned study of Richins (1994). Main factors with a strong influence on product attachment identified by both studies thus are: • Self-expression • Shared experience • Memories Later research by Mugge, Schoormans & Schifferstein (2005) then considered two levels of product attachment. The first level is an attachment to physical form or function of the object. Although this can be felt quite strongly, the duration of such attachment is limited because it is likely to be withdrawn when a superior alternative appears (such as for example in the case of mobile phones). The second, much deeper level, is the attachment to the memories and shared experiences associated with the object. This kind of attachment has a much longer lasting potential as it can often lead to perceived irreplaceability of the object (such as for example a soft toy from childhood). The authors argue that this has potential longevity implications without actually requiring user’s direct commitment to environmental issues, because “a person will take better care of this product and postpone its replacement for his/her own personal benefit” (p. 44) 62 A similar approach to studying attachment was also adopted by Battarbee & Mattelmäki, who in their influential study Meaningful product relationships (2004) introduced a three-point framework of consumer-product relationships: 1. Meaningful Tool - object needed for a purpose, can be replaced at any time 2. Meaningful Association - objects with cultural or personal meaning 3. Living Object - object as a companion, often personified “perceived as having personality, soul, character” (p. 394) Di Salvo, Hannington & Forlizzi (2004) built on the work of John Dewey (Art as Experience, 1934), Richard Carlson (Experienced Cognition, 1997) and the above mentioned study by Mihaly Csiksentmihalyi’s (The Meaning of Things, 1981) to develop their framework of emotional experiences for new product development. They distinguish between two types of emotional response: • Emotion/Emotional statement - short and reflexive • Mood/Emotional expression - sustained and reflective In addition, they identify three ways in which products can contribute to emotional experience: • Stimuli - of new emotional experiences • Extenders - of existing emotional experiences • Proxies - of past emotional experiences (p. 252) What particularly resonates in the context of my study, is Di Salvo, Hannington & Forlizzi’s point that a substantial proportion of research in design and emotion has been directed towards short and reflexive, rather than sustained and reflective emotions. As my research interest is in long-term emotional experiences with clothing, I will now focus on an area of design and emotion research that 63 has had a significant influence on framing my research, especially in its early stages - design for emotional durability. EMOTIONAL ATTACHMENT TO OBJECTS AND DESIGN FOR EMOTIONAL DURABILITY Numerous empirical studies of material engagement (Csikzentmihalyi, 1981; Hoskins, 1998; SchultzKleine, Kleine III & Allen, 1995) and consumer surveys (Solomon, 1986; Richins, 1994; Kahmann & Henze, 2002) have offered clear evidence that people form deep and complex relationships with material objects. Hence, as Schultz , Kleine & Kernan (1989) comment in their study of attachment in consumer behaviour “it is no revelation that consumers possess objects to which they are strongly and weakly attached” (p. 359). The mechanisms behind such attachments, however, are unclear and have provided a rich ground for further study. A study with 161 respondents by Schifferstein, Mugge & Hekkert’s (2005), for example, showed that both memories associated with a product and the pleasure experienced through its use considerably contribute to emotional attachment. Importantly, new things that are enjoyable typically get used more often, which encourages accumulation of memories attached to them. Memories linked to an object then play a vital role in the feelings of attachment as the object ages (Ibid). Over time, these memories also help build layers of narratives and associations which make the owner feel that the product is irreplaceable (Chapman, 2005 [2015]; Mugge, Schoormans & Schifferstein, 2005). Everyday objects thus often have significance that extends well beyond their material value (Csikszentmihalyi & Rochberg-Halton, 1981; Norman, 2004; Schifferstein et al, 2005; Walker, 2006; Chapman, 2015 [2005], 2016). As Norman notes: The objects in our lives are more than mere material possessions. We take pride in them, not necessarily because we are showing off our wealth or status, but because of the meanings they bring to our lives. A person’s most beloved objects may well be inexpensive trinkets, frayed furniture, or photographs and books, often tattered, dirty or faded. A favourite object is a symbol, setting up a positive frame of mind, a reminder of pleasant memories, or sometimes an expression of one’s self. And this object always has a story, 64 a remembrance, and something that ties us personally to this particular object, this particular thing. (2004, p. 6) Jonathan Chapman and emotionally durable design It is this kind of deep and satisfying relationships with material objects that we need to nurture to combat the culture of excess and disposability, Jonathan Chapman (2015 [2005]) argues. According to him, waste “is a symptom of expired empathy, a kind of failed relationship that leads to the dumping of one by the other” (2015 [2005], p. 61). In his influential book Emotionally Durable Design: Objects, Experiences and Empathy (2015 [2005]), Chapman argues that the majority of methods in current sustainable design focus on symptoms, or after-effects of wasteful consumption and do little to challenge the core issues of the current environmental crisis. In contrast to this, emotionally durable design seeks a deeper insight into the root causes of the fast turnaround of objects in our lives through looking at the emotional factors in key stages of consumption process – from purchasing decisions through to product use and disposal. In this way, emotionally durable design presents a radically new approach to sustainable design where responsible consumption is encouraged through the conscious effort to design objects that customers “do not want to throw away” (McLachlan, 2011, p. 3). Importantly, Chapman (2015 [2005]) also emphasises that changes in behaviour can rarely be achieved through negative messages and dis-empowering apocalyptic scenarios, rather, we need to offer more attractive alternatives to current solutions (p. 86). Insights offered by cognitive scientists highlight that a part of being human is to yearn for new, fresh experiences (Norman, 2004). This has implications for our relationships with people (e.g. the excitement generated by meeting a new and interesting person) as well as for our relationships with material objects (e.g. the excitement of purchasing something new). Hence, Chapman contends: Consumer aspirations continually evolve, whereas products are hopelessly frozen in time. As we consume further meaning, our ideals change and shift, as does our experience base upon which we found a sense of self. ... until products embody a transient flexibility to shift and adapt in sync with us, we will always be adding to an immense landfill of transferred matter whose only crime was a failure to keep up. (2015 [2005]) , p. 61-62) 65 Yet, while some argue that if a lasting emotional bond can be stimulated by design, people may not only use products for longer but they would also wish to keep repairing them (Schifferstein, Mugge & Hekkert, 2005), critics of this view argue that strong bonds with products do not necessarily reduce further purchases (Cooper, 2010; Fletcher, 2012, 2016; Page, 2014; Riisberg & Grose, 2017). In another study, Mugge, Schoormans & Schifferstein (2005) concede that even if people do not let go of their valued possessions, they may still buy replacements when the favourite product no longer performs its original function (p. 45). In this context, Harper (2017) for example argues that the potential of (clothing) items with strong emotional bonds to reduce over-consumption is contingent on their perceived aesthetic value (see also e.g. Schultz-Kleine et al. (1995) on “me” or “not me” possessions). Emotionally valuable items that do not appeal to their owner’s sense of aesthetics are cherished and stored, however they are not used. Frequent use and continuous satisfaction are only linked with those items whose emotional value is matched with strong aesthetic appeal; what Harper refers to as “aesthetic sustainability” (2017). In addition to the above views, Patlar & Kurtgözü (2004) also highlight that emotions are strongly exploited by the consumer culture itself. The potential danger therefore lies in that: (…) rather than engaging the users in a spiritual and prolonged interaction with products, ‘design and emotion’ runs the risk of becoming a fashionable style, a catchword employed by advertising for the marketing of luxury products to an elite culture. (Ibid, p. 473) Also, the intangible nature of human emotions as well as the multi-faceted character of design itself mean that formulating clear guidelines to lead designers in the application of emotionally durable design in practice involves a number of challenges. This is well captured by Van Hinte’s remark that although it is essential to invest all our efforts in extending product lifetimes, “there are no fixed rules in this game” (1997, p. 20). Recognizing the need to accompany theory with applicable advice for practice, several researchers, Chapman included, therefore attempted to provide strategies for incorporating the current research knowledge on longevity and emotional durability in the design process. The next section will explore a range of these strategies in more detail. 66 DESIGN STRATEGIES FOR EMOTIONALLY DURABLE DESIGN Chapman’s six-point experiential framework While over the last twenty years design and emotion has become an established field of design research, it has repeatedly faced criticism for not providing clear guidelines to lead designers in its practical application in creative work (Desmet & Hekkert, 2009; Love, 2009; Forlizzi, 2010; Maclachlan, 2011). In terms of design for emotional durability, one of the first focused efforts towards formulating a set of usable guidelines for designers followed from Chapman’s doctoral study on domestic electronics (2008). Based on his survey of over 2000 respondents, Chapman proposed a six-point experiential framework that aimed to help product designers to engage with emotionally durable design and enhance their understanding of its many facets and contributing factors (2009). The six themes and associated explanations he proposed include (Ibid, p. 33): • Narrative: Users share a unique personal history with the product; this often relates to when, how, and from whom the object was acquired. • Detachment: Users feel no emotional connection to the product, have low expectations, and thus perceive it in a favourable way due to a lack of emotional demand or expectation. • Surface: The product is physically aging well and developing a tangible character through time and use (and sometimes misuse). • Attachment: Users feel a strong emotional connection to the product, due to the service it provides, the information it contains, and the meaning it conveys. • Fiction/Enchantment: Users are delighted or even enchanted by the product as they do not yet fully understand or know it, especially with a recently purchased product that is still being explored and discovered. 67 • Consciousness: The product is perceived as autonomous and in possession of its own free will. It is quirky and often temperamental, and interaction is an acquired skill that can be fully acquired only with practice. Chapman’s experiential framework has a few crossovers with the design strategies suggested for exploration in the previously mentioned study by Mugge, Schoormans & Schifferstein (2005), following their review of current research in reducing environmental impact of products. Among the strategies they propose, it is especially their points on memories, personalized product and shared history (aging with dignity) that also resonate in Chapman’s framework, through his Narrative (memories and personalized product) and Surface (shared history) themes. In addition to these, Mugge et al. also discuss strategies including superior utility, superior appearance, fit with lifestyle, exclusive product, and personal accomplishment. Both Chapman’s (2009) and Mugge, Schoormans & Schifferstein’s (2005) proposals of strategies corroborate with the findings of other studies discussed in the previous section. For example, the important role of narrative in forming emotional attachment is also discussed by Schultz-Kleine, Kleine III & Allen (1995) and the significance of self-expression, shared experience and memories are all reflected in the conclusions of Richins (1994). Equally, Battarbee & Mattelmäki’s (2004) ‘meaningful association’ and Di Salvo, Hannington & Forlizzi’s (2004), ‘proxies’ of past emotional experiences, resonate across Chapman’s (2009) Narrative, Surface and Attachment themes as well as throughout the memories, personalized product and shared history strategies discussed by Mugge et al. (2005). These themes and strategies are also clearly linked to Norman’s (2004) reflective level of design, the personal/symbolic meaning of objects in Cupchik’s (1999) classification, Jordan’s (2000) views on social and psychological pleasures and inspirational/spiritual objects identified by Walker (1995, 2006), all introduced in Chapter 2.4 [p. 51]. What I find especially interesting in Chapman’s framework, is that unlike other authors before him, Chapman highlights the aspect of ‘Detachment’. Detachment, he explains, refers to a situation where low initial expectations of a product can later positively reflect on its perception by the user. In these situations, “the pressure is off” and so user remains open to pleasant surprises. By contrast, expectations linked with strong attachment can actually have detrimental effect on a product’s perceived value and durability because the initial high expectations are difficult to live up to. 68 Similar experiences resonate in my designer-maker practice, especially in connection to making bespoke garments, where sometimes unrealistically high expectations of this process can result in a client’s mixed feelings about the result (see also Sharma, 2016). Expectations can rise to such a level that they are impossible to attain (Chapman, 2009, p. 33), and as a result, they are unhelpful for developing a strong emotional connection to the product. The issue of expectations in relationship to emotional durability, is therefore highlighted throughout this thesis. Emotionally Durable Design Framework The most recent attempt to formulate practically applicable guidelines for integrating emotionally durable design into design practice is the Emotionally Durable Design Framework (Haines-Gad, Chapman, Lloyd, Mason & Aliakseyeu, 2017), developed in a collaboration between Philips Lighting Research and the University of Brighton. EDD aims to be both a theoretical framework and a design toolkit. It consists of nine theme cards that stand for the main qualities that designers can explore and aim to achieve. A set of double-sided triangular cards contains a brief description of each theme, also highlighting the key contributing factors. The nine themes include: o Narratives o Relationships o Conversations o Evolve o Identity o Imagination o Integrity o Consciousness o Materiality For example, the Narrative card includes four further sub-themes: • Markers in Time • Links to Family and Friends • Nostalgia and Metaphors • Provenance 69 The nine non-hierarchical themes and cards are also accompanied by thirty-eight strategy cards where each theme is broken down further, also offering suggestions and strategies for achieving the desired outcomes. Interestingly, the EDD Framework suggests two main benefits it can offer to designers. Firstly, it can help develop “a richer emotional engagement to extend the emotional lifetime and physical lifetime” of their products (Haines-Gadd et al., 2017, p. 5). Secondly, it can encourage “a more exciting emotionally engaging user experience” between their products and their users (Ibid). The second benefit also perhaps reflects the fact that the framework was developed in a collaboration with a large multinational company such as Phillips, whose interests are naturally strongly rooted in generating profit. These two aspects also broadly reflect the two currently strongest strands in design and emotion research: 1. design for emotional durability and 2. design for pleasure and happiness (as also reflected in the themes of the 10th anniversary Design & Emotion Conference in September 2016). Future perspectives On the one hand then, design for emotional durability builds on the tradition set in motion by Papanek, by proclaiming itself: a specialist design genre that caters for deeper, more profound and poetic human needs, taking users beyond the ephemeral world of technocratic design toward a rich, interactive domain of emotionally durable objects and experiences (Chapman, 2015 [2005], p. 29) On the other hand, however, as a strategy for product longevity, its main challenge in what Chapman calls the “the real world” (Ibid), is addressing the concern of companies who ask how they can keep generating profits if their sales per unit decrease as a result of introducing emotionally durable design in their processes. A number of studies have argued that integrating design and emotion in products has a potential to foster consumer loyalty and brand attachment (Davis, 2002; Desmet, 2003; Chapman, 2015 [2005]; Mugge, Schifferstein & Schoormans, 2010). As a result, companies are now asking designers to conceive products with emotional resonance that goes well beyond their primary function, to win a competitive advantage in the market (McLachlan, (2011, p. 325). 70 This is where emotionally durable design stumbles upon the fundamental question of the wider social and cultural values that I discussed in more detail in Chapter 1.4 [p. 38]. As long as profit and material prosperity are still the main criteria of success and value in the Global North, “the real world” will consider it only if it supports the expectations on economic growth (Chapman, 2015 [2005], p. 158). Aside from formal aspects of design then, the main future challenge for emotionally durable design is in ensuring its “present and future capacity for providing solutions to the social and cultural problems it addresses” (Patlar & Kurtgözü, 2004, p. 470). In addition, the design strategies discussed in this section have all been formulated predominantly on the background of research in product design - especially small electronics and domestic appliances. As I have noted, examples of their practical application in design practice are still emerging. Importantly for my thesis, the relevance of these strategies for an entirely different product category such as clothing is still unclear. While there may be many possible overlaps and potential areas of cross-pollination, research also indicates that due to the intimate character of clothing, the mechanisms of building relationships with what we wear may differ from the ways we use and relate to other everyday products (Gnanapragasam, Oguchi & Cooper, 2017; Niinimäki & Koskinen, 2011; Fletcher, 2016; Connor-Crabb, 2017). For this reason, the next section focuses on those strategies that have been proposed specifically in connection to longevity and emotional durability of clothing. DESIGN STRATEGIES FOR CLOTHING LONGEVITY David Hieatt, co-founder of Hiut Denim, a small business that aims to revive the denim industry in Wales, argues that “great design is more important for the environment than lots of people get credit for” (Hieatt, 2013). Like Chapman, he also believes that too many things are thrown away because we have stopped loving them. While it is clear that no design can satisfy everybody (Mugge, Schoormans & Schifferstein, 2005; Chapman 2015 [2005]; Norman, 2004) and truly timeless pieces are rarely created as a result of a conscious design decision (Mugge et al., 2005, p. 40; Fletcher, 2012, 2016), a growing body of research also confirms that design can significantly influence the longevity and emotional durability of clothing (Connor-Crabb et al., 2016; Townsend et al. 2017, 2019; DESIGN-longevity, 2019, Cooper 71 et al., 2017). In Chapter 2.3 [p. 49] I mentioned the Design for Longevity report (WRAP, 2013) that highlights size and fit, fabric quality, colours and styles, and care issues as important contributors to clothing longevity. Here, I will discuss a selection of further recommendations, design frameworks, and tools that have been proposed in the context of extending the longevity and emotional durability of clothing. EXTENDING LONGEVITY OF CLOTHING THROUGH PHYSICAL AND EMOTIONAL DURABILITY As I outlined in Chapter 2, both physical and emotional aspects of products need to be considered in design for longevity and these will be the focus of this section. Yet, it is also important to note that a range of other sustainable design strategies directed towards waste minimization in production (e.g. zero waste pattern cutting, production on demand) or the end of life strategies (e.g. design for disassembly, design for recyclability) also exist. In a holistic approach to reducing the environmental impact of clothing, strategies covering the full life-cycle of garments need to be considered in mutual connections (Fletcher & Grose, 2011; Niinimäki & Hassi, 2011; Dombek-Keith & Loker, 2011; ConnorCrabb, 2017), often balancing multiple contradictions. For example, Cooper et al. (2017) note that advanced finishes that could potentially enhance physical durability of clothing are now available (e.g. anti-pilling treatments and treatments for reduced perspiration), however, their implications in terms of the environment, design, aesthetics or business are yet unknown and need more research (2017, p. 96). Similar argument is also made by Earley (2017), who argues that the currently problematic environmental credentials of blends are likely to be resolved by advances in chemical recycling processes in the next 20 years. This will change their perception within sustainable design (Ibid, p. 2655). While the importance of reducing production waste as well as ensuring strategies for end of life of garments are both acknowledged in the wider context of my research, these are not discussed here in more detail as the core focus of my study is on the use phase and extending active lifetimes of clothing. 72 1. Reliability/Physical Durability In the previous chapter I discussed a range of views on extending the physical durability of clothing, highlighting that improving the physical properties of clothing without considering the wider social and behavioural aspects of its use can be contra-productive in terms of the environmental impact. Fletcher, for example, is sceptical about the benefits of extending physical durability of clothing. She argues that many fashion items already last well beyond their useful lifetime in the eyes of their owners (2012). At the same time, research also shows that premature garment failure leads to consumer frustration and low quality is among the key reasons for dissatisfaction with clothing (Niinimäki, 2011, 2014; Cooper, Claxton & Hughes, 2015). Moreover, quality clothing has better chances of being repaired or re-purposed (WRAP, 2013, 2017a) as well as re-used once an item becomes obsolete in its original owner’s wardrobe (Laitala & Klepp, 2015). Physically durable garments also enable the introduction of new product-service systems such as leasing or rental as a complementary strategies for keeping clothing off the landfill for as long as possible (Niinimäki, 2014; Vezzoli, Kohtala, & Srinivasan, 2014; Greenpeace, 2017; MISTRA Future Fashion, 2017 (4); MISTRA, 2019 (4)). The Design for Longevity report (WRAP, 2013) identifies fabric quality as one of the main design interventions that can potentially affect the longevity of clothing. Fabrics of higher quality have better resistance to wear and tear, yet this also depends on the wearer’s habits and the intended use of the garment. For example, the demands on wear and tear resistance are significantly different in childrenswear as opposed to occasion wear (Ibid). Another aspect highlighted by the report is that fabric quality is not necessarily synonymous with robustness, but it may refer to other properties of materials such as for example drape and sensory qualities. Product categories therefore play an important role too, as the parameters of quality considerably differ when it comes to a silk blouse as opposed to workwear trousers. In addition, appropriate quality requirements must also be met through the use of interfacings, linings, trims and components such as zips, buttons and other fastenings which are among the often cited reasons for garment failure (WRAP, 2013; Laitala & Klepp, 2015). As Fletcher also argues, appropriate matching of materials and components is essential to “build an internally consistent product strategy (…) that prevents squandering resources by overspecifying resource-intensive long-lasting components in conjunction with others that only have the potential for a short life.” (2012, p. 226) 73 2. Versatility/Adaptability Size and fit are crucially important in terms of clothing lifetimes as they have been proved to be among the main reasons why still functional clothing gets discarded (WRAP, 2013; Laitala & Klepp, 2015). While it can be reasonably argued that size and fit issues in childrenswear are naturally linked to children’s growth, womenswear garments would benefit from more inclusive approaches to standard sizing as well as from designs with adjustable features that allow for fluctuations in weight and body shape (WRAP, 2013; Laitala & Klepp, 2015). Loose styles are one option, yet preferences in fit are a case of individual preference (Niinimäki & Hassi, 2011; WRAP, 2013). As Laitala & Klepp (2015) also point out: The great design challenge of women’s clothing is the adaptation to the body. Few ready-towear items fit well and close to the body while also being flexible enough for changes in user’s weight and body shape. (p. 101) Colours and styles can also limit longevity, as people tend to quickly tire of garments with striking colours and strongly fashion-led cuts (WRAP, 2013). The Design for Longevity report (2013) therefore recommends considering ‘classic’, ‘timeless’ styles and neutral colours such as black or navy that have more potential for a long-term use. In contrast to this, Harper and Edvard (2017) propose that it is the more unusual designs that have a better chance for longevity due to their memorability and strong self-expression options. In both cases, however, the key to long-term usability is a garment’s trans-seasonality (Connor-Crabb, 2017) enabled by a design that is not primarily trend-driven (WRAP, 2013) and the garment’s adaptability to multiple use situations (Laitala & Klepp, 2015). A number of researchers suggest that both can be achieved for example through designing modular garments, garments with detachable parts or reversible garments. Modular and detachable elements enable quick transformation of a simple design to a more elaborate wear option, depending on occasion (Niinimäki & Hassi, 2011). They also allow for updates in style and can save unnecessary laundering of the whole garment if only a part needs to be cleaned (Dombek-Keith & Loker, 2011; Fletcher, 2008; Rissanen, 2011; Gwilt, 2015b). In addition, modular adjustments can also address fit adjustments (Laitala & Klepp, 2015). 74 Fletcher & Grose (2011) however also point out that while modular garments on one hand aim to decrease consumption by versatile solutions to changing needs, on the other they may entice users to more consumption when new features become available. Connor-Crabb (2017), who studied the application of strategies for longevity in small fashion businesses, observed that customers of businesses offering modular garments often lack previous experience with modular clothing and so tend to have mixed feelings linked especially to fit issues and the availability of modular parts over time. 3. Alterability/Repairability While for most part of history clothing repair and alteration were among common skills as clothing belonged to valued possessions, the increasing availability of cheap clothing made these skills obsolete. It is often cheaper to buy a new item than invest time or money into repair (Fletcher, 2012). However, the recent report Fixing Fashion (2019), published by the UK Government Environmental Audit Committee, is another addition to the rising call for embracing the re-skilling in repair and alterations among the priorities for transition to a more sustainable fashion future (Fletcher, 2016; MISTRA, 2017(7); Rreuse, 2017; Love Your Clothes, 2017; Fashion Revolution 2019). However, many currently produced garments do not lend themselves easily to repair or alteration because of low quality that complicates future interventions. Connor-Crabb (2017) for example mentions a case when a simple operation such as shortening a garment is made unnecessarily laborious by the fact that the original hem is not straight. Also, extra materials for repairs, such as swatches of materials or replacement buttons, are now rarely provided with new garments and their re-introduction could be another way of encouraging repair practices (Allwood et al., 2006; WRAP, 2013, 2017a; Fletcher, 2016). Rissanen (2011) also highlights that the industrial practice of standard seam allowance of 1cm, used to save material and to make the work of machinists faster by easy alignment of pattern pieces, in fact disables any subsequent alterations because there is not additional material to work with if for example a letting out of a seam would be required due to figure changes. This is how both designers and pattern makers can enable such future alterations and so he suggests using a wider seam allowance ‘as an investment in a garment’s future’ (2011, p. 129). He uses the example of the traditional Japanese fishermen’s coats that were patched in layers over the years of use. Their design, he argues, enabled “to ‘absorb’ repair without compromise to their aesthetic appeal” (Ibid). 75 4. Laundering and care The way in which clothes are laundered and maintained is an important factor in their usable lifetime (Laitala & Boks, 2012; WRAP, 2013, 2017; Fletcher, 2008, 2012, 2016; Rigby, 2016). In addition to the deterioration in garments, laundering is also associated with high environmental impact, hence accurate advice on suitable care practices should be an essential component of design for longevity (WRAP, 2013). Knitwear provides a good example of the importance of appropriate care practices as excessive pilling (though often also associated with low quality garments), as well as shrinkage due to machine washing at higher temperatures, are among the most common reasons of its premature disposal (Claxton et al., 2017; Laitala, Klepp & Henry, 2017; Laitala, 2014). Niinimäki (2011) also points out that frustration with low quality is often linked to care and laundry experiences with garments that quickly deteriorate after only a few washes. Although handwashing is often preferable for sensitive materials, this is not always convenient and practicable among the pressures of everyday life (Shove, 2003; Rigby, 2016). Same applies to garments that require an extra time investment because of ironing (Laitala & Klepp, 2015). From this point of view, suitability for machine washing and non-crease properties are potentially important considerations for consumers and the Design for Longevity report (2013) recommends that these are highlighted as significant benefits at the point of purchase. While it is acknowledged that designers have little direct influence over people’s routine washing habits, a number of authors also argue that decisions at the design stage can reduce the laundering and care requirements (Fletcher, 2008; Dombek-Keith & Loker, 2011; Laitala & Klepp, 2015; Rigby, 2016). Laitala & Klepp (2015) for example propose that the need for frequent laundering due to perspiration can be reduced through careful choice of materials and more generous fit around the armpits. In addition, draping volume of garments can be one way of disguising future stains (Ibid). Dombek-Keith & Loker (2011) consider new anti-stain and anti-odour fabric finishes, however, as is also highlighted in the introduction to this section, more research is still needed to assess the environmental and potential health implications of such treatments (Cooper, 2017). 5. Emotional durability To counteract the anonymousness and uniformity of mass produced items, co-design with users has been recommended among the strategies that can strongly enhance the perceived value and 76 emotional durability of garments (Black & Eckert, 2009; Niinimäki & Hassi, 2011; Hirscher & FuadLuke, 2013; Duranni, Ravnløkke & Niinimäki, 2016). This may enable producers to make clothing that is better suited to individual user needs and desires and therefore has more potential to encourage strong relationship to the garment. In sum, by allowing users to partake in design decisions, their passive role changes into an active contribution, with a feeling of achievement and an increased satisfaction with the outcome as a result (Niinimäki & Hassi, 2011, p. 1880). Among the design strategies considered in this context are: 1. Co-design and bespoke (Niinimäki & Hassi, 2011; Durrani, Ravnløkke & Niinimäki, 2016; Hirscher & Fuad-Luke, 2013). Both are based on co-creation between the user and the designer/maker with a consensual decision making throughout the whole design process, “offering a perfect fit physically but also emotionally” (Niinimäki & Hassi, 2011, p.1880). 2. Customization and personalization, enabled either by technology or craft-based techniques that both allow for more flexibility in production (Black, 2008; Black et al., 2009; WRAP, 2013; Connor-Crabb, 2017; Ravnløkke, 2019). These normally enable users to select from a number of pre-defined options and choose for example their own combination of colours, components such as e.g. cuffs or hoods, lengths and also to make the design ‘theirs’ by including e.g. initials, names, photos. 3. Open source fashion (Niinimäki & Hassi, 2011; Von Busch, 2008; McQuillan et al., 2018). This option gives users most flexibility by providing them with initial tools such as downloadable patterns or making instructions and leaving the rest of the creative process in their hands. In contrast to co-design or customisation, open source fashion also requires user’s active involvement in the process of making. In addition to these, it has also been argued that craftsmanship and a connection to the maker, both often linked to ethical sourcing and production can significantly influence emotional durability of 77 clothing (Clark, 2008; Rissanen, 2011; Chapman, 2015 [2005]; Mugge, 2008). Strong product narrative and storytelling, with an emphasis on the time and skilled craftsmanship invested in the process are key in clearly distinguishing these items from their mass-produced alternatives (Aakko, 2016). Slow or artisanal fashion, discussed in more detail in Chapter 2.1 [p. 44], as well as limited editions that reinforce the feeling that an item cannot be easily replaced (WRAP, 2013) would also fall into this category. Another design strategy proposed for strengthening the emotional bond between the user and the garment is clothing that evolves with time (Rissanen, 2011; Riisberg & Grose, 2017; Rissanen, Grose & Riisberg, 2018). According to Riisberg & Grose (2017) this offers a double dividend, firstly, in reducing the throughput of materials and secondly, in offering new and exciting experiences with fashion to users (p. 450). Similar argument is made by Harper & Edvards (2017) who prefer to see the design stage as an unfinished process because time and use will eventually shape the final garment and its aesthetic value. Their open design object hence “includes assumptions that wear and use as well as personal associations and feelings can add to the completion of the object” (p. 621). Niinimäki & Hassi (2011) in this context refer to half-way products, as discussed by Papanek (2003 [1995]) or Fuad-Luke (2009). Tonkinwise’s (2005) design that embraces things in motion, even if not rooted in the fashion context, also fits into this line of thought because it questions if a design can ever be finished. It is important to recognize, he argues, that not only we -as designers- change things, things also change themselves (Ibid). THE NEED FOR EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE Research on longevity and emotional durability of clothing has been considerably expanding, as the number of recently completed (Skjold, 2014; Sadkowska, 2016; Connor-Crabb, 2017; Ravnløkke, 2019) and shortly forthcoming (Valle-Noronha, 2019; Holgar, 2019) doctoral studies, all appearing within the space of last five years, evidence. Despite this, the practical relevance and viability of design strategies for longevity and emotional durability in fashion design and making have so far received little critical examination. Among the few examples are the doctoral thesis of Connor-Crabb (2017), who examined the application of design strategies for longevity in several UK fashion SMEs, specifically microbusinesses. These were followed by interviews with the companies’ customers, focusing on their 78 views and experiences with classic designs, lifetime guarantee, modular garments, and co-creation. Participants acknowledged some benefits linked to most of these strategies, for example enjoyable creative process without the commitment of time and skills needed to make a garment from scratch, in the case of co-creation. However, no strong preference towards any of the strategies was found. The Dutch researcher Irene Maldini, whose current research focuses on the relationship between sustainable design strategies and clothing consumption volumes, investigated the environmental impact of digital DIY on the case study of Amsterdam FabLab users (2016). More recently, Maldini was also involved in a collaborative research on the use frequency and longevity of personalised garments (Gimeno Martinez, Maldini, Daanen & Stappers, 2019). The findings of these studies questioned the environmental benefits of both digital DIY and product personalisation. As a result, Maldini & Balkenende (2017) usefully highlight that many sustainable design strategies repeatedly mentioned in literature “have been constructed, studied and promoted without empirical validation” (p. 232). On the one hand, several of the strategies discussed above were proposed as a result of empirical research in fashion and textiles. Niinimäki & Hassi (2011) for example conducted two on-line questionnaires with 137 and 204 participants respectively and Laitala, Boks & Klepp (2015) based their recommendations on a thorough analysis of 620 clothing items from a mixedmethods study with 35 persons in 16 Norwegian families. On the other hand, I would also argue that the current approach to the application of these strategies in fashion design and making still heavily relies on previous research in industrial design and small electronics, where most research on design and emotion originated. In addition, the effectiveness and user feedback on strategies such as cocreation or customization have been mainly studied in experimental scenarios (such as e.g. Mugge, 2005, 2008). While these shed some light on users’ views, they do not reveal how these may be renegotiated when confronted with more complex demands of everyday life. The impact of such strategies on longevity, reduced consumption and postponed replacement of clothing therefore requires more research and critical analysis (Niinimäki & Hassi, 2011; Fletcher, 2012; Laitala, Boks & Klepp, 2015; Connor-Crabb, 2017; Maldini & Balkenende, 2017). At the same time, Niinimäki & Hassi (2011) also argue that while design strategies “will not directly lead to sustainable practices, as the system is not yet ready for radical change” (p. 1882), they potentially offer secondary benefits, as “by focusing more on consumers’ values and needs or providing better consumer satisfaction, these strategies may initiate discussion on how to start a systemic change in this industry” (Ibid). Still, there seems to be a significant disconnect between the recommendations 79 discussed here, the research on longevity and emotional durability, and the lived experience of clothing. This set a clear objective for the next stage of my enquiry – “to identify how the different ways in which women experience and engage with fashion affect the emotional durability of clothing”. RESEARCH IN PRACTICE: TEMPORARY DESIGN RESPONSES One of the key rules of design thinking according to Meinel & Leifer (2011) is that “making ideas tangible always facilitates communication” (p. xv). Oxborrow and Claxton (2016) note that although there is a reasonable amount of clarity on what design for longevity should achieve, details of how this should be realised in practice are often missing (p. 6). While in recent years several projects have linked design for longevity and emotional durability to practical explorations, such connections between theory and practice are still emerging. Among the most notable design experiments in the context of my study is the Emotional Fit project by Townsend, Sadkowska & Sissons (2017) (see also Townsend & Sadkowska, 2017) that used a combination of interviews, focus groups and co-design workshops with a group of mature women (55+) to explore their style preferences and emotional needs with regards to clothing, which are currently not catered for by the mainstream fashion market (see also Twigg, 2013, Dankl, 2011). The ongoing project of Riisberg, Grose and Rissanen that explores how garments can evolve over time through digital printing and reprinting (Riisberg & Grose, 2017; Rissanen, Grose & Riisberg, 2018) is also of relevance for the practical element of my study. Lastly, the recently completed doctoral study of Louise Ravnløkke (2019), who worked with a small sample of women to explore the applied possibilities of knitwear customisation, learning from women’s emotional responses to knitwear items, and also the study of Julia Valle-Noronha, whose doctoral research focused on using design probes to examine the agency of new items in stimulating more active relationships with clothes in women’s wardrobes (forthcoming September, 2019) are also of interest to this research. 80 ENVISIONING CLOTHES THAT CAN STAND THE TEST OF TIME 1 The designs presented in this section as well as the accompanying commentary should be read as an impression of the first, exploratory stage of my research. In tune with the notion that thinking, making and writing are equally valid elements of design research (Sadkowska, 2016; Earley et al., 2016; Walker & Girard, 2013), these designs are explorations in design and thinking through making (Ingold, 2013; Gatzen, cited in Bollier, 2018). They should be read as preliminary tangible examples of how some of the theories discussed in the previous chapters could play out in practice. In addition, the making of these garments was also grounded in my belief that it is the responsibility of designers to “put products out there” and it is also their responsibility “to go back and see if they work” (The 10th International Conference on Design and Emotion, Q&A discussion, September 2016,). For the sake of brevity, I here present two design examples out of nine garments in total. The aim of this initial phase of my studio experimentation in the first year of this research was to start exploring how to achieve the elusive balance between the visceral, behavioural and reflective levels of design described by Norman (2004) [see Chapter 2.4, p. 51], in an item of clothing. Along with this process, I also focused on addressing the recommendations on interventions in the areas of size and fit, fabric quality, colours, styles and care summarized in the 2013 Design for Longevity report. Finally, I gave special attention to sensory aspects of all the garments and their touch and feel in particular. Through a cross-analysis of all the requirements that came into the equation [Figure 3.1] and following a reflection on strategies already used in my design work, I identified the following areas to focus on in all designs: • Versatility and modularity (addressing size and fit, fabric quality, colours, and styles) • Easy care (addressing fabric quality, care) 1 This section draws on a paper published in connection to this research: Burcikova (2017a) 81 • Easy repairs and alterations (addressing size and fit, care) • Trans-seasonality (addressing fabric quality, colours, and styles) • Sensory experiences (addressing size and fit, fabric quality, colour) Figure 3.1 Cross-analysis of design recommendations from the design and emotion and clothing longevity contextual review The iterative design cycles included planning, experimentation, material sourcing, sampling, and reflection. I used pre-consumer waste materials (end of line fabrics from a local factory mill) for both toiling and the final garments and I consciously avoided blend fabrics that still pose complicated challenges in the recycling process (Fletcher, 2008; WRAP, 2013). For the same reasons, the use of fastenings was also reduced to minimum, recognizing the need for easy disassembly in the end of life stage (Laitala & Klepp, 2015; WRAP, 2013). My decision to avoid fastenings was also based on 82 research evidence that failure of clothing components (such as zips or buttons) is among the most frequent reasons for early clothing disposal (WRAP, 2013). All garments were made using a combination of machine-sewing and hand-stitching. I used handstitching both to stabilize seams and to add an extra personal touch to each garment - this approach has been integral to my designer-maker signature from the early days of my practice. In the context of my research project, however, hand-stitching was also used to emphasize the process of making and care invested in the garment (Swindells & Burcikova, 2012) as well as to highlight the connection to the maker. As I mentioned before, the opportunity to relate a product to its maker has been discussed by Chapman (2015 [2005], 2009), van Hinte (1997) or Mugge et al. (2005) among the strategies for encouraging the perceived irreplaceability of designed objects. Moreover, it has also been suggested that unique and personal products enable self-expression and can thus acquire meaning that potentially leads to a stronger emotional bond with the product (see e.g. Mugge et al., 2005). Design strategies that address users’ values and identity correspond to reflective and symbolic levels of design as described by Norman (2004) and Cupchik (1999) (respectively), and ideo-pleasure identified by Jordan (2000). Experimenting in this area therefore reflected my aim to work towards a balance between the three levels of design, as described in more detail in Chapter 2.4 [p. 51]. Figure 3.2 Documenting the making process: hand-sewing of hems 83 The entire process of design and making was documented through photography [Figure 3.2] and my observations and reflections on the key stages were recorded in my research diary. In line with the belief that designers must experience wearing their own work (Sissons, 2016), I regularly wore and washed all the initial garments (apart from the occasion wear piece) throughout the duration of my research. All the garments were photographed in a photo-shoot in October 2016, and later also presented on my studio website under the tentative name One Thing Collection. Although this step was not integral to my research methodology, I used the opportunity to share my designs on-line, both on my website and my social media, to collect anecdotal feedback that could potentially feed into further development. The same opportunity was provided by my personal experience from wearing of the garments (Gwilt, 2013; Riisberg & Grose, 2017) and insights from any occasional comments I received. DESIGN EXAMPLE 1: CASUAL WEAR Strategies employed: • Versatility • Easy Care • Easy repair and alterations • Trans-seasonality • Sensory experiences The first design example is a casual top and a skirt in 100% cotton lightweight indigo blue denim. The design is trans-seasonal due to the ‘classic’ material, neutral colour (WRAP, 2013), as well as its style which is not trend-driven but inspired by Slovakian folk costumes (see also Laitala & Klepp, 2015 , p. 101 for a similar example). Both the material and the colour also contribute to the versatility of this design as they enable wearers easy combination with other garments and accessories. The top and the skirt can be either worn together or separately, in combination with other items, and both can be easily dressed up or down [Figures 3.5-3.6]. The style also reflects the recommendations of the Design for longevity report (2013) on the role of comfort in casual wear. According to the report, comfortable garments that allow for fluctuations in body shape (e.g. loose fitting or adjustable) are likely to be used for longer. 84 The bat-wing top is designed to fit a range of figures and it has additional benefits in terms of care because the loose-fitting sleeves are less affected by perspiration than more tightly fitting garments [Figure 3.3]. The skirt has an adjustable waist, making use of folds and movable sew-on snap fasteners [Figure 3.4]. Both the top and the skirt are machine-washable (at 30°) and do not require ironing if hang to drip-dry straight after washing. In addition to all this, both garments also have generous hem allowances, sewn in a long decorative hand-stitch, which adds an extra decorative and hand-crafted feel and also allows for easy length adjustments. Reflecting Rissanen’s point that extra hem allowances should not be regarded as waste but as “an investment in a garment’s future” (2011, p.129), the extra hem fabric can also be used for any future repairs. The skirt has no side seams, which means that the full length and width of the material can be used if the owner decides to have it re-made into another garment in the future. 85 Figure 3.3 Design example 1 - frontal view 86 Figure 3.4 Design example 1 – folds for waist adjustment 87 Figure 3.5 Design example 1 - wear option 1 Figure 3.6 Design example 1 - wear option 2 88 DESIGN EXAMPLE 2: OCCASION WEAR Strategies employed: • Versatility and modularity • Easy care • Easy repair and alterations • Trans-seasonality • Sensory experiences The second design example is a convertible cocktail/evening dress in 100% viscose made in two colour versions – light pink and black. The dress consists of four modular parts that can easily transform the dress from a semi-formal cocktail option to an evening version. The combination of the modular parts offers at least three wear options and allows for many more possibilities to be explored by the wearer [Figures 3.7-3.8, 3.10-3.12]. The loose-fitting draped style offers versatility in terms of size and fit and the modular parts can also be used for length adjustments. Like in the case of Design example 1, the style is not trend-driven, and the choice of colours allows for a range of combinations with other garments and accessories. This further contributes to the versatility of the dress and gives it a relevance across seasons. The dress is designed for travel and easy care and can be folded in a small bag that comes with it. The bag can also offer extra protection during machine washing (at 30°). Due to the crinkled texture of the material, the dress can be easily dripdried without the need for ironing. However, if ironed, the texture of the fabric is transformed into yet another look. Apart from the centre back, most seams are hand-sewn to give hems a lovely soft drape and a handcrafted finish [Figure 3.9]. The draped style also allows for any future repairs to be easily disguised in the volume of the fabric (Laitala & Klepp, 2005). Just like the skirt in the Design example 1, the dress has no side seams, so the full length and width of the material can be used for future alterations or even remaking the whole design or its parts into a new garment. 89 Figure 3.7 Design example 2 (light pink version) - wear option 1, front Figure 3.8 Design example 2 (black version) - wear option 1, back 90 Figure 3.9 Design example 2 (light pink version) - detail of hand-stitching 91 Figure 3.10 Design example 2 (black version) - wear option 2 92 Figure 3.11 Design example 2 (black version) - attaching modular parts for wear option 3 Figure 3.12 Design example 2 (black version) - wear option 3 93 ENVISIONING EXPERIENCE Forlizzi and Ford note that “as designers trying to craft an experience, we can only design situations, or levers that people can interact with, rather than neatly predicted outcomes” (2000, p. 420). As I previously stated, the designs presented here were my initial explorations in how research on design longevity and emotional durability can help us design, make and wear clothes that we do not want to throw away (Maclachlan, 2011). My own experience of this design experiment enabled me to further develop some of the strategies already used in my design work in a wider context of my doctoral research. I have found that several of the strategies I employed had multiple benefits and they positively contributed to both the design project and my personal experience of the process. To illustrate, hand-stitching used to highlight the garment’s connection to its maker, is at the same time a technique that I find both enjoyable and effective, as it improves the drape and the hand of seams and often also their durability (especially in the case of top-stitching). Hand-stitching therefore seemed to be a win-win scenario that not only enhances the sensory aspects of garments and potentially also their appeal on the symbolic level, but also makes the creative process enjoyable and rewarding for the maker. In addition to this, as I previously noted, I wore all the initial garments (apart from Design example 2) throughout the duration of my research and recorded my observations from wearing and care in my research diary. As a designer-maker, I fully identify myself with Fletcher’s claim that “design is empty without use” and “use impossible without design” (2016, p. 78). For this reason, I considered my personal experience of how my designs perform and feel in everyday use an important contribution to the project. I found that wearing these garments helped further inform my thinking on some of the design decisions I had made and thus offered an opportunity for improvement in future iterations. One such example was the use of folds for waist adjustments in Design example 1. While folds tend to be considered a suitable solution for allowing the flexibility in waist (see for example WRAP, 2013), their application in practice is not without challenges. A strategic placement of folds in a design is crucial for a flattering fit because folds generally add volume to the silhouette. Flexible folds, such as those with sew on fasteners in my Design example 1, can thus result in adding extra volume and attracting undesired attention to those parts of the figure that the wearer may actually prefer to disguise (e.g. hips, buttocks or stomach area). Moreover, from the point of view of easy care, folds 94 are a potential source of frustration during ironing. Although in my designs this issue was partly addressed by careful choice of materials that would not require ironing if drip-dried straight after washing, I learned through my own experience that following such instructions is not always practicable in the pressures of everyday life. On several occasions I had to face the frustration of ironing the folds in my skirts. Another important insight from wearing my own designs was that these garments often turned into conversation pieces, “communication media” (Meinel & Leifer, 2011, p. xv), and so enabled me to collect further helpful feedback on the design aspects to consider in future stages of the project. These will be addressed in more detail in Chapter 6.6 [p. 245]. CHAPTER SUMMARY In this chapter I focused on examining a range of theoretical perspectives in research on design and emotion. In the first section I introduced the history and main strands of enquiry in emotional design and I identified design for emotional durability as an area with key relevance for my study. Jonathan Chapman’s (2015 [2005]) emphasis on the uneasy relationship between physical and emotional durability of designed objects is particularly important for my study and so together with Norman’s (2004) three level design, it is used as a core reference point to underpin and lead my research. Following on from this, section two explained how significant everyday objects in our lives may defeat the culture of excess and disposability. At the same time, critical voices that question the links between emotional attachment and lower volume of consumption were also discussed. Sections three and four then focused on current design strategies for emotional durability in design and clothing longevity. In section three I introduced the key attempts to formulate guidelines for designers who wish to apply emotionally durable design in their practice. Section four addressed the ways in which some of the strategies stemming from design and emotion research have been applied in propositions for extending the longevity of clothing. I then continued with an overview of studies that question the impact of these strategies on extending active lifetimes of clothing and reducing consumption volumes. Chapter 3 concluded with a reflective section that provides a link between my contextual review and the empirical stage of my research. The designs in this section were presented as an impression of 95 the first, exploratory stage of my research that trialled the design and thinking through making. The research problem here was how absorbing the contextual foundation and design for longevity can be applied in the move from theory to practice. 96 PART TWO 97 4 SENSORY WARDROBE Research approach and philosophical underpinnings Research design - Wardrobe conversations Empirical evidence – Key studies Design ethnography and the senses 98 Chapter 4 will detail the methodology I used to fulfil the aims and objectives of my research. In the first part I will outline the philosophical underpinnings of my research and the concepts that provided the core for my overall approach. Section two and three will then be devoted to contextualizing my research in connection to previous empirical studies that applied a similar approach to the study of clothing. I will here clarify both the similarities and the differences between these studies and my research. In this chapter I will also explain in more detail how my designer-maker practice, both prior to and in parallel to this research, informed the methods used in my field research and in my design experimentation. RESEARCH APPROACH AND PHILOSOPHY PHILOSOPHICAL UNDERPINNINGS The selection of research approach is a plan that involves decisions about the philosophical assumptions brought to the research, the procedures of enquiry (research designs) and the specific research methods of data collection, analysis and interpretation (Creswell, 2014). Due to the character of my research aim and considering my research objectives (please see the Introduction to this thesis, p. 16), I decided for an approach through a predominantly interpretivist paradigm. Interpretivism has its roots in the work of German thinkers of the 19th Century - particularly Wilhelm Dilthey’s elaboration of the philosophy of ‘Verstehen’ (‘meaningful understanding’) and the sociology of Max Weber, who raised the case for studying social action with a purpose (Neuman, 2014). Weber’s claim that “we must learn the personal reasons or motives that shape…internal feelings and guide decisions in particular ways” (Weber, cited in: Neuman, 2014, p. 103) is especially relevant for my interest in a deeper understanding of women’s everyday experiences with wearing clothing and how these are reflected in their emotional connections to items, and more broadly in their ways of engaging with fashion. The suitability of this perspective for my research is further confirmed by Black (2006) who argues that “the strength and power of interpretivist approach lies in its ability to address the complexity and meaning of (consumption) situations” (p.319). In line with this, Battarbee & Mattelmäki (2004) also point out that designers need to expose themselves to “real people and real contexts” as the data from market research alone is insufficient to inform the design process (p. 338). A deeper 99 understanding of the relationships and stories linked with objects is essential for design that can satisfy on multiple levels (Ibid). Market research heavily relies on statistics and scale, but the inherent complexity of personal stories and emotions does not respond well to measuring (Candy, 2004; Boyle, 2011) Creswell also explains that researchers working within an interpretivist paradigm mostly adopt inductive approach whereby their theory is derived through the research data (2013). In my research, however, there is a certain overlap between a deductive (theory led) and an inductive (data led) approach. This is due to the fact that I am exploring the relevance of existing theory (emotionally durable design) in a new context (fashion design and making), using data gathered through ethnography to inform this process. Lastly, Creswell’s point that interpretivist researchers acknowledge the impact of their own background and experiences on their research (2013) fits well with the fact that my study is underpinned by my established studio practice. This also resonates with my intention to highlight and reflect on any significant points in this research where my personal and professional background offered specific insights and shaped the direction at different stages of this research. In this respect, I fully identify myself with Ribbens & Edward’s (1998) claim that: Rather than relativistic despair, we need high standards of reflexivity and openness about the choices made through any empirical study, considering the implications of practical choices for the knowledge being produced. (p. 4) I addressed my approach to reflexivity in more detail in the opening chapter 1.1 [p. 24]. INDEPENDENT DESIGN RESEARCH Related to this is another key aspect of my research methodology. Throughout my research, I approach my aim and objectives from the perspective of a practitioner-researcher, focusing my interests on a topic that is highly relevant to my practice (Robson, 2002). In a similar vein, Crossley (2004) calls for a “new breed of designer that undertakes a large apart of their time as a design researcher” (p. 45) to construct and communicate reflections of experiences in ways that are comprehensible within creative practice (Ibid). Sennett also notes that “every good craftsman [sic] 100 conducts a dialogue between concrete practices and thinking; this dialogue evolves into sustaining habits, and these habits establish a rhythm between problem solving and problem finding” (2008, p. 9). My prior experience, as well as the tacit knowledge acquired through my designer-maker practice, are thus not only prerequisites to this research but also integral elements of my research methodology that can contribute beneficial insights throughout the research. Having defined my research through an interpretivist paradigm, while using a combination of deductive and inductive process, I will now address the details of the practical element that I described above as a perspective of a practitioner-researcher. Frayling (1993) famously refers to Herbert Read’s model of education through art to suggest three types of research in art and design: • Research into art and design • Research through art and design • Research for art and design (p. 5) Design research in the first category - research into design - examines the process and profession of design (Frankel & Racine, 2010). The primary aim of the second approach - research through design - according to Frankel and Racine, is that “it seeks to provide an explanation or theory within a broader context” (p. 6). My research is closest to the third category – research for design - which is characterized by Downton (2003) as “research to enable design” (p. 17), research that provides the information, implications, and data that designers can apply to achieve an end-result in their design project (Ibid). It is also important to clarify here that in the initial stages of my research the expanded definition offered by Downton well captured the key motivations behind this study and it seemed pivotal for its direction: The term research for design is understood to mean research that is carried out during the overall design process to support designing in whatever way the designer(s) regard as useful and this includes research intended to provide information and data that is necessary to successfully conclude the undertaking in question. (2003, p. 43) 101 As I set out on this research journey, Downton’s definition seemed particularly important in connection to my Objective 3 “to create a series of garments that reflect women’s experiences with emotionally durable clothing and propose new ways of extending emotional durability by design and making”. Yet, as my research progressed, and specifically as a result of reflection on and analysis of my wardrobe interviews, it emerged that the emphasis on the “design project” (Downton, 2003) I set out to pursue in the final stage of my research should slightly shift in priority to allow for more explorations and multiple layers of analysis in the preceding stage. On the contrary, my Objective 2, “to identify how the different ways in which women experience and engage with fashion affect the emotional durability of clothing”, became increasingly more significant in relationship to addressing the overall aim of my research. What my research seemed to reveal with an increasing urgency, was that to contribute to improved understanding of how the concept of emotional durability can be applied in fashion design and making in order to enhance user experience of clothing, listening to women’s experiences with the clothes they already own, should take a priority over designing new garments. Although I never stopped thinking about how these experiences could be translated into design and making, considering the limited time frame of this research, I gradually realized that my research should above all capitalize on the generosity of the women who shared their often very personal wardrobe stories and experiences with me. The following sections will therefore focus on previous empirical studies that applied a similar approach to the study of clothing. They will also clarify both the similarities and the differences between these studies and the way my research developed with my growing understanding of the context and the direction I should take. RESEARCH DESIGN: WARDROBE CONVERSATIONS UNDERSTANDING EXPERIENCE: METHODOLOGICAL QUESTIONS Chapman notes that designers who want to design for longevity without a deep understanding of user perspectives are forced to rely on similar generalizations to those who pack for a trip without knowing where they are going or what they will be doing there (2016, p. 78 - D&E keynote). In line with his point, Fletcher also argues that: 102 Making a garment last is very different to making a long-lasting garment. Enduring use is often difficult to predict. It is specific and personal, linked less with materials and more with ways of thinking, experiences and memories. Finding ways to access these may be critical to third, fourth or fifth lives. (2016, p. 186) It seems clear that understanding the nuances of everyday experiences with clothing and how these may be reflected in our relationships with individual garments in our wardrobes is instrumental for advancing the current understanding of clothing longevity. In early 2000s, the dress historian Lou Taylor remarked that “one of the great voids of dress history has been its failure to examine emotional responses to clothing and appearance” (2002, p. 102). More recently, researchers across multiple areas still highlight that user behaviour around clothing, and emotional durability of garments in particular, remain largely under-researched areas (Cooper et al., 2017; WRAP 2012, 2017; Laitala and Boks, 2012, Laitala, 2014; McLaren et al. 2015; ECAP, 2017). Niinimäki & Koskinen’s (2011, p. 176) reflection on the methodological issues connected with the current lack of deep insight into attachment and long-term product relationships in general, and clothing more specifically, is important for my research. As the authors point out, most research in this area initially relied on questionnaires. Yet, while these enable to collect people’s responses, they do not capture the granularity of detail that would enable an in-depth understanding of lived experiences. What is therefore urgently needed is a more interpretative, empathic approach to collecting data on emotional experiences with products, an approach that would focus on observing, probing and listening to people rather than making assumptions on categories to frame the research (Ibid, p. 176-177). My research design addresses this methodological gap and the following sections , and also Chapter 5 - Wardrobe conversations, explain the details of the approach I developed to better understand the experiences that can lead to emotional attachment to clothing. LINKING PRACTICE AND EMPIRICAL STUDY As a designer-maker, I have often visited my clients at their homes to discuss the new commissioned pieces in relationship to the rest of their wardrobes. These home visits have been a rich source of information about each client’s attitudes and views on fashion and clothing, their personal style and 103 also on their preferences in terms of fit, colour or material. In line with the observations by Woodward (2007), Klepp (2010) or Skjold (2014), who all studied clothing in participants’ homes, I too noticed that the presence of whole wardrobes and other personal objects could often trigger conversations and narratives that would hardly have been possible in a situation outside the home environment. My designer-dressmaker practice, the personal contact with my clients and my background in ethnography, therefore seemed to offer a unique research opportunity, not dissimilar to the notion of the ‘embodied ethnographer’ - someone whose profession gives them entry to an area that is normally not easily accessible to other researchers and whose tacit knowledge from their frequent presence in the researched environment opens up new layers for enquiry (Edvardsson & Street, 2007 in Pink 2015 [2009], p. 20-21). Considering my objective “to identify how the different ways in which women experience and engage with fashion affect the emotional durability of clothing”, this seemed to provide the perfect starting point for my research design. ETHNOGRAPHIC METHODS One of the most significant aspects of ethnographic research and a reason why I believed that ethnographic methods could make a key contribution to addressing my research aim, is that ethnography concerns itself with daily practices (Hammersley & Atkinson, 2019 [1983]). Unlike researchers in many other areas, ethnographers first observe, probe, record (through notes, recordings, photography, or drawings) and attempt to understand what people do. Only then they try to contextualize and assign wider meanings to the observed actions and beliefs. As my research aimed to enhance the current understanding of women’s emotional connections to their clothes, it was essential to allow their personal perspectives to take prominence over my possible preconceptions before drawing any conclusions. This approach also aligns with the tradition of interpretivist enquiry described in the previous section. At the same time, it is also important to note that “ethnography is a peculiarly human endeavour” where “the researcher is the primary tool for collecting primary data” (p. xvi) and so the work produced through ethnographic research is inevitably linked to the researcher’s traits and the kind of person they are (Schensul, Schensul & Compte, 1999, Ibid). Pink (2013 [2001]) in this sense defines ethnography as: 104 (…) a process of creating and representing knowledge or ways of knowing that are based on ethnographers’ own experiences and the ways these intersect with the persons, places and things encountered during the process. (p. 35) As a result, ethnography cannot make claims on objectivity, favoured by the positivist research tradition, and as I described in more detail in Chapter 1.1 [p. 24], the issues of validity in ethnographic studies are addressed through strictly reflexive approach that provides enough contextual detail on researcher’s presence in the research situation and on the circumstances of conducting the research. Such approach fully acknowledges that no attempt to capture lived experiences is unproblematic (Denzin, 1997, p. 3). This is brilliantly explained further by the anthropologist Robert Murphy in his late autoethnographic narrative of spinal paralysis The Body Silent (1990 [1987]), a work that has been pivotal in shaping both my long-term interest in social and cultural aspects of design and in my methodological trajectory as a researcher. As Murphy argues: (…) the truth is that our perceptions in ethnographic research are deeply affected by our personalities, by the language categories into which we sort our reality, by our education, by all the overburden of our own culture. And, as we get deeper into our research, the people’s own interpretation of their culture provides an added coloration of our views, a further skewing of our perceptions. (1990, p. 176) Still, caution about limitations of objectivity in any research involving humans exhibited by Murphy (Ibid) is not to be confused with undermining the significance of ethnographic enquiry for a deeper understanding of phenomena that can hardly be accessed through other methods. As Murphy confirms, unlike quantitative methods such as questionnaires, ethnographies that involve a direct contact between the researcher and the researched enable to compare verbal accounts to observable behaviour (1990, p. 174). This is crucial, because “people often do not do what they say they should be doing, or even what they think they are doing” (Ibid). Hence, relying solely on verbal statements, even if collected from larger samples of population, rarely enables to access the idiosyncrasies and nuances of human experience, and emotions in particular (Stappers & Sanders, 2004). 105 WARDROBE CONVERSATIONS Since the publication of Niinimäki & Koskinen’s article (2011) mentioned earlier, there has been a notable upsurge in experiments with new methods for studying users’ relationships with products. This was also evidenced in the 2016 Design & Emotion Conference through a number of contributions that piloted new approaches to understanding product experiences (see e.g. Luden, Cila & Van Zuthem, 2016). With regards to user experiences with clothing, two works in particular have made a marked contribution to the methodological debate. Firstly, the previously mentioned Craft of Use (Fletcher, 2016), that collected stories of favourite garments from users across six countries (I will return to Craft of Use later in this section). Secondly, it was Fletcher & Klepp’s coedited collection Opening up the Wardrobe (2017) that offered a platform for a cross section of fashion researchers to introduce the methods they have used for studying different aspects of clothing use. While only the contribution by Valle-Noronha, Kujala & Niinimäki on user experience curves explicitly focuses on emotional connections and attachment to clothes, a number of other contributions to this publication also strongly touch on issues that reveal subtle layers of relationships with clothing. Among these are Skjold’s biographical wardrobe method and Fletcher’s craft of use explorations, both discussed in more detail in the following section. In addition, Connor-Crabb’s research on wear and tear of clothing, Haugsrud’s study of value within the wardrobe, Hall’s participant led photographing and ethnographic discussion, and the performance used by Rissanen et al. to inform the design of enduring garments all also strongly relate to the issues that are of interest to this research. Opening up the Wardrobe (2017) highlights the recent rise of interest in what is broadly referred to as ‘wardrobe methods’ or ‘wardrobe studies’, a research area particularly pronounced since the late 2000s onwards. The work of Efrat Tseëlon, who developed a wardrobe approach for her study The Presentation of Woman in Everyday Life (1995), is worth noting in this context. As Tseëlon explains, at the time, her methodology marked a departure from the then prevailing approach of looking ‘from the outside’, favoured by costume historians, curators, designers and some social scientists, to looking ‘from the inside’ focused on the process of use, wearers’ perspectives and socially negotiated meanings (Tseëlon, 2016, p. 155). Similar approach was later adopted by Sophie Woodward (2005) in her research on women’s considerations in the process of getting dressed. Her Why Women Wear 106 What they Wear (2007), has since had a marked influence on development in the field of wardrobe studies (discussed in more detail in the next section). Klepp & Bjerck (2014) define wardrobe studies as “a methodological approach that analyses the way in which clothes relate to each other on the whole or in parts of the wardrobe” (2014, p. 373). In their view, the primary focus here is on material and physical aspects of clothing rather than symbolic meaning (Ibid). This is interesting, as the spotlight on materiality seemingly contrasts with Tseëlon’s initial impulse for her wardrobe approach, that was motivated by the wish to move away from the over-emphasis on materiality in object-based studies (2016). However, as Woodward highlights (2016), the real strength of wardrobe studies lies in interdisciplinary approaches that enable more adequate, combined understanding of both tangible and intangible qualities of objects/clothing (p. 360). Hence, while the emphasis may vary depending on research aims, many wardrobe studies, especially those referred to as ‘wardrobe interviews’ (Fletcher & Klepp, 2017), draw on ‘object elicitation’ methods (Hoskins, 1998; Woodward, 2016), using garments as anchors for emerging narratives while also exploring their material aspects. Wardrobe studies use the presence of the object in two ways. The clothes are present and thus influence the informants’ memories and narratives. Secondly, recording, photographing, and even handling the object itself contribute to the researcher’s recollection and empathy, and provide opportunity for new knowledge. (Klepp & Bjerck, 2014, p. 378) My own take on the empirical phase of my research broadly aligned with this approach, in the sense that I set out to study women’s clothes in the context of their whole wardrobes, using the opportunity to observe and handle individual items as the conversation unfolded. I also used audio recording and photography to capture as much as possible from these conversations for subsequent reflections and analysis. More specifically though, my approach was closely linked to what Warkander calls “organic wardrobe studies” (2013). As I explained earlier, I was conscious that I should enable for women to talk freely about their experiences and feelings and avoid impressing my own preconceptions by asking too 107 much too early in the conversation. For this reason, my method would be more accurately described as “wardrobe conversations”, largely led by my interviewees, as opposed to “wardrobe interviews” that generally rely on semi-structured schedules and are facilitated by the interviewers (Fletcher & Klepp, 2017). In addition to these methodological concerns, my approach was also motivated by ethical considerations. Like Tseëlon (1995), I also wished to depart from “the tradition of studying people or theorising them without taking their own perspective into account” (p. 3). This is also why the images and extended excerpts from women’s wardrobe narratives are an integral part of this thesis. EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE: KEY STUDIES Although only a handful of researchers (Niinimäki (2011, 2013, 2014) and more recently ConnorCrabb (2017), Townsend, Sadkovka & Sissons (2017), Townsend & Sadkowska (2017), Ravnløkke (2019) and Vale-Noronha (forthcoming 2019)) have so far systematically applied research on design and emotion into fashion context, this section presents the key empirical studies that have contributed valuable perspectives towards a better understanding of (mostly women’s) emotional connections to the clothes in their wardrobes. BANIM & GUY AND SOPHIE WOODWARD Throughout this thesis, I have repeatedly referred to the work of the anthropologist Sophie Woodward, specifically to her now seminal study Why Women Wear what they Wear (2007). Based on an ethnographic study with 27 UK women aged between their late teens to their late fifties, Woodward’s enquiry focused on how women negotiate and create their identities through the clothing they choose to wear. Similarly to Banim and Guy (2001), whose study on why women keep clothes they no longer wear was inspired by their observation that only a fraction of clothing in women’s wardrobes is used on a regular basis, Woodward too noticed that the age of many of the items in her participants’ wardrobes spanned over decades and the frequency with which these items were worn varied considerably. As she notes, this observation is important, because it highlights the value of a longterm view on women’s relationships with clothing. This extended perspective requires a focus on 108 what she calls the “personalized temporality of the wardrobe” (p. 51), as opposed to the “externally imposed temporality of the fashion system” (Ibid) that reduces our understanding and makes women’s relationships to clothes “appear fickle and ephemeral” (Ibid). Through talking to women and observing their concerns when getting dressed, Banim and Guy’s (2001 [see also Guy and Banim, 2000]) and Woodward’s (2007) approaches elucidate the process of building a wardrobe and the reasons behind women’s decisions on the frequency with which individual garments in the wardrobe get worn. The volume of items in women’s wardrobes, Woodward argues, reflects a number of contradictory aspects of women’s identities - “being an individual, fitting in, the person one is all the time, who one was, who one wishes one could be” (2007, p. 150). The wardrobe thus contains a constant renegotiation of the balance between who women want to be, who they fear they could be and who they are most of the time (Banim & Guy, 2000 In Banim & Guy, 2001, p. 203). What is striking with regards to these findings, is that although they offer some critical insights on the underlying reasons why women keep more clothes than they regularly wear, (which is often the focal point of the critique of contemporary fashion consumption), these remain largely ignored in the current discourse on fashion and sustainability. This is highly problematic because the argument is then once again directed to addressing the symptoms, without first giving sufficient attention to the understanding of the underlying causes of women’s wardrobe quantities [see also Chapman’s critique of sustainable design in Chapter 3.2, p. 64]. As Banim and Guy (2001) contend: (…) it may be possible to account for kept but no-longer worn clothes in terms of them being the ‘fall-out’ of the fashion system. By this we mean that women are seen as the ‘dupes’ of an exploitative fashion industry, buying and wearing clothes when they are deemed ‘fashionable’ but discarding them when they are later deemed ‘unfashionable’. At first sight it is tempting to view no-longer-worn clothes as merely taking up space or as irrelevant to women’s current identities. (…) In most cases although these clothes may have ceased to have an active role (I.e. being worn), the data reveal that women still have an ongoing relationship with them.(…) [this relationship] extends beyond the structural and meaning systems of the fashion industry. (p. 204) 109 Banim & Guy’s argument is important for my thesis, because it assigns an equal relevance to both worn and unworn items. It also highlights the need to balance external measures such as the logic of ‘fashion’, or in the context of the wider argument presented here, the ‘environmental implications’, against what actually matters from women’s own perspectives and why. Woodward then puts emphasis on sensual aspects of garments and continuous wearing experiences, both of which contribute to the “embodied material relationship of wearing” (2007, p. 32). This on the one hand strengthens women’s emotional relationship to an item, yet, on the other, it also makes it difficult to articulate why the item is loved so much (Ibid). She further explains this difficulty by drawing on Bourdieu’s concept of habitus (1977, p. 78), meaning that long-term wearing of frequently used items becomes a second nature and so the initial impulse is obscured by what is now take for granted (2007, p. 32). Another key point Woodward makes refers to the ways in which “clothing externalizes memory” (2007, p. 12-13). Unlike verbal or written biographies that necessitate a linear chronological order, the negotiation between the past, the present and the future is far more complex in women’s wardrobes. The past is not finished in a wardrobe, it extends into the present and also well into the future. Woodward argues that such easy connections across time are enabled by the tactile and sensual qualities of materials, thanks to which: (…) clothing is able to carry memories and former selves; as women touch the item of clothing, the feel of the fabric on her skin allows her to remember and resituate herself in the past. (Ibid, p. 12-13) As a result, then: (…) when women select clothing to wear, they are not looking at their wardrobe as chronology. Rather, from the array of clothing displayed before them, the older items form part of the continuum of the wardrobe (Ibid, p. 66) ELSE SKJOLD Similar point is also made by Else Skjold (2014), whose research emphasis is on continuity as opposed to newness in the wardrobe. Like Woodward, Skjold also studied how people select what to wear on 110 everyday basis. However, in contrast to Woodward, whose focus was solely on women (most in their 20s), Skjold worked mostly with men aged between 40-50. It is hence interesting that the findings of both have multiple overlaps, which would suggest that the process of dressing involves similar considerations and underlying patterns for both men and women. Keeping in mind, of course, that some nuanced aspects and possibly also their articulation may differ both between genders and across individual cases (see also Sadkowska, 2016). Skjold explains her focus on the mature age group by her interest in long-term perspectives, an approach that resulted in her notion of the ”biographical wardrobe” that affords “a diachronic perspective on dress practice” (2016, p. 137). She argues that it is more interesting to look at what is old than on what is new (2016, p. 138). Like Woodward, Skjold also observed that any changes in the wardrobes of her interviewees occurred steadily over longer periods of time and were more often linked to key milestones and life phases such as entry on the job market, change in marital status and having children, than to external forces such as ‘fashion’ and trends (2016, p. 136). Both also note that despite changes, continuity across different life phases is retained through referencing similar styles and favouring certain materials. Skjold, whose approach was in comparison to Woodward more design related, explains: My aim is to highlight how people are affected by design characteristics of what they wear the bodily sensation of wearing certain fabrics, how a certain cut affects the movements of the body, how certain colours, textures and patterns are preferred by the user, or how certain stylistic references are preferred, regardless of fashion trends. (Ibid, p. 139) Drawing on the work of developmental psychologist Erik Erikson (1902-1994), she argues that such formulas for dressing stem from the early adolescent years, a process that she further explains on her model of “sensory anchoring” (2014, p. 47). This gradual development of personal style, what she calls the “biographical wardrobe”, also means that following an initial period of experimentation, any external influences later tend to be filtered through the lens of established wardrobe “formulas”. As a result, Skjold highlights that there is a clear dissonance between the current garment production and garment consumption because the logic of fashion business does not reflect the “logics and practices of the majority of people when they go about getting dressed every day” (2016, p. 136). 111 KATE FLETCHER Similar argument underpins Fletcher’s Craft of Use (2016), first introduced in Chapter 1.3 [p. 31] in the context of Fletcher’s plea to rethink fashion and our relationships to clothes within the wider call for post-growth futures. For over twenty years now, Fletcher’s research has focused on user practices. The central thread linking all her projects is her strong belief that the current fashion sector ignores the long-term perspective and lacks an interest in how clothes are worn, laundered, and otherwise cared for throughout their lifetime. Yet, understanding use practices, she argues, is key to accessing viable scenarios for fashion and sustainability. The Craft of Use thus draws on a rich collection of data gathered over several years by an international team of researchers as a part of the Local Wisdom Project led by Fletcher. As she notes, “visual imagery associated with ideas, activities and artefacts of use of clothes is undeveloped” (p. 55) and so the project addressed this gap by generating an extensive collection of portrait photographs of adult men and women across all age groups accompanied by short interview excerpts. Fletcher highlights that the richness of stories collected during the project points to a considerable resourcefulness in people’s wear practices. What these stories unanimously demonstrate is that “in the face of forces that scream the opposite, people are acting in ways that are resourceful and motivated by a deep knowledge and satisfaction with what they have” (2016, p. 78). Still, the reasons why some garments become treasured and well looked after pieces tend to be haphazard and unpredictable; Fletcher assigns them more to competencies, attitudes, and past experiences than to material properties of garments [see Chapter 2.3, p. 49]. On the other hand, she also observes that some materials, such as wool, silk and cotton are referred to repeatedly in people’s stories, whereas others, such as polyester, are markedly underrepresented. In addition, other features that can be affected in the design stage such as cut, loose fit that allows for body changes, openness of garments to alterability, versatility and adaptability, craft production or functional details such as pockets and other components, are repeatedly referred to throughout the book. This suggests that design features do have a notable role in shaping people’s emotional experiences with their loved pieces and my research attempts to further elucidate the connection between the two. 112 Also of interest to my research are the design practice scenarios that constituted the last phase of Local Wisdom. Student projects at the seven partner institutions explored how the lessons from the user’s stories “could be adapted, amplified, integrated into current activities, in order to increase their uptake” (p. 53). As an example, the Cut, Pleat, Shorten, Fit project by Anja Crabb (now ConnorCrabb) from London College of Fashion focused on solutions for alterability through colour-coded guides marked on garments to highlight the areas where adjustments and alterations for different body types and figure changes are most often needed. The Doppelganger project by Alex Barton, Monica Buchan-Ng and Katie Colier from Massey University started with ‘perfect’ pieces that have brought much satisfaction to their users and invited them to make suggestions on improvements they wish they could make to the original garment. Based on these suggestions, a second garment was made and given to a person of the owner’s choice. My Little Black Coat project by Jon Max Goh from Parsons The New School explored how repairability can be designed into a garment through needle-felting details on the new piece, intended as visual leads for future repairs. The significance of the design element in the Local Wisdom project is in that it reflects empirical data on clothing use in design practice. As I noted before, this connection is still relatively rare, the studies by Rigby (2016), Sadkowska (2016), Townsend et al. (2017), Ravnløkke (2019) and Valle-Noronha (2019) are among the emerging examples. This is also echoed in the recurring criticism that despite being quite vocal on what should be achieved, design for longevity and emotional durability lacks practical examples on how to get there (Oxborrow & Claxton, 2016). My research addresses this gap by articulating the findings through garments made in response to each of the four empirical themes that emerged from my research. It also extends the perspectives of the Local Wisdom project by studying significant garments in a relationship to other clothes in the same wardrobe, which enables a comparative analysis within as well as across the cases. While a number of Local Wisdom participants had connections to the fashion schools involved, my sampling purposefully targeted participants with no fashion background [see more in Chapter 5.1, p. 125]. I believe this approach further expands the current discourse towards everyday clothing practices and addresses the concerns of those users who may lack the technical skills and the professional confidence to endlessly experiment with the possibilities that garments can offer. 113 KIRSI NIINIMÄKI In contrast to Fletcher, who emphasizes the elusiveness of the concept of emotional durability, linking it to practices rather than to physical properties of garments, Kirsi Niinimäki, drawing on consumer research methodology, has in a series of studies attempted to identify the key attributes of attachment to clothing. At the time of their first publication, these studies were pioneering in terms of applying research on design and emotion to the area of textiles and clothing (Niinimäki, 2010; Niinimäki & Koskinen, 2011; Niinimäki & Armstrong, 2013; Niinimäki, 2014). Unlike other studies discussed in this section, all with a qualitative orientation, the body of Niinimäki’s contribution relies on quantitative data – specifically content analysis of three on-line consumer questionnaires administered between 2009 and 2013. The first two of these were conducted in Finland and respondents were mostly adult females under the age of 35 (246 and 204 respectively). The third survey took place in the US and covered a much wider age group of 401 respondents aged between 18 and 67, with almost equal division between males and females. The first of Niinimäki’s Finnish surveys focused on the attributes of emotional attachment to textiles and clothing, including an open question that asked participants about the oldest piece of textile and clothing in their possession and why they kept it. The second questionnaire also included a section on satisfaction with clothing. Here, respondents were invited to describe textiles and clothes that have been in long-term and short-term use, listing the reasons for both long and short use periods (Niinimäki & Koskinen, 2011). The US questionnaire further built on this research to include temporal elements and product categories (Niinimäki & Armstrong, 2013). Respondents were so invited to identify a piece of clothing that they felt especially attached to, by connecting it to a product category from a predefined list. They were also prompted to expand on the reasons why their chosen items were special, as well as to estimate the frequency of wear (from 6 categories), the length of ownership, and the mode of acquisition. The reason why it is interesting to notice such methodological details is the following. In a discussion of her early findings, Niinimäki (2010) comments that the oldest clothes mentioned by her respondents were either inherited or connected to a strong memory of significant others (such as mothers, grandparents, or friends). In several of her studies she then reiterates that attachment tends to be linked to clothing that is no longer used (Niinimäki & Armstrong, 2013; see also Niinimäki 114 & Koskinen, 2011; Niinimäki, 2014), so also echoing Mugge, Schoormans & Schifferstein’s (2005) point that the most favoured and cherished possessions tend to have strong connections to family history (p. 41). Yet, if we note that these observations were based on the first of the Finnish surveys, where the majority of respondents were women under 35, it is perhaps unsurprising that the oldest and most cherished of these women’s possessions were more likely to be linked to family heritage as opposed to their own acquisitions and personal biography. The contextual background of these findings elucidates another important issue. It can be reasonably argued that while respondents of the first questionnaire were asked about their oldest textiles and clothing and why they kept them, rather than for example about their favourite garment to wear, their attention would have been likely focused towards the items they cherished for sentimental reasons, not those that they regularly used. The results of the second survey support this view. As the questions here focused specifically on use, frequently worn clothes were often mentioned among the meaningful items (Niinimäki & Koskinen, 2011). Finally, the findings resulting from the third questionnaire, in which respondents were asked to choose an item of clothing they felt attached to, along with the information on frequency of wear and length of ownership, directly contrast with the conclusions drawn from the first survey. While the first questionnaire seemed to indicate that attachment was mostly linked to unused clothing, in the third survey “most of the meaningful garments that respondents declared their attachment towards were in use” (Niinimäki & Armstrong, 2013, p. 196). These differences usefully illustrate the inherent difficulties of relying solely on quantitative methods and verbal statements when studying emotional durability of clothing; a limitation also recognized by Niinimäki (Niinimäki & Koskinen, 2011) as I noted in the previous section [Chapter 4.2, p. 102]. Nevertheless, the relevance of her work for my research is specifically in her focus on the determinants of satisfying use which she sees as prerequisites of attachment. This is important, because the experience with which I embarked on this research strongly suggested that satisfaction on multiple levels, tried and tested through frequent use, was critical for the feeling of emotional connection to a garment. Interestingly then, Niinimäki & Armstrong (2013) also distinguish between satisfaction and the feeling of attachment to clothing, arguing that “satisfaction is more correlated with pleasurable use experiences while the attachment processes are based on the emotional experiences with the garment over time” (p. 192). Drawing on the approach of Swan 115 & Comb (1976, cited in Niinimäki & Armstrong, 2013), who highlight the elements of instrumental performance (physical properties) and expressive performance (psychological response), Niinimäki & Armstrong argue that experiences of physical properties such as durability, fit and quality are key to subsequent emotional responses (Ibid, p.192). In her findings, Niinimäki’s puts emphasis on quality, highlighting that poor quality, poor fit and disappointing performance during laundering (when the garment’s fit and colour significantly change during the first wash or even falls apart) are among common reasons for short-term use (2014). This again contrasts with the views of Fletcher (2012), who argues that far too many garments last much longer than their useful lifetimes in the eyes of their owners [see Chapter 3.4, p. 71]. These differences can be assigned to both research focus and methodological orientation. Whereas Niinimäki specifically studied the reasons for short-term use, Fletcher’s research has primarily focused on practices associated with long-term ownership of garments (although some of her earlier studies such as e.g. the Lifetimes project examined different patterns and “rhythms” of clothing use (2004, 2014 [2008]). In addition, Fletcher’s point aims to underscore the need to redress the balance between production and consumption of fashion and the fast turnaround of items encouraged by the fast fashion model. To summarize, Niinimäki (2014) identifies quality (fit, durable materials, durability in use and laundering), aesthetics (beauty, style, colour, fit, tactility), functionality (suitability in use, use experience, easy maintenance) and also alignment with user values (local production, ethical credentials, environmental aspects, longevity) as the key factors in long-term use of clothing. Her findings demonstrate that certain attributes specified at the design stage (such as e.g. fit, materials, colour, tactility, maintenance requirements) can significantly contribute to enduring use. However, she also recognizes that other elements of long-term use, such as memories and associations linked to past experiences with an item as well as addressing people’s changing needs, are much harder to access through design. Still, she suggests that designers can fine-tune their skills and abilities to tap into all these aspects of product experience through an “empathic design approach” that draws on the knowledge of attributes that are important from a consumer’s point of view (See the “Framework sustainable product relationships, empathic knowledge and the field of design” (Niinimäki & Koskinen, 2011, p. 182)). This also echoes Fletcher’s call (2016) for a tighter fit between everyday use practices and 116 the design process, moving beyond mood boards and visual references to instead consider more granular aspects of everyday clothing use such as multisensory perception of garments. Niinimäki too especially highlights the significance of sensory experiences in our relationships to what we wear, and the following section will address sensory qualities of clothing in more detail. SENSORY METHODOLOGY CONTEXT: SENSORY AND EMOTIONAL RESPONSES TO CLOTHING Norman’s concept of three level design, introduced in Chapter 2.4 [p. 51] explains that we process experience on three different levels of the brain and that each of these levels requires a different approach to design. The first, visceral level, needs design that focuses on the way things look, their haptic qualities and feel. The second, behavioural level of brain, needs to consider the pleasure and effectiveness of use – the way things work. The highest, reflective level, is then linked to the selfimage and memories associated with the object – its meaning. Yet, fashion designers are predominantly trained for an appeal on just a fraction of the first, visceral level, by focusing mainly on the ‘magic’ moment of first impression through a strong visual impact. Fashion photography further builds on this, often presenting a staged and idealized view of garments that are static, “unworn and uncrumpled” (Fletcher, 2016, p. 101), with little relationship to how they will be used by their future owners. Substantial effort and expenditure also tend to go towards fashion branding, with strong focus on wearer’s self-image and aspirations; these in some respects corresponds to Norman’s reflective level of design. What is largely omitted in fashion, however, are those elements of the visceral level that extend beyond the visual appeal – the haptic qualities and the feel of clothing, and also the behavioural aspects of design which should consider how clothes work in everyday use. The need to refocus from a singularly visual approach to clothing is increasingly recognized by researchers, especially those working across the disciplines of fashion studies, design, and anthropology. The studies by Woodward (2007), Klepp (2010), Skjold (2014) or Chong Kwan (2016) all unanimously demonstrate that the seemingly uncomplicated visual appeal of clothes becomes much more complex when it lands in the everyday reality of use. The everyday moment in front of the mirror extends far beyond the visual/aesthetic aspects of a garment and has a considerable 117 impact on the extent to which women feel comfortable in their clothing, Woodward (2007) argues. Comfort, according to her, “is not natural feeling engendered by the softness of a fabric; … comfort emerges in a dialectic between how clothing looks and how it feels” (2007, p. 99). In a similar vein, Niinimäki & Koskinen (2011) note that the beauty of clothing includes the “tactile, olfactory and kinetic experiences, such as the feeling of comfort, the weight of the material against our body, and pleasant touch and odour” (p. 170). The first focused effort to examine how our perception of what we wear is affected by a cross-section of senses, was the 2005 symposium The Senses and Sentiments of Dress initiated by Professor Joanne B. Eicher. Notably in the context of my research, equal attention was here given to what Eicher called “sentiments” of dress - emotional responses, memories and sensations associated with dress (cited in Foster & Johnson, 2007). As I previously discussed in Chapter 1.2 [p. 27], Roach-Higgins & Eicher’s definition of ‘dress’ refers to a wider, anthropologically informed understanding that extends beyond the Western concept of fashion. The edited collection Dress Sense: Emotional and Sensory Experiences of the Body and Clothes (Johnson & Foster, 2007) that resulted from the symposium then marked a turning point towards a wider recognition of multi-sensory perspectives in fashion research. DESIGN ETHNOGRAPHY AND THE SENSES The developments described above fall into the wider context of what has been described as sensory turn in humanities and social sciences (Howes, 2005), now contained under the umbrella of sensory studies, that apply “cultural approach to the study of the senses and a sensory approach to the study of culture” (Howes, 2013). The formation of the discipline initially relied on research in history and anthropology and was inspired by a rising interest in sensory experiences, an element of culture that had been previously largely denigrated in the West as a lower form of perception (Howes, 2005). The key contributions to the field include the work of David Howes (see e.g. 1991, 2005, 2013, 2014, 2018) and Constance Classen (see e.g. 1993, 2005; Howes & Classen, 2014), both members of now the well-established Concordia Sensoria Research Team at Concordia University, Montreal. Of special relevance to my study, however, is the work of the anthropologist Sarah Pink, whose research has been pivotal in introducing sensory approaches to design ethnography. Pink (2015 [2009]) argues that embracing the multi-sensory character of perception can provide invaluable 118 insights for those planning social or design interventions for improving the everyday experience of products or services (p. 21). While our attention frequently focuses on one sense over others, it is important to realize their mutual interdependence, she highlights (2015 [2009]). As I noted earlier, fashion tends to give priority to sight. Yet, on a closer inspection, there is a lot more to be accounted for when it comes to daily use and appreciation of the clothes we wear. The choice of materials and fastenings, for instance, deserve a special attention in this respect. This is well illustrated on an example from my designer-maker practice, when a client who commissioned an outfit for a summer party told me that there was nothing she disliked more in her clothes than the feel of a cold metal zip next to her skin. Another client once declined a material that I recommended for a day dress because she felt she would soon come to dislike the sound it was making as she walked. Similarly, novelist Descain, interviewed for the collection Women in Clothes (Heti, Julavits & Shapton,2014), also refers to the sound of materials: (…) starched clothes also sound so different. I once interviewed weavers in different parts of India, and they were telling me how important the sound of silk is. If two women are going through a door together, and they rub saris, they should make a kssshh. They complained that cheap Chinese silks are flooding the market. They don’t have the right sound. It should be rustling. (p. 40) The role of sound in dress has been famously studied by Eicher in her anthropological accounts of tribal beads in Africa (Sciama & Eicher, 1998). Further references to sonic perceptions then occur in several contributions to the above-mentioned edited collection Dress Sense (2007), most explicitly in the study by Linda Welters who explored the significance of sound in daily use of Greek folk dress (2007). However, accounts of sonic perceptions linked to wearing contemporary Western dress are still scarce. The recent doctoral thesis of Chong Kwan (2016), exploring perceptions of Western dress in relation to all five senses (sight, touch, sound, smell and taste) is therefore a notable contribution to this emerging area of research. It is also worth noting though that Chong Kwan’s adoption of Roach Higgins & Eicher’s wider definition of “dress” [see Chapter 1.2, p. 27] expanded the area of her sensory explorations beyond clothing to all kinds of accessories, jewellery, shoes, scent and cosmetics. 119 In comparison to sound, then, tactile experiences of clothing perceived through the touch and feel of materials tend to be more often recognised for their significance in everyday use experiences. Buckley and Clarke (2017), for example, propose that the tactile experiences of wearing rayon in the 1930s denoted the era and shaped what they call the “everyday modernity” (p. 8-9). The same could be argued in connection to the tactile perceptions of wearing denim in the 1950s, or the 1960s impressions of wearing synthetic fibres such as acrylic, nylon or Spandex. The materials that soften through wear and become a “second skin” are yet another compelling example of how the tactile nature of textiles becomes integral to our perception of the clothes we wear (see e.g. Solomon, 1986; Miller & Woodward, 2011, 2012; Chapman, 2015 [2005]). Olfactory experiences that get mentioned especially in connection to laundry practices (Pink, 2005; Laitala, Klepp & Boks, 2012; Pink, Mackley & Moroşanu, 2013; Rigby, 2016; Chong Kwan, 2016) also confirm that clothing is perceived through multiple sensory channels. For example, in their study of domestic laundering, Pink, Mackley & Moroşanu (2013) observed that people would often reassure themselves in the need to launder a particular piece by smelling it. Pink (2015 [2009]) also comments that this move is almost subconscious and so it can be difficult to detect through traditional interviewing methods, especially in cases when interviews take place outside the domestic environment, because people are unlikely to recall similar routine practices without replaying the situation in context. Another example of the strong link between smell and laundering comes from Fletcher’s Craft of Use (2016) where one of the participants mentions his camping jumper which he has never washed because he does not want it to “lose its fantastic smell - a mix of fresh air and wood smoke” (p. 157). Similarly, one of the women interviewed by Heti, Julavits & Shapton (2014) talks about a wax-covered coat that reminds her of Scotland as “it smells of outdoors and sheep and rain, rain, lots and lots of rain, and black coffee” (p. 390). All these examples evidence that whether or not we are aware of it, our relationships with the clothes we wear are constantly filtered through multiple senses. Importantly in the context of my thesis, Woodward also argues that it is the tactile and sensual impressions that make memories linked to clothing especially poignant (2007, p. 52). Her point that “reducing clothing to its visual properties ignores the crucial tactile and sensual aspects of clothing as worn by people” (2007, p. 27) therefore strongly resonates in the framing of my research. 120 SENSORY METHODOLOGY The methodological significance of all these discoveries for my study is in that they clearly denote the importance of complementing the listening to what women say about their clothes by carefully observing how they touch and otherwise handle them. At this point, it also feels important to remind the reader a link back to the Prologue of this thesis [p. 13], where I described how a strong first impression of a woman folding her clothes into a suitcase seemed to hold a striking richness of information, reflecting a sensibility that in many ways inspired this research journey. If we now return to the research of Sarah Pink, her numerous applied projects (see e.g. Pink 2005; Pink, 2011; Pink, 2012b; Pink et al., 2013) demonstrate that employing sensory perspectives in fieldwork can contribute valuable insights on how everyday products and services are experienced. As she explains: A methodology based in and a commitment to understanding the senses provides a route to forms of knowledge and knowing not accounted for in conventional forms of ethnography. It often leads us to the normally not spoken, the invisible and the unexpected - those things that people do not perhaps necessarily think it would be worth mentioning, or those things that tend to be felt or sensed rather than spoken about. (2015, p. 53) In a similar vein, Klepp & Bjerck (2014) confirm that experiences connected to clothing are not always easily verbalized and often assume a tacit understanding (p. 374). The suitability of sensory approaches to the study of clothing was also confirmed through the previously mentioned doctoral study of Chong Kwan (2016), who also strongly relied on Pink’s methodology. Moreover, her study focused on the under-researched area of everyday items, which is also highly relevant in the context of my research. There are indeed multiple overlaps between Chong Kwan’s work and my research, and these provide an important point of reference in the discussions of my findings [see Chapter 6.2 – 6.5, pp. 173 – 244]. Yet, there are also notable differences between her approach and my study. Firstly, Chong Kwan’s research focused on wearers’ embodied experiences and was not primarily directed towards design practice. Instead, she aimed to address the gap in knowledge on sensory experiences within the area of dress studies, as well as the lack of focus on dress within the discipline of sensory studies. 121 Secondly, while her methodology, like mine, was informed by Pink’s sensory methods, Chong Kwan’s primary research consisted of a series of semi-structured interviews most of which did not take place in participants’ homes but rather in spaces especially hired for this purpose. As a result, her interviews focused on a smaller number of pre-selected items. Thirdly, while my study sample consisted of mature women (my participants were aged 29-69), Chong Kwan’s participants were recruited from a wider age group (20-79) and included both men and women. To reiterate then, in my research I set out to explore how women’s sensory engagement with their clothes figured in their relationships with individual items and how these relationships could inform the creative practice of designers who wish to design for continuity (Skjold, 2014) and increased user satisfaction (Niinimäki, 2014). The research process of my wardrobe conversations was strongly shaped by Pink’s work on sensory ethnography (2015 [2009]), my previous experiences from my designer-maker practice, and my own background in ethnography. My approach also reflected Norman’s (2004) argument that look and feel in perception of design (visceral level) often precede considerations of how things work (behavioural level) and how they link to our self-image and memories (reflective level). As I explained in more detail in Chapters 3.5 and 4.1 [p. 80 and p. 99], both theory and practice equally underpinned my enquiry, albeit one or the other may have taken a stronger lead at different stages of the research. CHAPTER SUMMARY This chapter, divided into four sections detailed the methodology I chose to address the aims and objectives of my research. In the first part, I clarified that the philosophy of my research was led by an interpretivist approach which most adequately reflects the complexity and the nuanced character of everyday experiences with clothing. I also made clear that my overall approach to this study was from a position of practitioner-researcher. The theoretical and empirical stages of my research were therefore accompanied by an independent design research that aimed to contribute to the final objective of articulating my findings through a series of fashion artefacts. In addition, I explained that in the course of my research it emerged that the empirical stage along with a detailed analysis should be prioritized over designing a larger series of new garments, as originally intended. Section two first pointed to some important methodological challenges of studying the lived experience of emotional connections to clothing. Later, I explained how my methodological 122 approach stemmed from the combination of my past designer-maker experience and my background in ethnography. I detailed how the work of the anthropologists Robert Murphy and Sarah Pink shaped my recognition that integrating ethnographic methods in interviewing involves a process of knowledge co-creation. I also outlined the implications of this approach on reflexivity and on the ethical considerations in both field research and knowledge articulation. The section concluded with an overview of the wardrobe method where I specified how my methods of studying women’s experiences with clothing in the context of home environment aligned and differed from previous studies. The third section introduced the key empirical evidence with respect to factors that affect emotional attachment to clothing. Studies by both anthropologists and fashion and textile researchers were included and the discussion of contributions and limitations of each study also noted their respective relevance and implications for my own research. The fourth and final section of this chapter pointed to the specifics of my interest in enhancing the current understanding of emotional connections to clothing. I highlighted the significance of multisensory approaches to studying women’s relationships to clothes, while referring to previous fashion research, my own designer-maker practice and especially to Sarah Pink’s sensory methodology that I experimented with in my fieldwork. Chapter 5 will now explain the process of my fieldwork and data analysis. 123 5 WARDROBE CONVERSATIONS Entering the private space Opening wardrobes Understanding wardrobes 124 In this chapter, divided into three sections, I summarize the process of my fieldwork and data analysis. I first explain the methodological and ethical issues I considered, then outline the preparation I went through before entering the field and I reflect on how my presence in my interviewees’ homes shaped the character of my interviews. I also show how the first interview served to inform the rest of my fieldwork. In section two I expand on my overall approach to the fieldwork; I describe how my previous contact with some of my interviewees strengthened this study and I also discuss how the process of establishing rapport was negotiated in the intimacy of the home environment. Later, I reflect on my role in the field and how my contributions and interventions shaped the direction and scope of my interviewees’ narratives. Section three focuses on four key stages of my data analysis: 1. Transcription, 2. Wall printouts and wardrobe narratives, 3. Codes, themes, and categories and 4. Sketchbook reflections and selections for final designs. ENTERING THE PRIVATE SPACE In the previous chapter I detailed my overall methodology and discussed the key concepts and research methods that framed my fieldwork. In addition to these, the way I approached interviewing women about their wardrobes was crucially inspired by a question from a Q&A session at the 10th Design and Emotion Conference I attended in Amsterdam in September 2016. “Do you think asking people why they love something is the best way of finding out why they love something?”, one discussant asked. At the time, I was considering a variety of possible approaches to my fieldwork and so the question truly resonated with me. It seemed to capture, I thought, the essence of the challenges inherent in studying the elusive concept of emotional durability. As a result, I decided not to impose any hard and fast structure on my interviews. Considering that the main purpose of my fieldwork was to gain a deep insight into women’s experiences and their attitudes towards emotional durability and longevity of clothing, I wanted to avoid, as much as possible, pre-framing their answers in any way. I therefore chose to focus on what women wanted to tell me, an approach that corresponds with narrative perspectives that aim to avoid “rigidly structured research interviews, which can artificially fragment individual’s experiences” (Elliott, 2005, p. 36). In practice then, my interview schedules [see Appendix C, p. 525] served only as a mental reminder in case prompts and additional questions were needed during the interview. 125 I always kept them in my bag, mainly for my own comfort, but I never took them out or shared them in any way with my interviewees. This way of approaching my fieldwork helped me to refocus on the interconnection between the theoretical and the practical elements of my project. A narrative approach reflected much more closely my previous experiences of visiting the clients of my studio [as described in Chapters 1.1 and 4.2, p. 24 and p. 102]. The links between my research and my practice suddenly became much clearer again and so I found my own voice within and beyond the scope of existing approaches to ethnographic work at large, as well as to wardrobe studies as a more specific category of ethnographic fieldwork. Fieldwork planning - access to participants and sampling My decisions on sampling and access to participants aimed to strike the right balance between the research aims and objectives and the ethical considerations connected to interviewing women in their homes. The two primary concerns were in negotiating the privacy boundaries while entering women’s properties and at the same time mitigating any potential safety risks for myself as a female researcher researching on my own. Another key element of fieldwork planning stemmed from the fact that establishing close rapport between the researcher and the research participants is paramount for studies that take place in the intimate spaces of participants’ homes, and more specifically in their bedrooms where wardrobes are normally located. In the view of these concerns, I identified snowball sampling and word of mouth as the most suitable sampling methods for my research. The advantage of snowball sampling is that participants are often more willing to take part if they know someone who has already participated and enjoyed the experience (Given, 2008). In addition, this approach also ensures that researchers only enter research situations with people with whom they had had previous contact through common acquaintances, thus mitigating potential safety risks when entering a stranger’s property (Ibid). As my practice has been integral to the research process, in the initial stages I approached several clients of my studio, who kindly agreed to be interviewed (Hanka (Worcestershire, January 2017), Julie (Oxfordshire, March 2017) and Tanya (London, April 2017). I also expected that these contacts could act as ‘gatekeepers’ who could potentially introduce me to more interviewees. However, for 126 a number of reasons, such as for example timing (one potential interviewee contacted by Julie was in the process of moving abroad), or the time commitment needed (another considered by Hanka would struggle to find the time needed for the interview) this did not develop further. Nevertheless, the sample later grew organically, through both my later interviewees (Kathryn introduced me to her friend Anabelle) and further contacts I acquired through my personal contacts and social networks. Although I had no predefined parameters for the participants, apart from that they were women with no fashion background and willing to invest time in my research, my initial hypothesis was that interviewing mature women would provide richer material for my study. This hypothesis was confirmed by the early interviews with the clients of my studio and so it consequently shaped the composition of the final sample. The early stages of my fieldwork also confirmed that to attain the richness and depth of the “thick description” (Geertz, 1973) I aimed for with my study, within the time constraints of doctoral research, the total number of studies would be at least eight but no more than twelve. This decision was additionally influenced by the fact that women of the age group I chose to focus on generally lead busy lifestyles with full-time work or childcare and often both. This meant that I had to be quite flexible in terms of timing of each interview as some women who agreed to take part later had to reschedule several times due other commitments. For the same reasons, interviews planned with two other participants did not take place in the end. The final sample therefore included ten participants. Between December 2016 and April 2018, I interviewed women aged 29-69 in their homes in London (1), Oxfordshire (1), Berkshire (2), Worcestershire (1), Sheffield (1), Kirklees (3) and Leeds (1). As the focus of my research was not on consumption patterns as such but rather on women’s experiences from the use stage of clothing, geography factors were not considered key determinants for participation. Equally, although all women were UK residents at the time of my fieldwork, the composition of the final sample included women from a variety of ethnic backgrounds. Due to circumstances likely influenced by the sampling methods which relied on contacts from my designer practice and my own social networks, all women I interviewed were graduates who have or previously had professional careers. 127 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS Informed consent Once access was established, I offered each woman an introductory meeting to explain the purpose of my research, how results will be used, the time commitment involved and to clarify that consent to use audio-recordings and photography during the interview will be needed. However, participants mostly considered this unnecessary and an e-mail explanation with an opportunity to ask questions and clarify any details proved sufficient and less time-consuming for both sides. A copy of the Information for Participants and the Informed Consent forms [see Appendix F, p. 562] was also sent by e-mail at this stage. To make sure that each of my interviewees felt entirely comfortable, I took the opportunity to re-explain the whole research process again in person at the beginning of each interview. I allowed enough time for each woman to re-read the Information for Participants, the Informed Consent form and to ask any questions or address any concerns off record. Each participant was reminded of her right to withdraw from the study at any point without giving a reason. They were also informed that ahead of any dissemination of the results, they will be given a copy of their interview transcripts and photographs for approval. If no further clarification was needed, the forms were signed, and audio-recording started. Confidentiality, Anonymity, Harm Due to the fact that the interview process included audio-visual data, during the initial meeting and ahead of each interview participants were reminded to try to avoid information that they would not wish to be used in the research outputs (e.g. avoid using surnames). Only anonymised first names of participants are used in this thesis. Initially, I aimed to give my interviewees the option of choosing a pseudonym they would feel comfortable with. However, apart from Golraz [pseudonym], my interviewees felt that this task involved extra time and energy and they generally found this issue unnecessary. Therefore, the decision was left to me. In the process of selecting the pseudonyms, I aimed to choose names that would retain a faithful picture of each woman by adequately reflecting her age, social standing, and ethnic origin. Pseudonyms were also used for any other persons mentioned during the interview (such as e.g. partners or friends). 128 However, some of the nuances involved in this process surprised me. I found that although I had no problems with choosing pseudonyms for my Slovakian and other international participants, these decisions felt much more complex when it came to my British interviewees. In the discussions with my advisers I found that although I had lived in the UK for last nine years, it was quite difficult for me to adequately gage the class and age connotations of female first names. For example, I was told that the name Jade which I assigned to one of my interviewees was more likely to be associated with a working class background and so did not suit this woman with a middle-class upbringing. Therefore, the names I chose in the end are a result of a consensus between my British advisers and myself. Other personal data such as age, occupation, geographical area, and family situation, providing context of each participant’s situation, were not anonymised. All my interviewees were given an option to opt for full anonymisation, none of them however did so. The possibility that this research could lead to any level of psychological harm or any other negative consequences for the participants was minimal. The in-depth interviews focused on items in women’s wardrobes and while some of these were tied with memories of significant events from the past, emotional situations that could be considered harmful to either the women I interviewed or myself did not occur during the research. However, a strategy for sensitive situations was a part of my fieldwork planning and it was described in more detail in my Ethics approval application. Several types of data were collected for this research and the overview of each type of data and how it has been or will be used is explained in the summary below. All this information was also included in the Information for Participants [see Appendix F.1, p. 563]. 1. Contact details (phone number, address, and e-mail address) Strictly confidential and never disclosed to anyone. 2. Some personal details (age, occupation, geographical area, and family situation) Used in my research outputs. Surnames will never be used, and first names were replaced by pseudonyms. 129 3. Audio recordings of interviews Shared only (if/when necessary) with the project supervisors who agreed to preserve the confidentiality of all the information. Audio recordings will not, at any point of the research, be shared beyond the supervisory team. 4. Selected parts of interview transcripts Used in my research outputs. Each participant was given a copy of her transcribed interview for approval prior to any publication or dissemination. 5. Photographs of participants taken during the interviews and photographs of the clothes discussed during interviews Used in my research outputs. Each participant was given an opportunity to withdraw any images that she did not wish to be included. STARTING THE INTERVIEW PROCESS Entering the private space The interviews mostly took place at times when other family members or flatmates were away, to minimize distractions and to enable both my interviewees and me a maximum concentration on the task at hand. For the same reasons, at the time of planning, each woman was told that the interview would take between two to three hours, to make sure our conversation was scheduled for a time when we could take as much time as comfortably needed. Although this quite generous chunk of time was allowed for each conversation, the first interview with Golraz in December 2016 suggested that a shorter session might be more appropriate. After just under one and a half hour of a lively conversation, Golraz generously taking out pieces from her wardrobe and reminiscing about their history and her relationship to each, laying them out on her bed and sofa for me, I started feeling that she was getting slightly distracted and possibly a bit tired of the conversation. After a short coffee break during which she answered several e-mails, allowing the time for me to photograph 130 each of the items we talked about, our conversation continued for another half an hour with a renewed interest and enthusiasm. Similarly, in nearly all subsequent interviews, about one hour and twenty minutes into the conversation, my interviewees started losing concentration, which seemed to be caused by a combination of fatigue and a concern that they might be talking too much or boring me with lengthy stories of their clothes. At this stage of the interview, more prompting from my side seemed welcome by women, giving me the opportunity to ask any questions that had not yet been answered in the previous conversation. Only in one case the conversation continued beyond this point with an uninterrupted intensity (Mary, recordings 1hr47mins; 52mins; 26mins; 1min). The length of each interview was also influenced by a variety of individual factors such as the volume of clothing owned, the level of detail that each participant considered appropriate for the interview, or even the speech rate of each of my interviewees. In this context, the length of each transcript offers a more accurate account of the duration of each interview [see Table 5.1, p. 139]. Pilot study Although the initial study with Golraz was originally intended as a pilot study, our conversation proved that the overall approach I chose to the interview process was appropriate for my study and so the interview with Golraz was included in my main data. At the same time, the study with Golraz informed the subsequent interviews in several ways. Firstly, as I have already mentioned above, talking to Golraz made me better aware of the timeframe for each interview and the situations I may need to negotiate to achieve the breadth and the depth of the data I aimed for. Secondly, this interview led to my decision to safeguard as much information as possible about the aims of my research prior to each interview (within the scope of relevant research ethics procedures) in order to avoid a bias resulting from participant expectations. Golraz, like me, was a doctoral student and I initially approached her because she attended a presentation of my research and showed an interest in the topic. However, during the verbatim transcription of our interview, I noticed that some of the language she used to talk about her wardrobe may have been influenced by her previous knowledge of my research. Golraz quite frequently used terms such as ‘emotional attachment’ or ‘favourites’, and without any prompting from my side claimed that if it were not for the fluctuations in her weight, she would like to have as few clothes as possible. 131 Although I did not feel that this fact devalued the research data in any considerable way (the effects of the bias were evaluated with caution during the data analysis), it was clear to me that similar situations should be avoided in the future. Another consideration raised by the first interview was linked to the camera I used. Prior to interviewing Golraz I borrowed an SLR camera (Nikon D90) from the university. While Golraz seemed to have no issues with her clothes or herself being photographed and she even readily volunteered to be captured in her favourite garments, I felt that the presence of this quite robust device was disrupting the intimacy that was critical for a rich conversation. Moreover, I found that handling this large and quite heavy camera for the whole duration of the interview was both challenging and impractical as it was difficult for me to flexibly interact with Golraz who repeatedly asked me to touch or handle some of the garments she was showing me. As a result,, I decided to use my personal compact camera (Fujifilm X10) in the subsequent interviews. Lastly, following my experiences from the first two interviews (Golraz and Hanka), I decided not to photograph each garment and its details in a static way, outside the interview context. As I mentioned earlier, a short pause in my conversation with Golraz gave me the opportunity to inspect each item we had talked about in more detail and take photographs of the garments and their details by stretching them on the bed. I repeated the same in my following study with Hanka in January 2017, as I was given this chance while Hanka attended to her children. Being able to handle each garment, explore the details, look for marks of wear and take multiple images was no doubt enlightening in several ways. For example, the material signs of use both corroborated and enriched women’s verbal descriptions (Woodward, 2007). On careful reflection though, I resolved that the static garments, removed from the context of the wardrobe and their owners, lacked any sensuality and so conveyed an image which was directly opposite to my research intentions. In addition, photographing each garment separately proved to be quite time-consuming and therefore not practicable in most cases. Still more importantly, I felt that many women would find this too intrusive, especially in the case of the more ordinary, everyday garments (such as jeans and leisure wear), which tend to epitomize greater intimacy due to the frequency with which they are worn. 132 OPENING WARDROBES Starting my fieldwork by interviewing women I knew through my studio practice resolved the initial difficulties with establishing rapport with research participants. It also proved helpful in refining the interview process, as the mutual familiarity was also reflected in the amount of time I spent with these women. In two cases (Hanka and Tanya) I stayed overnight and in another (Julie) I stayed with the next-door neighbour. This allowed sufficient time for reflection on what works and what does not, without compromising the integrity of the research process. As Twigger-Holroyd (2013) also notes, locating my research in my established studio practice freed me from the usual business concerns and enabled me to spend more time talking to my clients and develop ideas further (p. 37). The fact that I had known these women for many years, enabled me to see our conversations in a temporal context, as a moment in time in the life of a wardrobe, and so identify the strengths of my approach, its limitations, and detect potential biases in the interview narratives. As Murphy (1990) points out, such approach often has “great methodological merit, for, unlike survey research, it allows the investigator to check statements of attitude and value against actual behaviour” (p. 175). This first phase of my empirical research also enabled me to consider the level and character of my input to the interview process, to refine questions for subsequent interviews and to further build on my interviewing skills. Not less importantly, the initial interviews with the clients of my studio also alerted me to some aspects of women’s narratives that may require a higher degree of caution at the stage of analysis. For example, women’s estimates of the length of ownership of various items as well as their statements on how often they wore certain pieces sometimes changed during the course of an interview. Also, some of these estimates were clearly highly subjective, which was interesting to observe in the framing of my research, considering that I aimed to focus on women’s own perceptions of the clothes they chose to talk about. As Lule & King (2016) note, the value of such narratives is not in their “intrinsic factual accuracy” (p. 451) but in the subjective meaning and personal interpretations that they help to unravel (Cameron, 2012; Elliott, 2005). One example here would be Tanya’s description of her favourite blue dress [Chapter 6.1, p. 161, Figure 6.5; Tanya’s narrative Appendix A.10, p. 498] which she told me she had had for about twenty five years. I later learned that the dress was by the British brand 133 Cabbages & Roses, founded in 2000,seventeen years before my interview with Tanya took place. This case well demonstrates why similar estimates should not be taken at face value and used outside the context of each narrative. This example also usefully highlights an important methodological issue inherent in similar studies, as also noted by Laitala, Klepp & Henry (2017). The experiences from my interviews confirm that unless an acquisition of a garment is associated with a significant event that is relatively easy to date (such as for example a holiday abroad or a special occasion such as wedding, graduation or a 50th birthday party), estimating the length of ownership of garments is more likely an exercise in approximation than an information with a factual reliability. Talking about wardrobes An important aspect of my preparation for each interview was considering my own self-presentation in terms of clothes that I chose to wear. As I was meeting women in their homes, I thought it was safe to assume that my interviewees’ style of dressing would be relatively informal, within each woman’s circumstances. I therefore aimed for a good balance between looking prepared and professional, but I consciously avoided a too polished look which I felt could reinforce the researcher - interviewee distance that I was eager to minimize. Sherman Heyl (2001) argues that ethnographic interviewing relies on a respectful relationship and rapport between the researcher and the interviewee, “for these to be a genuine exchange of views and enough time and openness in the interviews for the interviewees to explore purposefully with the researcher the meanings they place on events in their world” (p. 369). In line with this view, I strongly felt that my self-presentation would be an important contributing factor in setting the tone for the interview. My choice of clothing therefore also varied from situation to situation. For example, a Saturday morning interview on a smallholding in rural Yorkshire required a different outfit to a week-day meeting with a woman that had just returned from a day’s work in her managerial job in London. In addition, as the images throughout this thesis also illustrate, the outfits women chose to wear for their interviews were without an exception very casual. The fact that my interviewees seemed not to have invested extra effort into dressing for the occasion was to me the first indication that they felt relaxed and open to our conversation. This, in turn, also helped me to approach the interview in a relaxed manner that relied more on a mutual exchange and conversation, rather than on a more standard interviewer-interviewee hierarchy. 134 Introductions Upon my arrival at a woman’s place, I was usually offered a hot drink. This provided an opportunity for an informal warm-up chat which normally took place either in the kitchen or in the sitting room. During this time, I could answer any remaining questions about the research and the interview itself and clarify again how the recordings and photographs will be used. The Informed Consent forms were also signed at this point. After about fifteen minutes of such introductions, my interviewees usually spontaneously offered to show me their wardrobes. This involved moving from the social space of the kitchen or the sitting room to the areas of home normally designated to the closest family and friends only. In the context of the interview, this spatial transition within the home was a key move. An invitation to my interviewee’s bedroom, spare room, bathroom or even their children’s bedroom, where their clothes were stored, was both a symbolic and an actual demonstration of mutual trust. This moment, I often noticed, was almost invariably accompanied by a sudden change of register in our conversation from the still relatively formal researcher - interviewee interaction, to a much more casual and relaxed discussion about clothes between two women. Interestingly, I have often observed similar transitions when visiting my clients. The business proposition inevitably linked with the dressmaker-client relationship, usually discussed in my client’s kitchen or an open living space, tends to quickly transform to a peer-to-peer conversation about likes, dislikes, dreams and experiences the moment the discussion moves in front of the wardrobe, in my client’s bedroom. Woodward similarly notes that interviewing women in the intimate spaces where their wardrobes were located enabled her to establish “instant rapport” which meant that she got to know her informants “from the clothing outwards” (2007, p. 75). Recording conversations To minimize any awkward moments that sometimes occur when the transition to a recorded conversation is too abrupt, I aimed to turn the recording on as soon as possible after my interviewee signed the Informed Consent form. For the same reason, I used a discrete dictaphone with a good distance range and an efficient ambient noise filter. I also had my mobile phone on hand as a backup in case of any technical issues with the recorder or the camera. This turned out extremely helpful especially during my conversation with Mary, who approached the interview process extremely systematically, aiming to show me the whole of her extensive collection of clothing. During this time, 135 my fully charged camera run out of battery and I also run out of the recording space on my dictaphone, so having the telephone back up enabled us to continue without any interruption. Once the recorder was on, I just simply asked women to talk about the clothes in their wardrobes, especially those they have owned for some time. Where necessary, I guided them to pay attention to the length of ownership of each item, how it was acquired, if it was still worn and what they liked or disliked about it [see the Interview Schedules, Appendix C, p. 525]. In cases when warm-up prompts were needed to start the flow of the conversation, I asked women to show me the newest addition to their wardrobe. I assumed that talking about a new item, a piece that women may still feel excited about, would be a good ‘icebreaker’. This proved to be correct and after this initial question, very little prompting was usually needed for women to select and talk about the rest of their clothes quite independently. The direction of the interview was then mainly led by my interviewees and I left any questions that remained unanswered during our conversation to the end of the interview. Photographing conversations As women started talking, I asked for additional verbal approval before I started photographing. Although I explained that the main focus of my photographs will be on their hands and the ways in which clothes are handled, most women quite happily posed for images that included their heads and some even offered to pose in the items they were showing me. Interestingly, the items women volunteered to be photographed in were typically their favourite clothes. Also noteworthy in this context is the fact that during the course of ten interviews, there were only two instances when I was asked not to take photographs. In both cases this happened in a situation when my interviewees were trying on a piece they did not feel sure about. Don’t take a photo, I don’t feel good in it, Hanka told me. When the photographs were later sent to the women for approval, out of the overall of 2778 photos I had taken, I was asked to remove only one image, with the explanation that my interviewee looked particularly despondent in that one. Sharing knowledge Pink (2015) notes that there is now an increasing recognition of the “need to investigate both the emplacement of the people who participate in our ethnographic research and ethnographers’ own 136 emplacement as individuals in and as part of specific research contexts.” (p. 28). As my interviews with women progressed, they almost invariably transformed into conversations with mutual exchange of experiences and memories related to clothing. In an early example of reflexive approaches to empirical research, with a strong emphasis on the relationship between the interviewer and the interviewee, Oakley (1990 [1981]) points out that she was not the only one asking questions in her research. The women she was interviewing also seemed to have a number of questions to ask her and so she decided to step away from the role of a detached researcher. As she explains: (…) the goal of finding out about people through interviewing is best achieved when the relationship of interviewer and interviewee is non-hierarchical and when the interviewer is prepared to invest his or her own identity in the relationship. (Ibid, p. 41). Similarly, Woodward (2007) also mentions situations when sharing her own experiences helped to build closer relationship with her participants and enriched the stories shared. This is particularly important given the intimate nature of my enquiries. For example, many women, whilst willing to show me their hanging clothing, were far more reticent when it came to discussing underwear. My tactic was to share some anecdote of my own, which more often than not serves to acquire information in return and establishes an intimacy. (p. 78) In line with the points made by Oakley and Woodward, I too found that contributing my own story often reminded my interviewees of related experiences and so helped them elaborate on a number of issues in much more detail than they may have otherwise done. This was especially significant in my interview with Tanya, when the memories of my own prom dress triggered a series of recollections from her past that were not only extremely touching, but also, as it later turned out, critical in shaping her future relationship to fashion and clothes. In addition to this, my combined role of dressmaker-researcher was reflected in the fact that it was quite common for women to ask me for advice on styling, clothes shopping, care and repair and in a couple of cases also for tips for their planned sewing projects. To give some examples, I explained 137 to Golraz that her frustration with one leg of her jeans that keeps rotating as she walks had nothing to do with her physique but rather with the fact that it was not cut straight on the grain as it should have been. I advised to Hanka how best to fold her favourite coat when she puts it away to protect it from moths and I also gave some styling tips to Julie who repeatedly mentioned that one of her key issues with clothes is not having the imagination to experiment with combinations and different ways of wearing things. I impressed Mary by spotting an invisible repair on one of her favourite cardigans from a distance and explained to Emma how she can easily line a skirt that she likes but does not wear often enough because it is really crappily made. As a practitioner, I was also able to explore and photograph most garments in more detail, as this was generally perceived by women as my professional interest in construction details rather than intrusive researcher curiosity, an issue Woodward (2007), for example, encountered. Research data Table 5.1 (below) offers an overview of all interviews and Table 5.2 [p. 140] gives details of the number of garments discussed with each woman, also sub-divided into categories. The final data I collected for each woman includes: 1. Audio recording of the interview 2. Verbatim transcript of the interview 3. Photographs taken during the interview 4. My observations noted after each interview 5. General field notes 6. Analytical notes from different stages of the research 138 Name Interview Word count Double Number Number of duration of spaced of photos garments transcript pages Age Place of interview discussed Golraz 2hrs 30min 16.285 47 286 20 29 Kirklees Hanka 2hrs 50min 20.275 62 382 48 38 Worcestershire Julie 1hr 20mins 10.110 33 109 20 57 Oxfordshire Tanya 2hrs 12.508 42 258 30 69 London Louise 1hr 45mins 20.322 60 308 56 30 Kirklees Emma 1hr 30mins 13.546 40 158 28 45 Kirklees Kathryn 1hr 30mins 13.549 42 231 34 53 Berkshire Anabelle 2hrs 19.509 70 266 71 50 Berkshire Mary 3hrs 24.727 85 622 115 45 Sheffield Nicola 1hr 30mins 14.239 38 161 29 32 Leeds Totals 19hrs 165.070 519 2778 451 55mins Table 5.1 Overview of interviews 139 Name Skirts Dresses Knitwear Tops/ Trousers/ Jackets/ Coats/ Accessories/ Sportswear/ Shirts/ Shorts Blazers/ Outerwear Scarves/ Loungewear T-shirts Suits Nightwear Underwear Shawls Golraz 2 4 2 - 2 3 5 2 - - - Hanka 5 20 6 4 1 - 5 7 - - - Julie - 10 5 2 - 2 1 - - - - Tanya 8 8 3 - - 3 - 5 - 3 - Louise 10 17 1 11 7 3 1 2 1 2 1 Emma 5 6 - 8 5 4 - - - - - Kathryn 3 6 5 4 2 - 4 6 3 1 - Anabelle 24 21 8 6 3 4 1 - 3 - - Mary 12 30 22 17 4 23 5 2 - - - Nicola 2 9 4 6 5 2 1 - - - - Totals 71 131 56 58 29 44 23 24 7 6 1 450 Garments Total 140 Table 5.2 Overview of garments discussed with each woman UNDERSTANDING WARDROBES - THE PROCESS OF ANALYSIS ITERATIVE ANALYSIS Analysis in ethnography is an iterative process (LeCompte & Schensul, 2010 [1999]), it does not simply follow the field research, rather, it both accompanies and informs the data collection (Schensul, Schensul & LeCompte, 1999; Brewer, 2000; Huberman & Miles, 1998). In addition, as Pink (2015) notes, in sensory ethnography the analysis typically “moves between different registers of engagement with research materials and between different materials” and it also involves “analysing the same materials in different ways” (p. 158). In the light of this, the structure of this section does not necessarily reflect a neat chronological order in which all the different materials I collected during my interviews were analysed. Instead, it captures the key stages in my analysis process. James Clifford notes that “living does not easily organize itself into a continuous narrative” (1986, p. 106). The same applies in research, especially research that attempts to capture narratives of everyday experiences, as also highlighted by Elliott (2005): (…) once we become aware that when the subjects of our research provide us with narratives, they are not merely reporting their experiences but rather are engaged in an activity that makes sense of those experiences, we are obliged to admit that our own research narratives are also constructed. Research is frequently a frustrating and messy enterprise with false starts, and blind alleys to negotiate, but in published work it is more often presented as a logical progression of stages. (p. 154) Taking these points into account, in the process of my analysis some tasks inevitably preceded others, as for example in the case of transcription, a prerequisite for coding. Similarly, analysing each individual case was first needed before I could proceed to cross-case comparisons. However, other stages often overlapped and so gradually informed each other. For example, the photographs I took during the interviews were not analysed separately, in a single step, but were used in conjunction with my recordings, transcripts and field notes at different points throughout the process. For 141 instance, when used in sequence with my interview recordings, the photographs enabled me to recall each conversation in detail and so also contributed to my analytical notes. In addition, throughout the three years of my research I collected inspirational materials from exhibitions, travels, web and the printed media, including photographs, articles, fabric swatches, patterns or textile fragments and I slowly added these to my studio inspiration board [Figure 5.1]. The board was important, as it served as a tangible reminder of the key ideas linked to the research. It also facilitated reflection at various stages of the project. Through arranging and re-arranging the collected materials, the studio board helped me to think about the hierarchies and relationships of various concepts as they emerged from the research. In the final stages of my analysis, I selected materials from the board and used them in conjunction with my interview photographs and documentation of my studio experiments to both facilitate and document my thinking about the final artefacts in my sketchbooks [Figures 5.2 & 5.3]. Figure 5.1 Studio inspiration board in progress (Year 2) 142 Figure 5.2 Sketchbook experimentation - collating materials from the studio inspiration board with primary research materials Figure 5.3 Sketchbook experimentation - collating materials from the studio inspiration board with primary research materials 143 PAPER-BASED AND COMPUTER-BASED ANALYSIS I also combined paper-based and computer-based methods at different stages of the analysis process. Given the philosophical and epistemological underpinnings of my research [see Chapters 4.1 and 4.2, p. 99 and p.102] and the intimate nature of my contact with my interviewees, I found paper-based analysis more appropriate in the initial stages. I used paper copies of transcripts and selected photographs, hand-written notes, colour-coded post-it notes and highlighters which enabled me to familiarise myself with the data in great depth and in a more tactile and more sensual way than would have been possible by using purely computer-based approach. Nevertheless, a computer was of course essential for storing and organizing my data, transcribing recordings (using MS Word and the oTranscribe on-line transcription software), coding, collating, and cross-case comparisons in the later stages of analysis, using MS Excel. I considered using the NVivo software to aid the analysis process, however, I resolved that the tactile engagement with my data enabled by a combination of printed materials with Excel spreadsheets allowed me a closer control over the data and it also better suited my personal preferences as a researcher. The following sections offer an overview of the key stages of my data analysis. As an indication of the scope of analysis at different stages of the process, the information in brackets specifies the respective focus on case analysis, cross-case analysis, or the combination of both. 1. Transcription [case analysis] All interview recordings were transcribed verbatim. This required efficient data management as in addition to 2778 photos I had twenty hours of audio recordings that amounted to 165.000 words and 519 double spaced pages [Table 5.1, p. 139]. The decision to use verbatim transcription as opposed to other, more selective, approaches to transcribing audio data was made for three main reasons: 1. To capture the interview in its entirety, as a narrative of a moment in life of a woman and her wardrobe, including an unedited account of her own interpretations and values linked to clothing. 144 2. To enable a critical reflection on my own input in the interview process and the way this both contributed to and shaped the data collected during the interview. 3. To provide a tool for validation of my research findings available to other researchers and also to preserve the research data in ‘raw form’ that enables testing alternative approaches to analysis in the future. In the introduction of my approach to the interview process in Chapter 5.1 [p. 125] I mentioned Elliott’s (2005) point that social sciences have been turning away from interviews with rigid structure on the grounds that these may unnaturally fragment people’s lived experience (p. 36). Along the same lines, it is now widely recognized that transcription is a critical part of data analysis, rather than a dull, mechanical process that simply must be endured before the researcher can proceed to analysis (Pink, 2015; Silverman, 2014; O’Dell & Willim, 2013; Wengraf, 2001). The truth is that it is virtually impossible to transcribe an interview without losing some of the richness of human conversation, as any transcription is to a greater or lesser degree an editing process. However, Elliot (2005) argues that qualitative researchers should aim “to find a method for preserving some of the additional meaning that was conveyed by the speaker’s use of intonation, pauses, rhythm, hesitation, and body language” (p. 51), because all these can provide rich contextual information for the analysis. This is well illustrated in the following excerpt from one of my research interviews, in which Louise describes two unwanted gifts that she received from her mother-in-law: It’s just not my style so…I don’t know…so she gets me…yeah…this fluffy one…and another…very fluffy one I think…GOD….I’m so small (trying to reach it on the top shelf)…but yeah…THAT one…that ACTUALLY…now I’ve come to like (laugh)…when I’m poorly…but it is just the colour!…you know - it’s like…uhhh (making faces)…what this is like…(laughs) (Louise 243-246) The information I noted in brackets during the transcription not only helped me, as a researcher, to recall the moment with more accuracy in subsequent readings, but these extra details also provide useful clues for any future readers as they help to envisage the situation in much more lively terms. Moreover, this approach to transcribing enabled me to familiarize with my data in depth, which proved beneficial in consecutive stages of my analysis. 145 2. Wall printouts and wardrobe narratives [case analysis; cross-case analysis] Another important phase of my analysis was the iterative selection of key garments from each woman’s narrative. The photographs I took during the conversations were crucial at this stage as they allowed to reflect on each item in more detail after the interview. This was very helpful because examining every single garment is rarely practicable during interviews as it can be both too intrusive and extremely time-consuming (Woodward, 2007). Moreover, using the photographs in conjunction with the recordings, transcripts and my field notes again enabled me to recall and visualize the whole interview process in much more detail. As Pink comments, “a rich combination of written and visual representation can create possibilities for engaging them in mutual meaning making” (2007 [2001], p. 168). The fact that my photography focused on the ways in which women handled and otherwise engaged with the clothes they talked about further contributed to this process, as my images provided layers of non-verbal information that could not be captured on audio. The process of selection involved dividing the key garments from each interview in two categories. I identified those that women liked and those that they no longer seemed to be sure about or did not wear anymore for some reason. These selections were then printed out and displayed on my studio wall [Figure 5.4] with additional colour-coded information such as women’s statements about the liked garments (in vivo codes), the approximate length of ownership (if known), and in the case of garments that were no longer among the favourites, women’s statements about why this happened. The decision to include the latter reflected an approach in which identifying “negative instances - that is, where variables or items are unlike each other or contest the existing definition” (LeCompte & Schensul, 2010, p.172) is considered a valuable step in refining researcher’s understanding of the concepts and patterns emerging from the data. These printouts then covered the walls of my studio for the remainder of my research. Parallel to this process, I also selected those photographs of each women’s favourite garments which I felt best conveyed the narrative associated with them and I identified relevant sections of transcripts to accompany these images. The decisions I was making at each stage of this process helped me to gradually refine my thinking and develop clearer insights into the patterns emerging from each case as well as across the data. This part of my analysis corresponded with Alveson & Skoldberg’s (2018 [2000]) claim that understanding in qualitative research is often achieved “not by laborious pondering, but rather at a stroke, whereby patterns in complex wholes are illuminated 146 by a kind of mental flashlight, giving an immediate and complete overview” (p. 52). The analytical notes I was continuously taking [Figures 5.5-5.6] then enabled me to start work on the first drafts of case summaries in the form of wardrobe narratives, capturing the essence of each woman’s individual experience [Appendix A, p. 342]. A more detailed discussion of these wardrobe narratives, that are integral to my research methodology, is included in Chapter 6.1 [p. 166]. – A note on the presentation of findings. Figure 5.4 Garment selections from primary research displayed on my studio wall 147 Figure 5.5 Analytical notes from reading of transcripts and garment selections: example 1 Figure 5.6 Analytical notes from reading of transcripts and garment selections: example 2 148 3. Codes, themes and categories [case analysis, cross-case analysis] Coding is a process through which data is interpreted. It also facilitates transition between the data collection and later stages of data analysis (Saldaña, 2013, p. 4) Although coding is a crucial step in the analysis process, it is also important to note that coding and analysis are not synonymous. This is well captured in the metaphor that coding “generates the bones of your analysis…[I]ntegration will assemble those bones into a working skeleton” (Charmaz cited in Saldaña, 2013, p. 8). Due to the character of my enquiry and the objective of this stage of my research, that sought insights into women’s experiences and their own interpretations of them, I used thematic coding for my interview transcripts. Thematic coding was appropriate for this purpose as it is flexible and not wedded to a pre-existing theoretical framework. Hence, it allows an inductive approach in which the themes and meanings emerge from the data (Robson, 2011; Saldaña, 2013). First tentative notes on codes were added to my transcripts as I was transcribing each interview. Later, I printed out all my transcripts with a double spacing to allow for notes and I also highlighted significant parts of conversations as I was re-reading them. At this stage, I also started adding preliminary codes in transcript margins. The next step involved dividing the transcripts into sections that reflected transitions between different topics in each conversation. These sections provided starting points for identifying those parts of the narrative that would get coded during the second and third round of coding. As I mentioned earlier, I combined hard copies with computer-based methods. This meant that the first round of coding was done on paper and later, when the key sections to be coded were much more clearly defined, I proceeded to entering all the relevant sections in Excel worksheets. Working in Excel enabled me to make more accurate cross-case comparisons and so also helped in further refining of codes and categories for the final stage of coding [Figures 5.7-5.9]. 149 Figure 5.7 Refining codes and categories for the final stage of coding: example 1 Figure 5.8 Refining codes and categories for the final stage of coding: example 2 150 Figure 5.9 Refining codes and categories for the final stage of coding: example 3 Through iterative comparisons I then identified overlapping codes and those that lacked clear focus, merged and split all codes accordingly and started collating codes into hierarchical categories and preliminary themes [Figures 5.10 – 5.13]. Categories and themes were then further reviewed following the same iterative process [Figures 5.14 – 5.16]. Before I started the third and final round of coding in Excel, my coding frame was clearly defined and arranged in a hierarchy of 127 final codes organized under 28 categories that came under four themes [Appendix E.2, p. 556]. The four final themes that emerged from my data are reflected in the titles of Chapters 6.2 – 6.5, where I discuss the findings related to each theme in detail. The four final themes are also presented in the Emotionally Durable Clothing Model [Figure 6.7, p. 168]. 151 Figure 5.10 Collating codes into categories and preliminary themes: example 1 Figure 5.11 Collating codes into categories and preliminary themes: example 2 152 Figure 5.12 Collating codes into categories and preliminary themes: example 3 Figure 5.13 Collating codes into categories and preliminary themes: example 4 153 Figure 5.14 Iterative review of categories: example 1 Figure 5.15 Iterative review of categories: example 2 154 Figure 5.16 Iterative review of categories: example 3 4. Sketchbook reflections and selections for final designs [cross-case analysis] Once I identified the four final themes that emerged from my data, I revisited the photos from my interviews. The aim of this process was to once again explore how different sets of data I collected could be engaged in the “mutual meaning making” (Pink, 2007 [2001], p. 168). As I also explained earlier in this section, I had previously identified significant garments from each conversation through photographs and then accompanied them with relevant sections of transcripts. In the final stage of my analysis, I reversed this process and instead looked for images that best reflected the transcript excerpts coded under the final themes and categories that arose from the research. Like before, I first identified suitable images in the electronic files and then printed out my selection to refine it further as I was working on the sketchbook pages related to each theme [Figures 5.17 -5.18]. The photos from the interviews were thus used along with other inspirational materials that I collected throughout the research [Figure 5.1, p. 142] and documents of my previous studio experimentation to help refine my thinking about how each of the themes could be captured in a tangible way through an item of clothing [Figure 5.19]. 155 What also helped me in this process was annotating my research images with the excerpts from transcripts. In this way, I was able to retain a close connection with my research data and so avoid the risk of letting my imagination meander too far away from what women told me. The process behind the design and making of the final four garments that resulted from this stage of analysis will be detailed in Chapter 6.6 [p. 245], following on from the explanations of each of the four final themes: 1. Sensory experiences, 2. Enablers, 3. Longing and belonging, and 4. Layering in Chapters 6.2-6.5 [pp. 173 – 244]. Figure 5.17 Sketchbook selections for final themes: example 1 156 Figure 5.18 Sketchbook selections for final themes: example 2 Figure 5.19 Sketchbook page on the Layering theme - process 157 CHAPTER SUMMARY In this chapter I summarized the process of my fieldwork and data analysis. I explained the methodological and ethical issues I considered, the preparation I went through before my interviews and I also reflected on the ways in which my presence and contribution to my conversations with women shaped the character of this research and the data I collected. I also summarized how my pilot study informed my approach to the subsequent interviews. In section two I detailed my overall approach to the fieldwork, I described how my previous contact with some of the women enriched this study and I reflected on my experiences with establishing rapport with my interviewees. Section three then focused on explaining the process I went through as I analysed the data I collected and described the four main stages of my analysis in more detail. In the following chapters I proceed to discussing the findings of my research. 158 PART THREE 159 6 WARDROBE NARRATIVES Learning from the wardrobe Sensory experiences Enablers Longing and belonging Layering One Thing Collection 160 Chapter 6 summarizes the findings of my research and discusses their implications for extending emotional durability of clothing by design. For this end, the volume of the material presented is divided into four sections, each addressing one of the four empirical themes that emerged from the analysis of my wardrobe conversations – (1) Sensory experiences, (2) Enablers, (3) Longing and belonging and (4) Layering. Each thematic section is linked to the wardrobe narratives of those of my interviewees whose experiences in connection to the particular theme were especially pronounced [see the indications at the beginning of each section, with links to the narratives in Appendix A]. The aim of these wardrobe narratives is to capture, in women’s own words, what matters to them and why. The argument in all sections develops through a discussion of the key aspects of each theme as reflected across all the narratives, also addressing how my findings link to previous research. The introductory section of this chapter reflects on the methodology I adopted to fulfil my research aims and objectives and it also includes a note on my approach to the presentation of my research findings. The section also links back to the contextual review where I identified Norman’s (2004) concept of three level design as a key point of reference for my research [see Chapter 2.4, p. 51]. The Emotionally Durable Clothing Model presented here [Figure 6.7, p. 168] explains the mutual interdependence of the four empirical themes that emerged from my analysis. I here also clarify how my findings extend Norman’s concept in the context of fashion design and making. The concluding section of the chapter follows the process of making the One Thing Collection, understood as an absorption of this thesis. The purpose of my explorations over the three years of this study is manifested in the garments that I made in response to each of the empirical themes that emerged from my research. LEARNING FROM THE WARDROBE REFLECTIONS ON SENSORY METHODOLOGY 2 As I explained in detail in Chapter 5.3 [p. 141], my analysis started with verbatim transcription of the recordings, later followed by pairing of all transcripts with the photos taken during each interview. Arranging my research data in this way strongly highlighted how visual showing and women’s tactile 2 This section draws on a paper published in connection to this research: Burcikova (2017b) 161 engagement with clothing are inseparable from their verbal descriptions. This corresponds with Pink’s observation that our engagement with materials is often quite performative, which means that people tend to “stroke, feel, smell, visually show and as such engage sensorially” with things during interviews (2015 [2009], p. 127). Throughout my wardrobe conversations, such sensory interaction with clothing sometimes preceded any verbal descriptions, other times it accompanied women’s explanations. Most importantly though, on numerous occasions, touching, stroking, and examining garments in more detail clearly helped women to pin down what may have first seemed hard to put into words. For example, Figure 6.1 illustrates a situation in which Golraz, struggling to describe her difficulties with finding the perfect pair of trousers, suddenly came across a pair which helped her demonstrate her issues with inflexible fit. Figure 6.2 shows how facial expressions and the ways in which clothes are handled can make a deep satisfaction with a garment instantly explicit. Figure 6.1 Golraz demonstrating her issues with fit 162 Figure 6.2 Deep satisfaction with a garment demonstrated in facial expression (Hanka) A key secondary benefit of my methodology was that by listening to and observing what women wanted to show me, as opposed to asking them to pre-select clothes ahead of the interview, I got to hear not only about successful and loved garments but also about those that failed to satisfy. This was helpful in terms of offering further context for my research and enabling to cross-check and compare statements about both. What I found especially striking was noticing how the items that women liked would get repeatedly touched, and very often they would be held close to the body [see also Figure 6.2]. On several occasions, my interviewees also offered to put their favourite items on for me. In contrast to this, those clothes that “did not work” could be quite reliably recognized by the physical distance women would hold them at as they took them out of their wardrobes [Figure 6.3]. 163 Figure 6.3 “Unloved” garments held at a physical distance from the body My focus on photographing women’s hands and the ways in which they handled their clothes also drew my attention to little details that women would often point out to me with excitement – such as interesting buttons, stitching, necklines, linings or belts [see Figure 6.4]. These features could sometimes also be traces of personal stories linked with the piece and reminders of its longevity. Perhaps the best example here would be one of Tanya’s dresses that she has worn for nearly twenty years. Over this time, the dress became one of the key pieces in her wardrobe and she proudly explained to me how this long relationship is also reflected in a detail only known to her – the inside of the pocket [Figure 6.5; see also Tanya’s narrative in Appendix A.10; p. 498]. 164 Figure 6.4 Appreciated garment details Figure 6.5 A hidden detail as a trace of garment's long history Reflections on tactility of materials were also prominent in women’s descriptions. The hand of the fabric and its feel on the body were frequently commented on. Soft and light-weight materials were often linked to pleasurable use and the way women handled such items again complemented their statements. Julie, for example, showed me a top that she combines with jackets for work and while 165 explaining to me with great sense of satisfaction how comfortable it is to wear, she also handed the sleeve over to me to try its softness for myself [Figure 6.6]. Figure 6.6 Soft feel of fabric demonstrated by Julie All these observations confirmed that sensory approaches to wardrobe studies can offer helpful layers of information on subtle expressions of emotion and satisfaction that are hard to access through questionnaires and other purely verbal approaches to studying women’s relationships with clothes. In response to the question that first sparked my interest in other than verbal approaches to studying emotional responses to clothing [see Chapter 5.1, p. 125], they prove that asking people why they love something is not always the best way of finding out why they love something. In reflection on my own experience with sensory methodology, I can therefore fully subscribe to Pink’s claim that: A design-focused and future-oriented sensory ethnography approach has a key role to play in change processes and in what I would call future-making, precisely because it promises to bring to the fore the tacit, normally unspoken (about) ways of knowing and doing that are part of everyday life. [2015 [2009], p. 193] The four sub-chapters that follow, structured around the four empirical themes that resulted from my analysis, elaborate on how these rarely verbalized, and often entangled aspects of everyday 166 experiences with clothing make up the mosaic of emotional durability in women’s wardrobes. The discussion in each section is structured in a way that highlights the overarching issues linked to each theme, identifying the key areas of focus in relationship to clothing and emotional durability. Table 6.1 [p. 169] offers an overview of the four themes with their explanatory categories. Each section then opens with a visualisation of all the categories linked to the theme [see p. 173, p.193, p.211, p. 230]. For a more detailed breakdown of each theme, with categories and top layer codes, please see Appendix B.1-B.4 [pp. 518-524]. For the full coding book please see Appendix E.2 [p. 556]. The mutual interdependence of all four themes is presented in the Emotionally Durable Clothing Model on the following page. While my research findings in connection to the first three themes (1) Sensory experiences, (2) Enablers and (3) Longing and Belonging broadly correspond with the visceral, behavioural and reflective levels of Norman’s three level design [Figure 2.1, p. 55], the analysis of my wardrobe conversations extends Norman’s (2004) concept in two key respects. Firstly, while Norman’s concept was developed with a focus on product design, my research offers empirical evidence for extending its application to fashion design and making. Secondly, my research focus on garments in the context of whole wardrobes reveals that emotionally durability of individual items is often shaped in close relationship to other clothes and the ways in which such relationships change and develop over time. This aspect of emotional durability constitutes the fourth theme of Layering, that does not have a parallel in Norman’s concept. 167 SENSORY EXPERIENCES Perception of clothes through multiple senses; especially touch and vision LAYERING ENABLERS Relevance of clothes across life phases; relationships evolving over time Clothes as enablers of lifestyles; everyday practicality and appropriateness to circumstances LONGING and BELONGING Unspoken personal histories, childhood memories and family ties embedded in clothes we choose to wear Figure 6.7 The Emotionally Durable Clothing Model 168 SENSORY EXPERIENCES ENABLERS LONGING AND BELONGING LAYERING ASSOCIATIONS * APPROPRIATENESS ASSOCIATIONS * AGE COLOURS CARE CONNECTIONS LENGTH OF OWNERSHIP COMFORT * COMBINATIONS CLOTHES SHOPPING LETTING GO DETAILS COMFORT * INSPIRATIONS SPACE/STORAGE ISSUES FIT * FIT * PRICE TIME MATERIALS SATISFACTION SECOND-HAND CLOTHES WARDROBE STORIES * PATTERNS AND PRINTS SECOND THOUGHTS WARDROBE PATTERNS/HABITS WEAR&TEAR SHAPE/STYLE * SHAPE/STYLE * WARDROBE STORIES * UTILITY/PRACTICALITY VERSATILITY Table 6.1 Overview of the four empirical themes and their constituting categories (* denotes overlapping categories) 169 A NOTE ON THE PRESENTATION OF FINDINGS In my Introduction to this thesis [p. 16], I explained that one of my aims in its final presentation was to make the stories and experiences of the women I worked with feel tangible. Several my interviewees told me that they found our conversations enjoyable and also useful from their point of view. The rare opportunity to talk through their wardrobes with another person sparked ideas about possible new combinations, reminded women of older items that they could wear again and in several cases it was also an impulse for letting go of the items that are unlikely to get used in the future. This again fits well with Pink’s point that, “interviews are not only places where researchers learn about other people’s experiences, but where interviewees might arrive at new levels of awareness about their own lives and experiences” (2015 [2009], p. 80). I wished to capture this mutual exchange and knowledge co-creation in talking about wardrobes and it is also for this reason that I decided to write a narrative summary of each of the ten conversations as a part of my data analysis [see Chapter 5.3, p. 141]. For the sake of brevity, I initially wrote these narratives as snapshots of about 1000 words with the intention to include these in the Appendices for reference. However, as I then started writing the thematic sub-chapters of my findings, illustrating them with occasional quotes, I increasingly felt that the brief narrative snapshots in the Appendices contradicted my earlier claim that my interviewee’s perspectives and their often very personal stories should be at the core of my work. Despite my effort to capture each woman’s story in an engaging and concise way, with short quotes and an image per interview, I could not help but feeling that this approach was quite mechanical and not at all in keeping with what I originally set out to do. Firstly, I felt an emotional and ethical commitment to all my interviewees for the time and generosity they invested in my research. Secondly, it also slowly became clear to me that my own emotional investment in the three years of this study should also be given its due by doing what felt right. I was writing a thesis about emotional durability after all. In response to these concerns, I considered using the portrayal method (see e.g. Lulle & King, 2016; Woodward, 2007) that allows for a selection of participant stories to be discussed in more detail in each sub-chapter, while the rest of participant data is used for corroboration. However, I resolved that none of the women’s stories should be prioritized in this way as each of them made a unique 170 contribution to the findings presented in each sub-chapter, thus complementing the full picture. Crucially, what also strongly emerged from my research was that there were no shortcuts in design for emotional durability. Despite the fact that my thesis identifies four key themes that enable us to grasp some of the leading principles that can help navigate the complex territory of emotional durability as reflected in women’s wardrobes, what I also wish to emphasise here is that designing with people in mind necessitates taking the time to listen and reflect on the many entangled aspects of their lives as lived in clothing. While a key quote can illustrate a case in point in relationship to each of the four themes, emotional durability of a garment can rarely be reduced to any one of these. It is therefore only through the wider picture of the whole wardrobe and each woman’s life and needs that the nuances that truly matter are revealed. For example, a deliciously warm jumper in a beautiful colour does not make it far if a woman later realizes that the colour is too light for her skin tone and difficult to combine with other items in her wardrobe (Mary). In contrast to this, an unflattering and weird dress that shows many signs of wear and tear can get continuously worn because it belonged to a woman’s mother, and it has nice fabric covered buttons (Emma). In sum, I felt similar to Miller, who describes how one of the families that took part in his research made him want to present his The Comfort of Things (2008) in a slightly unconventional way: The Clarkes are one of the reasons why, as well as writing an academic text in the future, I wanted to paint these portraits. To convey something of the sense of ethnography as enchantment, as a privileged access to such private beauty. As in all these portraits, it has been possible to record and include only a few fragments of what there is to learn from the Clarkes. But I have to hope that there is enough here to convey a sense of their extraordinary craftsmanship and of the central role of their material culture. (p. 31) For all these reasons, I decided to capture each woman’s narrative in much more detail. The approach I selected in the end is a variation on the portrayal method because each of the four thematic sections is now linked to the narratives of those of my interviewees whose experiences in connection to the theme in question were particularly pronounced [see the indications at the beginning of each section: p. 169, p. 189, p. 207, p. 226]. Yet, the stories of all ten women are covered across the four themes. These narrative summaries [see Appendix A, p. 332] inevitably became 171 a part of my analysis process as they aimed to capture the essence of each woman’s individual experience. In writing them up, I aspired to portray each interviewee’s personal story as reflected in her wardrobe, while including those photos and quotes which I believed best captured the key aspects covered in our conversation. The same approach was adopted in choosing the titles for each narrative, through a quote that best reflects each woman’s story. In sum, linking each thematic section of my findings with a selection of narrative summaries included in Appendix A [p. 342] was motivated by my research philosophy and by my own emotional involvement in the research process. This approach now enables to demonstrate how each woman’s attitudes and preferences with regards to her wardrobe are shaped by her current circumstances on one hand and her past experiences on the other. While a wardrobe conversation is a moment in time, a woman’s wardrobe is a diachronic process that constantly evolves and can hence never be captured in its entirety. Yet, as this chapter will demonstrate, being able to savour at least a fraction of this process through a woman’s narrative, still offers a number of valuable clues on the clothes women love to wear and the reasons why they prefer some items to others. 172 SENSORY EXPERIENCES [Please see the narratives of Julie, Louise, and Hanka in Appendix A.1-A.3; p. 343, p. 356, p. 372] Patterns and prints Comfort Materials Colours SENSORY EXPERIENCES Shape/style Details Associations Fit Figure 6.8 The Sensory experiences theme and categories INTRODUCTION The overarching argument of this section is that sensory experiences considerably influence women’s feelings towards individual items in their wardrobes. Body plays a vital role in women’s decisions about what to wear, Woodward (2007) argues, and the tactile perceptions of softness or warmth as well as the sense of how a garment enables or restricts movement are all key in these considerations (p. 17). Chong Kwan (2016) further notes that the changing “sensorial materiality” of clothes, as experienced through multiple senses, affects wearers not only physically but also emotionally (p. 284). While perceptions through multiple senses can often be coordinated and 173 supporting each other, at other times they can be contradictory and causing confusion (Howes, 2005; Chong Kwan, 2016). The latter often results in mixed feelings about an item of clothing, when for example a jumper with a beautiful pattern and a lovely colour feels itchy against the skin. As I explained in the previous section, all of my interviewees repeatedly commented not only on the aesthetic and visual qualities of their clothing but also, and in many cases perhaps more often, on how an item wears on the body or how it makes them feel. Interestingly, in contrast to the participants involved in the study by Riisberg, Bang, Locher & Moat (2015), whose clothing choices seemed to be based first and foremost on visual perceptions, for the women I interviewed tactile qualities of garments were often the primary concern. This variation in findings possibly indicates shifting preferences in relationship to age. While Riisberg et al.’s participants were high school students between the ages of 18 and 20, the age of the women I interviewed ranged from their late twenties to their late sixties. Changing preferences in relationship to age and their implications for emotional durability of clothing will be addressed in more detail in Chapter 6.5 Layering [p. 230]. Here, I will discuss in more detail how sensory perceptions of clothes play out in practice, through the key explanatory categories that emerged from my analysis: Comfort; Materials; Shape, style and fit; Details; Colours; and Patterns and prints. Please refer to Appendix B.1 [p. 518] for a detailed break -down of all categories and top layer codes linked to Sensory experiences. COMFORT In his discussion of Heidegger’s Building, Dwelling, Thinking (1977), the anthropologist Tim Ingold remarks that the leading interest of the essay is in determining what it takes “for a house to be a home” (2000, p. 180). My research was led by a similar concern. As my explorations progressed, it gradually emerged that research on what lies behind the emotional durability of an item of clothing is in many respects a search for a point when a piece of fabric worn on the body is no longer perceived as something external to the wearer. Perhaps somewhat counterintuitively, my wardrobe conversations with women evidence that a strong emotional connection to an item of clothing often manifests itself in that the garment is no longer noticed when worn. Its wearing becomes habitual and almost unconscious and the feeling of reassuring familiarity makes the experience feel like a second nature. In line with Baumann’s notion of the home as a place where no defence is required and where there is no need to prove anything (cited in Malicki, 2014, p. 4), such piece of clothing 174 becomes “a home for the body” (Niinimäki, 2010; Chong Kwan, 2016). While such items are then integral to how we feel and how we experience the world around us, their success relies on the fact that their wearing is effortless and almost unnoticed by the wearer. Soft One of the best examples here is Julie’s comment on her favourite top, which she says is so nice and soft that it feels like not wearing anything. The same is reiterated by Louise as she comes across a dress that she loved wearing to work before her maternity leave [Fig. A.35, Appendix A.1, p. 343 ]: IT'S SO NICE, it's so nice - you know - you put it on and it's like you're not wearing anything. It's so nice to wear (Louise 867-868) Golraz also shows me a casual rain jacket that she describes as a loyal friend, something that she wears when she does not want to invest any extra effort in her looks and feels happy just going about her day entirely unnoticed. Wearing this jacket, she says, has become so natural to her that she can become almost invisible in it. All these instances are strongly linked to bodily comfort, often enabled by the softness of materials, as Julie’s comment above well demonstrates. Soft and light garments seem to possess the crucial capacity to be appreciated for being “unnoticed”. Just like health is the blessing of being unaware of one’s body (Murphy, 1990), comfort experienced through the soft feel and the lightness of fabric seems to be a state of being unaware of one’s clothes. Crucially in terms of my research, both these qualities also tend to improve with time, through continuous wear and laundering. It is mainly for these reasons that Louise much prefers old clothes to new. Tanya’s beloved blue dress that she has worn for over fifteen years [see Figure 6.5, Chapter 6.1; p. 165; Figs A.201-204, Appendix A.10, p. 498], has softened to an extent that it is incredibly comfortable to wear, and, importantly for Tanya’s frequent travels, it now also folds very easily into a suitcase. Niinimäki (2014) also notes that comfort of materials can significantly improve through long-term use, and she points specifically to wool and leather as materials that age “gracefully” and so often get mentioned in connection to favourite pieces (2010). In this context, an especially compelling point in case is denim, whose popularity and wide appeal also tends to be assigned to its inherent 175 quality of moulding to the body and aging with the wearer (Candy, 2005; Woodward, 2007; Miller & Woodward, 2011). Interestingly though, while Woodward (2007) observed that an aging pair of jeans was cited by many of her interviewees as the most comfortable piece of clothing, most women I spoke to did not mention jeans, or any trousers at all, until I explicitly asked. One exception here was Tanya, who quite early on brought out two pairs of denim jeans, both used frequently, which made them very soft and slightly worn out around the crotch as a result. One of these was an old pair that she has had for nearly twenty years and the other was no longer wanted by her son, so she now wears it - legs rolled up - with her unique vibe of careless elegance. None of the other women I spoke to, however, thought of bringing out their jeans. This is worth noting because most of them did in fact have a favourite pair that they wear regularly. After some prompting questions it turned out that Anabelle too has a well-worn pair of jeans that is nearly twenty years old and she still wears it despite the accumulating signs of wear and tear [Figure 6.9]. Hanka and Mary seem to have found the styles that fit them and so now always buy their jeans from the same companies. Louise and Golraz, on the other hand, still search for their “perfect pair” because standard sizing rarely works for their figures. Both however also recall having had a great pair in the past that they wore to pieces. What emerges from my wardrobe conversations is that one possible explanation why jeans slip women’s attention is that denim’s propensity to soften through wear makes jeans one of those items that no longer get noticed. They do not seem to be worth mentioning as having become “a second skin” (Solomon, 1986; Miller & Woodward, 2011, 2012; Chapman, 2015 [2005]) they are used ordinarily and hence get taken for granted (Miller & Woodward, 2012; Pink, 2011, 2012a). Just like Mary’s black work tops that combine with anything and so are used as a kind of base layer on almost daily basis, favourite jeans softened through years of wear and laundering seem to be the perfect example of comfort and mundane fashion – they are well-loved, essential pieces of clothing, that no longer stand out in any way (Miller & Woodward, 2012). 176 Figure 6.9 Annabelle's 20 years old jeans MATERIALS In terms of materials, cotton, linen and wool were mentioned most frequently in women’s comments on comfort and pleasant touch, with occasional exceptions of some woollen garments that caused irritation and disappointment because they turned out to be itchy. While most women seemed to share their love for the feel of linen, Annabelle was an exception here, being adamant that she never buys it because while she likes it freshly ironed and crisp, worn it soon looks like an old dish rag. As she hates ironing, Annabelle prefers materials that can be scrunched up and easily worn the next day, which generally requires a percentage of synthetic content. However, on the whole, mostly natural materials were highlighted by my interviewees. This aligns with previous observations of Niinimäki (2014) and Fletcher (2016), who both note that natural fibres tend to dominate people’s stories of favourite garments, with cotton mentioned most frequently, closely followed by wool. As Fletcher also comments, wool’s representation in the stories of loved garments is quite striking, considering that it only forms 1.3% of global trade (Ibid, p. 142). However, the sensory methodology I used in my study provides useful clues for this popularity. Woollen knitwear, especially cashmere, featured heavily among the favourite garments women chose to tell me about. Numerous examples from my wardrobe conversations then show that the sensory pleasure experienced through softness and warmth of wool is key to the appreciation of 177 woollen garments. This offers a clear explanation for the wide demand for woollen clothing [see especially the narratives of Hanka and Mary, Appendix A.3 & A.9, p. 372 and p. 474]. Similar contribution in terms of the methodology used in my study can be noted in connection to synthetic materials. Here, once again, attention had been previously drawn to the fact that synthetic fibres seem to be scarcely represented in the stories of long and satisfying use, which is considered especially alarming in the light of the volumes of polyester production, that currently covers over a half of the global fibre market (Niinimäki, 2014; Fletcher, 2016). While my findings seem to confirm that synthetic materials rarely get explicitly mentioned when women talk about their favourite clothes, looking at the more mundane, everyday practices and items in the context of women’s homes and their whole wardrobes brings additional clarity to the picture. Firstly, it is perhaps unsurprising for synthetic materials with “their perceived low value and as a cultural currency” (Fletcher, 2016, p. 142) to receive little emphasis when people are asked about their more valued and loved items. This context is notable in connection to Fletcher’s Local Wisdom project, all three of Niinimäki’s questionnaires, where the enquiry revolved around items selected for their significance to their owners, and to a degree, similar bias also occurs in my research [see Chapter 4.3, p. 108 for more detail]. However, with the benefit of comparative analysis between the transcripts and the photo documentation from my interviews [see Chapter 5.3, p. 141], my findings also show that while synthetic fibres do not get often mentioned in verbal accounts, a number of favourite garments, especially those in regular use, do actually contain them. For instance, women who prefer more fitted styles tend to appreciate stretchy fabrics (where synthetic content is inevitable), because they can hold a nice, flattering shape while also keeping them comfortable. In addition, as I noted earlier, Annabelle’s dislike of ironing also means that she especially values the crease resistance of some of her dresses, enabled by their synthetic content [see Figs A.129-130, Appendix A.7, p. 440 ]: This material? You can scrunch it up, it can be in the corner there on the floor for two days [laughs] and I pick it and wear it and it looks great (Annabelle 678-702) The same point is reiterated by Kathryn, who is very fond of her acrylic top because she does not need to iron it when travelling [see Fig A.115, Appendix A.6, p. 424]. This top is one of her most longstanding items, she has never really got bored of it. In fact, she partly ascribes its longevity to the 178 synthetic material which, unlike some natural fabrics, keeps its shape. Still, perhaps tellingly in the context of Fletcher’s point on low cultural currency of synthetics, Kathryn also feels apologetic about her love for this top: I know – I DO really like natural fabrics – but sometimes it’s quite nice having a few things like that…which is REALLY REALLY easy (Kathryn 777-802) All these instances prove that natural materials are favoured for their tactile qualities, pleasant feel against the skin, resistance to body odour, and undoubtedly also due to their cultural endorsement/acceptability. At the same time, in mundane fashion where practicalities of everyday life need to be addressed, synthetics have advantages and qualities that do get appreciated in use – especially their structural flexibility and their ability to resist creasing. SHAPE, STYLE, AND FIT Bodily comfort, my research confirms (WRAP, 2013; Niinimäki & Koskinen, 2011), is a key enabler of long-term relationships, because feeling good in an item of clothing encourages its repeated use. Dis-comfort, on the other hand, can be a significant barrier because if women feel trapped in a garment, they are unlikely to wear it frequently. However, while feeling comfortable is vital for my interviewees’ clothing choices, it is also worth reminding at this point that my sample consisted of mature women between their late twenties and their late sixties. This seems important because my findings also indicate that such priorities may be subject to age-related preferences [see also Chapter 6.5 Layering, p. 230]. Julie, for example, repeatedly emphasizes that comfortable fit is now key for her clothing choices. Yet, when she was a student it was not unusual to lay on the bed for half an hour tryin’ get our jeans zip up. In contrast to this, what she loves wearing now are things that feel nice and are supercomfortable. With age, her priorities with regards to bodily comfort have changed, and her point is echoed by all of my interviewees. In addition to the tactility of materials, comfort or dis-comfort are then also perceived through the shape, style and fit of garments and also through their appropriateness in terms of personal taste, mood and social circumstances. With regards to the latter, Chong Kwan uses the metaphors of 179 “emplacement” and “displacement” (2016, p. 55). “Emplacement”, she explains, refers to the feeling of connectedness to a place, time and occasion as experienced through the sensory interaction with a piece of clothing (Ibid). “Displacement”, on the other hand, is felt where such connection is missing, when the sensory perception of wearing a piece of clothing makes one feel “out of place” (Ibid). Chong Kwan’s metaphors of “emplacement” and “displacement” through sensory engagement with clothing are close to what others also referred to as feeling “right” or “wrong” (Woodward 2005, 2007; Skjold, 2014) in an item, or feeling that it is “me” or by contrast “not me” (Schultz-Kleine et al., 1995; Banim & Guy, 2001; Woodward, 2007). For example, wearing an item of clothing whose cut or material are too revealing often makes women feel uncomfortable, particularly in a work context. This again comes through clearly in Julie’s comment on one of her work dresses. As the skirt is a wrap style that crosses at the front and tends to open with movement, despite the fact that she loves it, Julie says she has to kind of feel comfortable in the first place to be ready to flash her legs at the same time as wearing a fitted dress like this [see Fig A.8, Appendix A.1, p. 343]. Similarly, Louise is reconsidering if she can still wear one of her favourite skirts after her recent pregnancy. Again, the skirt is a wrap style that opens at the front and Louise feels, now more than before, that at work she wants to look smart and not showing off everything [see Figs A.32-33, Appendix A.2, p. 356]. For Hanka, the one fault of her favourite cheque dress is that it is slightly too short and so when she wears it without trousers underneath, she feels like a schoolgirl that grew out of it [see Fig A.49, Appendix A.3, p. 372]. The importance of feeling comfortable with the material, shape, style and the fit of a piece of clothing is perhaps best captured by Nicola who, like most of the women I interviewed, prefers simple, understated pieces, because more extravagant designs tend to make her feel self-conscious: I guess it’s just when I wear something that I’m comfortable in I feel like more in control of the room (Nicola 211-232) This seems crucially important in mundane fashion, as comfort perceived by wearers as “emplacement” (Chong Kwam, 2016), feeling “right” (Woodward 2005, 2007; Skjold, 2014) or feeling “me” (Banim & Guy, 2001; Woodward, 2007), enables women can stop noticing what they are wearing and go about their lives focusing on the things that really matter to them. 180 DETAILS As I already highlighted in the opening of this chapter [6.1, p. 161], my focus on photographing women’s hands and the ways in which they handled their clothes pointed to the significance of garment details, such as the fabric covered buttons pointed out by Emma as a favourite feature of her mum’s old dress. Louise’s “Pocahontas skirt” named after the little plastic pearls on the drawstring is another good illustration here [Figure 6.10]. The skirt originally belonged to Louise’s mum and Louise remembers dreaming of wearing it as a child. She was thrilled when her mum finally gave it to her and she wore it frequently, especially during her recent pregnancy. Unfortunately, this heavy wear stretched the fabric, which makes Louise sad as she would love to continue wearing it. However, her main worry is that one of the plastic pearls is now broken and without it, the skirt loses its “Pocahontas” history. Figure 6.10 The little plastic pearl that gave name to Louise's Pocahontas skirt Emma’s fabric covered buttons, Louise’s plastic pearls or the insides of pockets on Tanya’s favourite travel dress that serve as a reminder of its now washed out original colour [see Figure 6.5 in Chapter 6.1; Figs A.201-204, Appendix A.10, p.498] all demonstrate how subtle an often hidden details can be vital for a garment’s appreciation, as they capture a richness of meaning only known to its wearer. In addition to this, my wardrobe conversations also show that garment details are often seen as important indicators of quality. This comes through especially clearly when Golraz explains to me 181 that to asses quality when she is shopping for clothes, she first looks at details. To demonstrate, she shows me the zip on one of her favourite day dresses. Sitting on her bed, she slowly unzips and then closes the zip again several times over, obviously enjoying this process [Figure 6.11]. Her love of the dress is very much linked to the way the zip has been inserted, she explains: Because when I wear it I kind of think that I am taking care of myself – because somebody actually took care of this – this has been loved, you know [smiles]. That’s what I like. (Golraz 655-664) Figure 6.11 The zip that proves to Golraz that she is taking care of herself Similarly, Julie points out the lining and also the mismatching buttons on a designer jacket that she had bought on a shopping trip with a friend [Figure 6.12]. While she is adamant that she is not interested in designer brands per se, and does not know enough to care about them, she says what she likes are these kind of details that tend to come with more expensive pieces as opposed to cheaper high street items. Like Golraz, Julie agrees that attention to detail makes her feel that an item she is wearing was well made. It is this sign of quality, rather than a brand, that she truly appreciates in a piece of clothing. 182 Figure 6.12 Mismatched buttons - one of Julie's favourite details on her jacket Buttons Buttons, belts, and decorative details such as applique or embroidery were frequently mentioned by women in connection to favourite items, as the following extracts illustrate: I like the fact that you’ve got the sort of brocade things, the velvet and then it’s done it also on the pocket (Kathryn 566-569) This is very old…I love it because of these flowers (Golraz 1016-1022) I liked it because of the belt (Mary 1517-1522) This I love because it’s kind of like…I love these buttons (Kathryn 718-734) I like things like this – I like pearl buttons (Nicola 426-438) It’s a feature on the sleeves – I think that’s quite nice – it gives a little something to the jacket (Louise 431-452) 183 Kathryn and Emma especially emphasized their love of buttons. They both seem to have jars of vintage buttons which they occasionally use to alter and liven up some items. I quite often change buttons on things, Emma told me, because it makes quite a difference, doesn’t it? Buttons, my research confirms, can decide whether a piece of clothing finds its use in its owner’s wardrobe. This strongly corresponds with Fletcher’s point that, “many times the stories from the public suggest that it is the details and components of garments that hold the key to satisfying use” (2016, p. 238). Hanka offers a good illustration here, as she tells me that buttons were a great disappointment to her when she first received a dress from one of her favourite designers bought on E-bay. Similarly, Annabelle admits that she felt a bit rotten for throwing away a jacket from her mother’s two piece because the buttons were just too big and looked dated. In the context of this study, it is especially interesting to notice how details including buttons, belts or linings relate to alterability and repairability. For example, while Nicola had her oldest vintage coat repeatedly relined with a plain lining to make sure that her coat keeps its nice shape, Mary is not sure if relining could revive her beloved coat that nothing can quite measure up to. Because the original lining was especially beautiful, Mary is afraid that the replacement would not match her high expectations on how the lining should fit into the overall design. This seems to point to a notable paradox and a challenge in design for repairability [see Chapter 3.4, p. 71]. On the one hand, the attention to detail demonstrated in the original design by careful choice of lining seems to have been an important factor in Mary’s love of this coat and also the reason why she would wish to extend its longevity by replacing the lining. On the other hand, however, the original lining seems to be hard to match which makes Mary doubtful about the possibility of a successful repair. This example seems to underline the need for design solutions that can easily “absorb” future repairs, highlighted by Rissanen (2011, p. 129). Yet, at the same time, my conversations with women also evidence that repairability does not guarantee repair. In juggling the competing demands of everyday life, women often simply do not get around to looking after their wardrobes in the way they would ideally imagine. Emma’s pile of I'm going to do something with these things and then I haven't done anything again strongly mirrors the experiences of the rest of my interviewees, highlighting the many interconnected barriers to repair that often go beyond designable features of garments (Connor-Crabb, 2017; McLaren & McLauchlan, 2015; Armstrong, 184 Niinimäki, Kujala, Karell & Lang, 2015). [See also Chapter 6.5 Layering [p. 230] for a discussion of other aspects that affect repairs and repairability.] Pockets It doesn’t have pockets, that’s its only fault, Hanka tells me as she hands me over a dress that she loves wearing in summer. Pockets, as it later turns out, are key to the success of any item in Hanka’s wardrobe. Mary and Emma do not especially look for pockets when clothes shopping, but along with the rest of my interviewees they agree that pockets are an appreciated and extremely useful feature in clothing. While Mary feels that is also important for pockets to work with a garment’s cut, she admits that they have their place in most garments, work jackets especially: It’s nice to have pockets, so it’s gonna be irritating on the odd occasion you’re wearing something that doesn’t have pockets…yeah, that’ irritating not having pockets on a jacket (Mary 1877-1887) As Summers (2016) argues, having pockets to put things into gives women independence and a freedom to walk around unburdened by extra items such as purses. This comes through especially strongly in Kathryn’s description of one of her longest standing pieces of clothing - a denim jacket that she associates with holidays. She says she loves it especially because she can put her keys and anything else she needs in her pockets when she wears it with a summer dress. The same is reiterated by Golraz, who always has something to put into her pockets, so if her clothes do not have them it’s a problem because I have to put things in my bag then. In sum, pockets seem to be a strong feature of favourite garments. If my interviewees liked an item without pockets, their absence was often commented on, just like in Hanka’s above description of her pocketless dress. The lack of pockets seems to be a shame and a disadvantage of a piece of clothing. My findings therefore confirm that construction details play a crucial role in satisfying use, as also highlighted in the recommendations of the Design for Longevity report (WRAP, 2013), discussed in more detail in Chapter 2.3 [p. 49]. In addition, the evidence from my wardrobe conversations provides further support for Fletcher’s suggestion that “our search for satisfaction – so often the motivation behind a new round of consumption of whole fashion pieces – is channelled through uncovering and noticing the details” (2016, p. 283). Yet, surprisingly, apart from the two 185 sources cited here, garment details have previously received little attention in research on fashion and sustainability more broadly, and design for longevity and emotional durability more specifically. I here therefore propose that more questions regarding the role of garment details need to be raised in the future by researchers and practitioners in all these areas of research and practice. COLOURS The emphasis of this section so far has been on the tactile perceptions of clothing, especially as an attempt to re-balance the dominating visual perspectives, as I explained in Chapter 4.4, [p. 117]. At the same time, I am aware that such rebalancing should not result in undermining the visual and aesthetic qualities, as these too are vital in how clothes are perceived and experienced in everyday life. Having recently come to the conclusion that her wardrobe collection is one of her most valued possessions, Mary is an especially good case in point here. I just love fabrics and colours and patterns!, she tells me with unsuppressed excitement. Mary’s wardrobe just heaves with colours and patterns, and her eyes light up several times during our conversation as she reiterates how much she enjoys combining colours, patterns, and prints. Interestingly, she also makes a point of showing me how the different outfits and colours in her wardrobe go together and she spares no effort in collecting all the items that make up her successful outfits from various parts of the house. Mary seems extremely confident in her decisions on which colours do and do not work with her skin tone and it is for this reason that she aims to avoid black. Too much black, she feels, can look rather overwhelming with her pale skin. She devours successful colour and pattern matching [Figure 6.14], such as when she combines a cashmere top in her favourite slate colour, with a beaded necklace and a grey T-shirt. Mary feels that these three items really work together yet she is adamant that the same items in another colour variations would just not be the same [Figure 6.13]: It wouldn’t work in another colour – you know – I have pale pink and it’s not the same thing (Mary 2153-2166) 186 Figure 6.13 Mary's favourite colour combinations Figure 6.14 Mary loves combining patterns, colours and textures 187 Mary’s love of colour combinations is well contrasted by Nicola, who is much more conservative in her colour choices. Most of her ordinary clothes seem to be variations on tones of black and grey [see Figs A.65-70, Appendix A.4, p. 389]. Nicola herself admits that the colour palette of her wardrobe is quite surprising considering that she loves colours, magenta pink in particular. However, she finds that in her everyday life grey is just a really easy colour to wear. In addition to this, because her job involves a fair amount of public speaking, Nicola also feels that brighter colours could distract from what she is saying. It is clear from these two examples that perception of colour is highly subjective and context dependent. Moreover, my conversations also show that women’s colour preferences are heavily influenced by both their past experiences and their current circumstances, and in these terms, colours play a vital role in women’s relationships to their clothes. Often, colours can be the key to the lasting attraction of an item of clothing. As Kathryn illustrates: I LOVE!!! OHHHH!...I love the colour of this one…oh, that’s a nice make…but the colour is gorgeous!...it’s the sort of colour that kind of gives you a bit of a lift (Kathryn 395-412) On other occasions though, colour may attract initially but on reflection women may feel unsure if they can make it work in their wardrobes. As Mary shows [see Fig A.180, Appendix A.9, p. 474]: I bought this in February, it was really cold and miserable, it was my birthday and the colour just sang of summer time…so, of the cardigans that I’ve got there, quite a few of them go with several different things…but because that’s such a bright colour, I struggle to pull it off (Mary 1404-1413) Colour can also be the main reason why an item is not worn, whether as a result of a shopping mistake or when a gift or a hand-me-down does not match women’s usual colour preferences. As Annabelle explains: I’ve NEVER worn this skirt…I bought it and I’ve never worn it, I thought about throwing it away…because it’s skin coloured – I think that’s what it is…maybe it’s just a very bland skin coloured (Annabelle 1034-1050) 188 PATTERNS AND PRINTS Related to the considerations of colour are also patterns and prints. All the women I interviewed seem to share the love of beautiful materials and in many cases, it is clearly the pattern or the print of the fabric that makes a piece of clothing special. For example, Golraz keeps one of her favourite dresses that she can no longer fit into for her future daughter because the pattern, which differs at the front and at the back of the dress, is just lovely [Figures 6.15-6.16]. Similarly, one of Kathryn’s best buys ever seemed to be an expensive skirt that she chose because of the beautiful flower pattern and she has now been wearing it for many years. She loves the fabric so much that she is also considering repurposing the skirt into something else in the future [see Fig A.166, Appendix A.6, p. 424]. Figure 6.15 Golraz's loved dress that she is keeping for her future daughter: front 189 Figure 6.16 Golraz's loved dress that she is keeping for her future daughter: back Nicola is obsessed with anything stripy, she loves all variations on Breton stripes, pin stripes and polka dots, which all again fit into her preference for a subdued, minimalist look and enable her endless everyday combinations as discussed in connection to colours. A strong love of stripes is also shared by Julie, yet stripes in general and Breton stripes specifically, as well as polka dots, seem to re-appear across most women’s narratives. In this respect, Emma stands out for her love of large, colourful, Chinese inspired patterns and animal prints. Mary, who also loves patterns and prints, generally gravitates towards smaller splotchy designs and her larger patterns tend to be toned down in terms of the colour scheme. Hanka strongly feels that the problem with large patterns is that they draw too much attention, almost like an artwork of a kind, and so the danger is that after an initial excitement one gets tired of them rather quickly. For this reason, like most of my other interviewees, Hanka prefers plainer designs that she finds more satisfying in terms of long-term use. 190 What is especially interesting to notice in relationship to mundane fashion, is that despite the variety of colour, pattern and print preferences among my interviewees, the items that are ordinarily worn generally have much more muted colour palettes. Just like Nicola’s practical daily wardrobe, the everyday wear of most women I spoke to often consists of variations on black, blue, and grey tones. This observation again corresponds with the recommendations of the Design for Longevity report (WRAP, 2013) for the design of casualwear, stating that “classic or neutral” colours such as black, charcoal, white and navy, are considered versatile, easy to combine with other items and hence have more chance to stay in use for longer than trend colours (see also Niinimäki & Hassi, 2011). As Nicola especially highlights, these colours also enable women quick morning decisions, a concern that considerably shapes mundane fashion [see also Chapter 6.5 Enablers, p. 230]. CONCLUSION – SENSORY EXPERIENCES This section explained how women’s perception of clothes through multiple senses, touch, and vision in particular, affects how they feel about individual items in their wardrobes. The feeling of comfort, often negotiated trough the light weight and soft touch of materials was identified as the key contributor to emotional durability of clothing, because the success of favourite pieces often manifests itself in the fact that their wearing is effortless and almost unnoticed by the wearer. As Niinimäki & Armstrong (2013) also note, it is the physical aspects of garments that we experience first, and while these in themselves do not guarantee neither long-term relevance nor emotional connection, they are critical to how we respond to a piece of clothing over time (p. 192). Another key insight from observing women’s sensory engagement with clothing is the significance of apparently small construction details, such as pockets or buttons, for how women relate to the clothes in their wardrobes over time. Pockets, it seems, are humble agents of independence and comfort, while buttons can easily tip the balance between loving or discarding an item of clothing. While my data does not clearly indicate a connection between olfactory qualities and emotional value of clothing, my conversations with women suggest that a garment’s ability to resist perspiration can contribute to satisfying use and so encourages more frequent wear. It is therefore possible to propose that considering fabric quality and garment cut, with the view to minimize the effects of perspiration, could in this way contribute to emotional durability of a garment. 191 Noticing the critical importance of multi-sensory perception for everyday experiences with the clothes women wear, it seems striking that sensory aspects of design hardly feature in design education, as is also highlighted by Sonneveld (2004). In her Doing Sensory Ethnography, Pink (2015 [2009]) recommends that sensory ethnographers prepare for their fieldwork by an autoethnographic exercise which can help them develop an understanding of their own sensory perceptions of the world (p. 60). In the light of my findings, I here propose that designers who wish to design clothes that can have long-term relevance in mundane fashion, would usefully benefit from a similar auto-ethnographic exercise, as this could help them sensitise to sensory perceptions of clothing. Sissons (2016) argues that designers can hardly expect people to want to wear their creations if they themselves would not want to wear them. Hence, developing a deeper understanding of their own sensory responses to the clothes they wear, could help designers embrace multi-sensory considerations in their work and so improve the everyday experiences of people who will go about their lives wearing their designs. 192 ENABLERS [Please see the narratives of Nicola, Golraz, and Kathryn in Appendix A.4-A.6; p. 389, p. 409, p. 424] Utility/ practicality Appropriateness Versatility Shape/style ENABLERS Combinations Fit Care Comfort Satisfaction Figure 6.17 The Enablers theme and categories INTRODUCTION As I noted earlier, Fletcher (2016) argues that clothes tend to be advertised and sold as products, perfect static pieces. The physical dynamics of clothing in use is missing, as is the connection to the often messy dynamics of our everyday lives within which these clothes are being used. Accordingly, fashion mood boards tend to draw on images of idealized lifestyles that have little to do with the day to day routines of those who wear these clothes after the point of sale. Along the same lines, Julier (2008 [2001]) also contends that “mood boards can look dangerously like clichéd storylines for 193 a campaign” that largely ignore the desires and needs of users, things here lose “their status as objects of use ”(p. 103). As a result, what is generally missing in design practice, is a consideration of how clothes fit into the lives we want to live. Despite of what fashion campaigns may like us to believe, our lives do not revolve around clothes. Quite on the contrary, my findings clearly show that if clothes are to be used and enjoyed, they need to revolve around the kind of lives we want to live. This is well reflected in Mary’s observation: I think a lot of shops, you know, (…) that shops seem to be quite heavy weighted towards stuff which is fancy or dressy and it doesn't really reflect everyday life. But then, women fall into trap of buying lots of those types of clothes. So, for example heels. You're going to lots of shops, there will be loads and loads of high heels - REALLY high heels! But that's not everyday stuff, I don't know. And yet we buy it because it's glamorous and think we might wear it one day. (Mary 1461-1477) Mary, for whom clothes are a passion, admits that she repeatedly gets attracted to buying new clothes because of their beautiful fabrics and patterns. At the same time, she is also well aware that many of these clothes remain unused in her wardrobe because they have little relationship to her lifestyle, which is largely divided between her busy office-based job and a country life on a smallholding. Although she much appreciates clothes as objects, confessing that her collection of clothes is among her most valued possessions, she is also conscious that many of these “collector” items rarely get worn. What strongly emerges from my research, is that while such items may still be appreciated and liked for their aesthetic qualities, the truly long-lasting and deep relationships with clothing is stimulated through repeated use, or what Norman calls “sustained interaction” (2004, p. 46). Golraz’s description of one of her most long-standing items, a very ordinary jacket [see Figs A.94-95, Appendix A.5, p. 409] that she has worn for over fifteen years, offers an apt snapshot of experiences reflected across other women’s narratives: But I wear it very often because I like it! Like we are now, I think, after so many years, friends. You know, you don't look for friends - you don't look if they're beautiful or they're…, you know, 194 you just want them to be trustworthy. That's the same feeling I have with it. I think it has been very loyal to me that's why I AM being loyal to it [laughs]. (Golraz 438-447) As I discussed in more detail in Chapters 3.2 and 4.3 [p. 64, p. 108], research on emotional durability has tended to focus on “special” items, often associated with a considerable symbolic or sentimental value within the owner’s life story [see more in Chapter 6.4 Longing and Belonging, p. 207]. Yet, my data offers compelling evidence that the truly significant garments can often be those used on everyday basis and appreciated for their long-lasting suitability to the owner’s way of life. It is well known among the scholars of everyday life (see e.g. Shove,2009, 2012; Pink, 2012a) that such “ordinary” items tend to get overlooked, even by their owners. I explained before that this also offers a logical explanation of why such clothes rarely feature in studies that rely on asking participants to pick out the truly special pieces [See Chapter 4.3 for a more detailed discussion of this point, p. 108]. As I also observed during my wardrobe conversations with women, the garments that turned out to be the true, regularly used favourites, were almost invariably mentioned only towards the end of the interview, often as a result of extra prompting questions [see also the discussion on jeans in Chapter 6.2, p. 173]. Mary’s comment is again telling in this respect: I've just whizzed through all the knitwear, but actually the knitwear's stuff that you just wear a lot. So, all those things you can wear with jeans. Whereas some of this other stuff, it would be unusual to wear that not in a work context. (Mary 1455-1457) The idea of “uncrumpled” (Fletcher, 2016, p.101), glamorous garments worn by carefree women with perfect figures that seems to be so easy to buy into (as Mary’s comment on the previous page also confirms), gets radically transformed once these garments enter the much more complex and volatile everyday life. After the point of purchase, clothes suddenly enter a significantly different territory in which navigating across numerous, often competing demands of our daily lives is essential. In stark contrast to their glamourous pre-purchase presentation, once brought home, clothes often get thrown on in dimly lit bathrooms while women are still trying to wake up, get the children ready, and dream of a chance to grab a cup of coffee before their first meeting begins. A lot goes on during the day and the clothes women wear need to slot into this puzzle, as Nicola well explains: 195 I’ve got a very kind of diverse and quite hectic job description, so I need clothes which are kind of functional for such as, you know, doing installation and hanging, which is very much a part of my role, but also, I’m attending a lot of boardroom meetings and I’m meeting a lot of people. So, I have to have a kind of balance between the very very formal and the very kind of practical, informal. So, that has probably shaped my wardrobe to a great extent these days. And also, fact that I’m now a mother. I only have a very short amount of time to get ready in the morning. That also is very much on my mind when I buy clothes now. (Nicola 8-22) Design recommendations regarding emotional durability of clothing often tend to focus on fostering the meaning embedded in individual items through an emphasis on craftsmanship, provenance, customization, or the ability of the garment to evolve over time [see Chapter 3.4, p. 71]. However, I here argue that a careful attention to everyday practical considerations is equally important because long-term satisfying use is vital for emotional durability of clothing. The discussion in this section therefore focuses on these practical concerns through the key explanatory categories that emerged from my analysis: Appropriateness; Versatility; Combinations; Care; and Satisfaction. Considerations of Utility/Practicality also featured prominently in my interviewees’ narratives but as these are closely interlinked with other issues covered throughout the following discussion, they are here not addressed separately. The table in Appendix B.2 [p. 520] offers a detailed break-down of all categories and top layer codes linked to the Enablers theme. APPROPRIATENESS Appropriateness can be defined as a degree to which something is suitable, acceptable, or correct for particular circumstances (Oxford Learner’s Dictionary of Academic English, 2014) and my research offers clear evidence that appropriateness is a crucial contributor to emotional durability of clothing. Those clothes that fit well into the circumstances of women’s lives in terms of climate, occasions for wear, everyday use, professional and family life, and especially those items that prove to be able to help them negotiate multiple of these demands, tend to get worn regularly. Over time, this contributes to the feeling of loyalty and satisfaction (Niinimäki, 2014), as Golraz’s description of her jacket [p. 194] illustrates. 196 Naturally, appropriateness also fluctuates in dependence on women’s changing circumstances and needs and so does not always guarantee continuous use [see Chapter 6.5 Layering, section Time, p. 230]. Therefore, I here wish to highlight that it is critical to understand the multifaceted character of appropriateness, in order to consider, empathize with, and to try to balance such competing demands in the design process. I here fully subscribe to Chapman’s point that, “designers must learn to embrace human unpredictability before they can attempt to effectively enrich and elongate subject-object engagement” (2015 [2005], p. 78). Climate Several of the women I spoke to, had the experience of moving, often internationally. In each case, such moves were inevitably also reflected in the wardrobe, because garments that were worth moving had to be selected in dependence on the quantities women were able to take with them and the storage issues in their new destination [see also Chapter 6.5 Layering for more detail on space and storage issues]. In addition to this, for Golraz, Louise, and Annabelle, their moves also involved a change from the warmer climates of Italy, Iran, France, and Florida, to the much colder and wetter conditions in England. Golraz here explains how her move to the UK affected her priorities in terms of clothing choices: Nowadays, since I'm here [in the UK], and I'm really like, cold weather really bothers me - it hurts me! So, when I see something, I'm like - woooow! - because I feel like it's warm. It can just make me reaaaally warm [laughs]. (Golraz 132-138) Some of her favourite pieces bought in Italy, for example a long red skirt that she used to feel very happy wearing, now remain unused in her wardrobe [see Fig A.96, Appendix A.5, p. 409]. Similarly, Golraz comments that her beloved black coat that she relies on especially when she wears skirts or dresses [see Figs A.91-93, Appendix A.5, p. 409], was not actually designed for England. It does not have a zip and so it tends to open in windy weather. It works properly in Tehran, where I bought it, but it doesn’t work as good here, she tells me. Louise also repeatedly comments that quite a few of the gifts she receives from her French mother-in-law are unwearable in the wet and windy Yorkshire climate, not even if layered with other garments. Many of these are simply more suitable for a stroll on a French beach in high summer. Similarly, Annabelle has quite a few items that she used to love 197 wearing in Florida, however, she now keeps them for holidays or the rare occasions when she can wear them to summer parties. Appropriateness to climate and weather are however not limited to concerns of those women who move internationally. The same applies to considerations related to seasonal clothes, as Mary’s comparison of her two dresses demonstrates: So that black dress, you could probably relatively easily wear that a number of different times and I have got a REASONABLE amount of wear out of it. But this, you can only really wear this when it's hot because in wintertime you'd just freeze to death [laughs]. (Mary 1069-1078) Although she has had the second dress for a few years and she feels very fond of it, Mary also confesses that she has not worn this dress yet. Admittedly, a lack of suitable formal occasions is an issue here too. Yet, the fact that this dress is only wearable in warmer spring and summer months further limits Mary’s opportunities for wearing it. The experiences of my interviewees thus underscore the need for trans-seasonal considerations in design for longevity and emotional durability (WRAP, 2013; Connor-Crabb, 2016; 2017), not only in terms of a garment’s relevance across fashion seasons but also in terms of its adaptability to multiple weather conditions. Early motherhood Another issue that resonated across several of my interviews was related to the ways in which motherhood is reflected in women’s clothing choices. Strikingly, although I spoke to several young mothers (Hanka, Louise and Nicola), maternity clothes were only mentioned in passing and all my interviewees seemed to be united in aiming to avoid buying maternity clothing for as long as possible. What was especially interesting, was that none of my interviewees mentioned a maternity piece among their favourite items. This is worth noting because prior research indicated that clothing associated with significant life phases, such as pregnancy and childbirth, may hold significant sentimental value due to happy memories associated with such period (Woodward, 2007). By contrast, without an exception, all of my interviewees who touched on this phase of their lives (Hanka, Louise, Emma and Annabelle) unanimously agreed that they did not feel comfortable with their body changes at the time and therefore felt no need to keep the shapeless and not very flattering maternity clothes that seemed to be unpleasant reminders of this time. 198 On the one hand, unlike maternity wear, clothes worn in the early years of motherhood seem to hold more significance in women’s wardrobes. This comes through very clearly in the narratives of Louise, Hanka and Nicola [see their narratives Appendix A.2, A.3 and A.4; p. 356, p. 372, p. 389], who all have children under the age of five. Appropriateness in connection to this stage of women’s lives seems critical to note for several reasons. Firstly, suitability of clothing for the multiple competing demands of this period is among the key concerns affecting women’s daily choices as well as any new purchases. As a result, these clothes well demonstrate how the often contradictory requirements of family and professional lives and also women’s own ideas of style and identity may be negotiated throughout their lives. In addition, unlike pregnancy clothes, clothes worn during early motherhood can have lasting relevance throughout women’s lives due to their potential for long-term use and hence also emotional durability within women’s wardrobes. The radical transformation that early motherhood brings to women’s wardrobes is eloquently described by Nicola: It's - it's pretty quick these days. I used to have lot more time, I had so much more time in the mornings to just kind of like accessorize and kind of think really carefully about what I was gonna wear [laughs]. And now I'm just like - oh, throw it on - you know. (Nicola 472-481) Naturally, implications on materials and general robustness of the clothes women wear during this time are also brought into the equation, because the fact that children need to be lifted and carried, often in their muddy boots, does not lend itself to more sensitive materials such as cashmere or silk, for example. I need things which are not gonna tear and things which aren't gonna get kind of too messed up, Nicola further explains. Hanka’s somewhat crude but telling explanation of why she now stores her more precious items of clothing away, comes down to similar concerns: if I take out for example a cashmere shawl in the morning, it’s covered in kids’ snot in no time, so it’s not exactly the functional wear I would have use for right now [smiles] (Hanka 12231228). Louise, who previously wore trousers only occasionally, has now re-discovered an old pair from her teenage years and has also bought a couple of new pairs since. I live my life on the floor – maybe you can tell, I’ve got these patches [worn out knees], she says laughing. 199 Without a doubt, women’s wardrobe priorities shift in this period. However, finding the right piece that both suits the demands of their current lifestyles yet at the same time helps them retain their identity as individuals seems especially important during this time. Despite being mothers, women still have dreams of their own, even if these need to be contained in the constraints of everyday practicalities when it comes to their wardrobes. Hanka’s eyes noticeably light up as she shows me one of her favourite dresses that she wore during a holiday with her three children [see Fig A.37, Appendix A.3, p. 372]: This is a beautiful linen and when I went to Slovakia last summer, I wore it as a dress and then I also slept in it and, you know, I wasn’t actually taking it off [laughs]. And it didn’t matter one bit, only that one had to wash it every now and then. And I wear an apron over it, you know, and I feel like a star [smiles]. (Hanka 28-35) Despite the necessity to put utilitarian concerns first, the stories of the women I interviewed confirm that the importance of wearing clothes they like and enjoy wearing does all but diminish at this important stage in their lives. Work outfits Most women I interviewed made a clear distinction between their work and weekend wardrobes and in several cases this was also reflected in a notional division of the storage space. Annabelle’s work clothes, for example, were stored in the main hanging part of the built-in wardrobe in her bedroom. Nicola keeps her work clothes in a cupboard in the bathroom because that is where she gets dressed in the morning and so it makes practical sense. The distinctions between work and weekend wardrobes were less significant in the case of Tanya, with her profession in the creative industry, and Kathryn, whose job as an osteopath requires comfortable, practical clothing that does not differ much from what she would ordinarily wear. Emma, who still owns several outfits bought at the early stages of her professional career, when she had this idea of, you know, you supposed to look like this as a professional working woman, now says that more recently the differences between her professional and private wardrobe blurred. She puts down to a combination of a growing professional confidence and the fact that she recently started free-lancing work. 200 Interestingly, work wardrobes seem to be further sub-divided into everyday work outfits and items that are picked with a careful consideration of their appropriateness for special events such as board meetings, exhibitions, open days and international conferences, where professional selfpresentation is especially important. Everyday work outfits often consist of set combinations that women default to without the need for long deliberation in the morning. Several of my interviewees referred to these outfits as uniforms that are thrown on easily. They would mostly consist of various combinations of dark trousers, black tops and jackets, skirts and light knitwear or plain dresses, again in combination with jackets. These outfits are easy to wear, and so they tend to be worn very frequently, often to the point when they show significant signs of wear and tear. For example, Julie’s favourite work jacket has been worn so often that the sleeves are now shiny, and the bright coloured lining no longer comes out clean when she takes it to the dry cleaners [see Figs A.9-10, Appendix A.1, p. 343]. Mary has had several work outfits such as suit trousers and skirts that she has worn so much that they literally fell apart: So, some of my work jackets, over the years, have REALLY got absolutely just hammered. Really heavily used. So, some of them just disintegrated. (Mary 1528-1534) Nevertheless, these everyday work outfits show only a part of a much more complex picture of women’s professional self-presentation (Tseëlon, 1995). There was a general agreement between all my interviewees who were currently working, that it is crucially important to feel the part in the workplace. Here, clothing was viewed as an important enabler of women’s professional ambitions. This seemed especially important for my younger participants, at the beginning of their careers (Louise and Nicola), for whom appropriate work clothes were also a major contributor to their professional confidence. As Nicola again well illustrates: I feel I HAVE to feel confident when I go into those spaces – like automatically. It HAS to be effortless. Like I just have to sort of NOT be thinking about that sort of things. Which is again - it probably influences what I buy because I think I want something which is gonna be a comfortable me. (Nicola 581-603) While a number of my interviewees agreed that over the last few years a more feminine style in workwear has become increasingly widespread and acceptable, there also seemed to be a general 201 consensus on that work outfits should never be too detracting in either colour or a style that would be too revealing (see also Connor-Crabb, 2017). At work I want to be comfy, smart and not showing off everything, Louise sums up [see also the discussion in Chapter 6.2 – Shape, style, fit]. Suits me/flattering Nicola’s comfortable me from the above excerpt, links to another important aspect of appropriateness - women’s perception of how different items do or do not suit their shape, skin tone or personal style [see also Chapters 6.2 Sensory experiences – Comfort, 6.4 Longing and Belonging – Wardrobe patterns, and 6.5 Layering – Age]. Mary explains this well on an example of an occasion when she bumped into an ex-neighbour who was shopping for something to wear to a wedding. Thinking if she owned something that her neighbour could possibly borrow made Mary suddenly realize how the clothes that you pick are kind of very much part of you. Although her neighbour is similar in height and size, Mary felt that none of her own clothes would easily translate to fit with her neighbour’s style. Golraz’s explanation of why she loves a dress that many of her friends and acquaintances may consider uninteresting offers another good example [see Figs A.97-98, Appendix A.5, p. 409]: It looks good on me and I FEEL good when I'm wearing it. I don't feel, you know, when sometimes you wear something, and you feel like it's not ME particularly? … I don't know, sometimes I don't feel like it's me. But this is something that when I wear it, like in weddings even, which is very formal, I feel that I'm myself. I feel good and I LOOK nice in it. (Golraz 641645) The feelings Golraz describes are often quite subjective and may also change in dependence on women’s figure fluctuations, moods, and current circumstances [see also Chapter 6.5 Layering – Time, p. 226]. Nevertheless, they are critical for emotional durability because no garment enjoys long-term use in a woman’s wardrobe unless it fits in with her needs and her own self-perception (Niinimäki & Koskinen, 2011). Julie, for example, admits to falling out and giving away an artisan made jumper because it didn’t make me look nice. This is worth noting especially in relationship to the design strategies for 202 emotional durability that mention handmade garments, and a connection to the maker among potential contributors to emotional durability of clothing [see Chapter 3.4, p. 71]. Julie’s case is a telling indicator that none of these strategies should be seen in isolation, without a connection to the much more complex picture of women’s experiences and needs (see also Connor-Crabb, 2017; Maldini & Balkenende, 2017). VERSATILITY Another common feature of many of the favourite garments women showed me is their versatility, or the possibility to dress them up and down for various occasions. Kathryn loves things that have lots of use and one of the oldest pieces in her wardrobe is a stripy leotard that she wears for cycling and yoga [see Fig A.107, Appendix A.6, p. 424]. However, she can also combine it with a maxi skirt for going out in the evening. She loves her brocade coat bought at a charity event that her friend invited her to, as in addition to the fond memories she has of the event, she appreciates that the coat can look very formal for special occasions, but it also goes well with jeans and can be used more often in this way [see Fig A.108, Appendix A.6, p. 424]. Mary’s favourite coat that nothing can quite measure up to [see Figs A.188-191, Appendix A.9, p. 474], works well for both country walks and much more formal occasions. It’s that thing you can either sit around a bonfire or garden in it or look very smart in it, she says. The transformation happens simply through a combination with a different pair of boots and tying the belt more tightly. Another item she adores is a dress bought quite recently but already used several times [see Figure A.168, Appendix A.9, p. 474]. If she chooses to wear it to work, it goes well with turtleneck tops that she has in several colours. But Mary has also worn it to a party she went to with her partner. Combined with high heels the dress looked very smart and it was good fun, she says with a smile. Occasion wear is notorious in sustainable fashion research for being among those garments that remain mainly unused in our wardrobes (Fletcher & Tham, 2004; Fletcher, 2014 [2008]; WRAP, 2013; Ellen MacArthur Foundation, 2017, Barley Communications, 2019). For this reason, alternative scenarios through “fast” biodegradable garments have been previously explored for example by Fletcher (2014 [2008]) or Earley & Goldsworthy (2017); a new design project addressing this issue is also about to start as a part of The Business of Fashion Textiles and Technology Creative R&D Partnership. Another solution to seldom used occasion wear items is offered by the emerging rental 203 and sharing models such as Rent the Runway (USA), Lena Library and The Next Closet (NL), or Nu Wardrobe (IRL, UK), that offer the convenience of having outfits available when they are needed without owning them. The assumed environmental implications of these new business models are in improving resource efficiency through extended use (for a more detailed analysis of these emerging models see MISTRA Future Fashion, 2017 (4)). It is indeed possible that biodegradable party dresses or clothing hire may provide a welcome alternative to many. However, I would at this point like to reiterate that it is the continuous wear that helps build long-lasting relationships with clothing. My findings indicate that the feeling of familiarity developed through such “sustained interaction” (Norman, 2004, p. 46) contributes to nurturing the mindsets of care and responsibility for the items we buy and use. This, I strongly feel, is vital for the wider argument presented in this thesis, recognizing the need for long-term systemic interventions that focus on core issues of unsustainable consumption instead of diverting to solutions that temporarily “fix up” the symptoms. While there is no doubt room for co-existence of multiple scenarios, my wardrobe conversations offer ample empirical evidence to confirm that considering versatility of clothes and their appropriateness for multiple occasions can be effective solutions for extending the active use of clothes and hence potentially their emotional durability. In this way, my research provides further support for the body of research that considers focus on versatility and adaptability among the key strategies for extending the longevity and emotional durability of clothing (e.g. WRAP, 2013; Laitala & Klepp, 2015; Niinimäki & Armstrong, 2013; Connor-Crabb, 2017). COMBINATIONS One of the key benefits of talking to women about their wardrobes without asking them for prior preselection of items is connected to the observation that emotional durability and satisfaction with individual garments often seem to be closely linked with how a piece of clothing relates to other items in the wardrobe. The ways a piece of clothing does or does not work with other clothes in the wardrobe can either extend or narrow down the possibilities of its use. In a close link to versatility, possible combination options affect the frequency of wear and hence also relate to emotional durability of individual garments. The importance of easy combinations surfaces especially through the following examples: 204 This bolero is a REALLY great staple 'cause it kind of goes with everything. So yes, that's great, so that's a FAVOURITE. (Kathryn 134-140) Other things - you get them and they just kind of join everything together and pull it together and work with a lot. So, that cardigan, because it goes with so many different things, it just kind of pulls lots of things together. (Mary 921-930) Oh, this is nice! This is kind of like pyjama shirt, but again, just really easy to wear with lots of things. (Nicola 392-395) So, this cardigan is really cute because it's got the colour and that kind of patterning. So, I combine that with that dress and that really works. And that looks really good with jeans as well. (Mary 1388-1396) As all the women I talked to confirm, a wide choice in terms of combinations contributes to the general wearability of an item of clothing. Accordingly, a lack of real or perceived possibilities for combination can rend a garment unwearable. For example, Julie admits to owning quite a few pieces that she bought because she liked their style and material but because she is not quite sure how to combine them with other things she already owns, she has not worn them yet. For this reason, shopping and styling is an art in her eyes because she feels she lacks the imagination to combine her clothes in interesting and effective ways. Julie emphasizes that unlike her friend that she occasionally goes shopping with, she herself is not able to combine her new and old items creatively. As a result, what she would genuinely appreciate in terms of making the most of her existing wardrobe is honest styling advice from someone who sees these things. Mary, Tanya and Hanka, on the other hand, seem to be especially skilled in making the most of multiple combinations enabled by mixing and matching their newer and older clothes [see also Chapter 6.5 Layering]. New options arise as time goes by, which is one reason why Mary and Tanya especially, tend to hang onto their old clothes. One such example is a skirt that Mary bought many years ago for a party she did not go to in the end. For a long time, the skirt remained unused because she found it hard to find something that she could wear it with. It was only after she stumbled upon a top which she thought was a perfect match, that she finally started wearing and enjoying this skirt years after she originally bought it. 205 At the same time, just as a new item that combines well with an unused piece opens new opportunities for wear, a previously successful combination that is no longer possible can make a garment unusable. In line with Klepp & Bjerck’s (2014) point that a ski boot is not much use without its pair, when a skirt that combined well with a jacket wears out, the jacket can remain unused until the next suitable combination is found, or, if this is taking too long, it may even be discarded or passed on. In addition to this, the issue of combinations also seems to strongly link to underwear. Several women showed me garments that they liked but were unable to wear because they either did not have suitable underwear, or they had second thoughts on how revealing the piece may be. Hanka, for example, decided to give away a dress that she liked very much because it required the kind of bra which she found impractical for everyday wear. She says she did not realize this when she first bought the dress: It's very pretty. The only problem is that I need to wear a bra – and it’s open in the back. You know, you can wear a strapless bra and then you don’t see it much but it’s not the kind of thing I would just put on and wear on a daily basis then. (Hanka 422-430) The issue of combinations therefore seems to occur at the intersection of design, women’s individual skills and confidence in terms of styling, and, related to this, also careful shopping decisions that take into account how any new purchases may combine with what is already in the wardrobe. Along with the previously discussed design considerations linked to versatility and adaptability, combinations also highlight the need to focus on user capabilities (Fletcher, 2016; Connor-Crabb, 2017) and shopping decisions (Niinimäki, 2017). CARE About an hour into our conversation, Mary left downstairs to get a bag of her lighter, summer knitwear, out of the freezer. She only recently started storing her seasonal pieces in this way, to protect them from moths. As she walks back through the bedroom door, she tells me: So, Alex [partner] just, when I went downstairs, he teased me and said – does Mila think you’ve got too many clothes or something? In a sense, I kind of do. Because there comes 206 a point where you’re having to look after all this stuff. You’re having to keep it clean, mended and safe from moths. So, I’m probably, I am at that point where I need to stop getting things – or get rid of things. (Mary 1436-1445) Mary’s reflection well captures another key concern that resonated throughout other women’s experiences. In mundane fashion, care is a critical factor with important implications for use frequency and hence also emotional durability of clothing. My findings confirm that in the face of numerous competing demands on their time and attention, women often lack the capacity to devote themselves to care for their clothing (Shove, 2003; Laitala & Klepp, 2015; Rigby, 2016) and so a focus on easy care options is needed (WRAP, 2013). Whether it is due to busy work commitments, childcare, or a combination of both, Nicola’s remark that it’s gotta be quick, it’s gotta be practical, it’s gotta be kind of relatively easy to keep and maintain mirrors the experiences of all my interviewees, without an exception. An important issue in care for knitwear and family heirlooms such as fur seems to be their protection from moths. For this reason, things are often stored away in protective plastic covers, with the use of mothballs, or as Mary shows even in the freezer, yet women generally agree that nothing seems to guarantee full protection. Another key concern is laundry, especially washing of knitwear and other sensitive materials such as silk or woollen weaves. In line with observations from studies on everyday laundry practices (Shove, 2003; Laitala, Klepp & Boks, 2012; Rigby, 2016), that repeatedly point to users’ confusion about best practice in laundering different materials, my research also shows that women often lack the confidence and sufficient knowledge on how to look after sensitive materials. For this reason, they may default to using professional services such as dry-cleaners. This is significant in the context of my study, because aside from the environmental and health concerns linked to dry-cleaning (see e.g. Laitala, Klepp & Henry, 2017), my findings show that the need for dry-cleaning can also significantly reduce the wear frequency of clothing. The reasons for this are twofold and closely interconnected. Firstly, taking clothes to dry-cleaners requires extra effort and expense, and so women often try to save both time and money by wearing such garments only occasionally. Secondly, because organizing dry-cleaning is usually not amongst life priorities, such garments wait in piles of clothing that needs to be either taken to or picked up from dry-cleaners for long periods of time. As Mary’s experience with her jacket well demonstrates: 207 It WAS expensive, and I did wear it quite a bit, but because it’s so pale it needed dry cleaning regularly. And I wouldn’t say I’ve got brilliant value out of it. (Mary 1052-1511) It is for these reasons that women with more confidence in garment care, like Mary or Hanka, often prefer to hand-wash many pieces with dry-clean recommendations, thus weighing out the risk of ruining the garment with the benefits of self-reliance that enables them to have more control over the use of such clothes. All of these say dry clean, Mary says, but it’s just not practical. Nevertheless, among all the care issues that may affect the frequency of use, the most significant seems to be ironing. Without an exception, all women I interviewed unanimously agreed that they do not like spending their time ironing and they consider this with all their new purchases whenever possible. I’ve gotta tell you! I don’t do ANY ironing, Annabelle whispers, admitting that ironing and her are not friends. Annabelle dislikes ironing to the extent that she would rather pay for drycleaning. For Golraz, the need for ironing is especially inconvenient now because the lack of space in her student accommodation means that anything I take out takes lots of time to just again put it back in the same place. Louise used to do more ironing before she became a mother but now avoids it as much as possible because free time is precious, and she does not want to spend it by ironing. Kathryn admits that although she has a huge ironing pile downstairs, her ironing is very cursory, and when I ask Mary if she does much ironing, she is very quick to answer: not if I can help it! SATISFACTION As I noted before [see Chapter 4.3, p. 108], Niinimäki & Armstrong (2013) argue that the pleasure and enjoyment of wearing clothes for extended periods of time significantly contribute to emotional durability of clothing (p. 192). As I have shown throughout the discussions in this chapter, my findings offer ample evidence to support their claim. Satisfying use encourages frequent wear and so helps develop an emotional bond with an item of clothing. As Julie well illustrates: I DO get attached to things and I wear them and wear them and wear them and forget to wear something different [laughs]. (Julie 758-760) A large body of research considered pleasant memories associated with products as important contributors to emotional attachment (Wallendorf & Arnould, 1988; Schultz Kleine, Kleine & Allen, 208 1995; Schifferstein & Zwartkruis-Pelgrim, 2008; Mugge, Schifferstein & Schoormans, 2010). While less comparable data exists on clothing, several empirical studies indicate that meaningful memories linked to wearing garments to special occasions or personally significant events such as weddings, birthday parties or first dates can contribute to feelings of strong emotional connections (Banim & Guy, 2001; Woodward, 2007; Niinimäki & Armstrong, 2013; Connor-Crabb, 2017). While my conversations with women confirm that memorable occasions have their relevance in this respect, my data also points to a reversed causality. Firstly, it emerges that the items worn to such occasions are invariably chosen with extra care and consideration and so it could be argued that they are already pre-primed to inspire stronger emotional bonds. Secondly, when deciding what to wear for special occasions and important events, women often chose among the already successful outfits in their wardrobes. For example, for her first date with her current partner, Annabelle chose to wear an old skirt that she loved and felt especially comfortable in [see Fig A.123, Appendix A.7, p. 440]. She now has very fond memories of the occasion which both her and her partner associate with this skirt. Yet, she did not grow attached to this skirt because of her first date. Rather, she chose it for her first date because it was already something that she loved wearing. Similarly, Julie finds it impossible to part with a dress that reminds her of a lovely wedding she went to when her two sons were little. However, as we speak, it soon becomes clear that the dress was among her favourite outfits at the time, which is why she chose to wear it to this wedding. Hence, although the memories of the wedding are now inseparably connected to this dress, it was Julie’s experience of satisfaction through use that made her chose to wear it to the wedding. This also corresponds with Niinimäki & Koskinen’s (2011) point that memories are not necessarily associated with loved items from the very beginning but rather they are accumulated through long pleasurable use (p. 197). CONCLUSION - ENABLERS This section focused on the ways in which the clothes women wear enable them to lead the lives they live. What strongly emerges from my research is that seemingly minor practical issues and often overlooked considerations of everyday use such as ironing requirements and laundry options, or versatility that enables one to carry a toddler, impress one’s colleagues and climb up a ladder in the same dress, are critical in mundane fashion. It is clear from my conversations that appropriateness 209 of a piece of clothing for women’s current circumstances, or what Fletcher might call “garment’s perfect suitability” (2016, p. 160), enables its frequent wear and enjoyment. At the same time, it is also important to recognise that circumstances and needs are not constant and so clothes that can easily adapt to life changes stand the chance to remain relevant for many years to come. They are often kept and used until they are “completely bedraggled”, “worn to pieces” or “literally fall apart” in wear. Therefore, as Van Hinte argues, if people are to use things for longer, it is crucial to pay careful attention to the context of their use (1997, p. 196). Context of use and fitness for purpose were also key concerns behind the concept of “appropriate technology” (now known as Practical Action), coined by Fritz Schumacher, whose work I discussed in more detail in Chapter 1.3 [p. 31]. In the light of my findings, I here propose that considering “appropriate fashion”, as an approach that takes the dynamics of use and the messy beauty of everyday lives as a core impulse for creative design work, can be critical in enabling long term satisfying use and emotional durability of clothing. Lidewij Edelkoort, one of the world’s most influential trend forecasters, now argues that fashion needs a shift in focus from catwalk designers to designers who know how to design interesting everyday clothes (2014). I here fully subscribe to this call. Yet, my research also shows that emotional durability of clothing hinges on shared responsibility. On the one hand, it is the responsibility of designers and makers to consider “appropriate fashion” and long-term use of their designs. At the same time, however, users need to recognize that like any other relationship, our relationship to clothing needs to be an investment from both sides. As I demonstrated throughout this section, satisfaction and long term relevance of clothes in our wardrobes also relies on choosing items that fit not only our bodies but also our needs and circumstances. As Mary’s observation in the introduction to this section hints [p. 194], being less emotional when shopping for clothes may enable us longer-lasting emotional experiences while wearing them. 210 LONGING AND BELONGING [Please see the narratives of Annabelle and Emma in Appendix A.7-A.8; p. 440, p. 457] Wardrobe stories Connections Wardrobe patterns/ Habits Second-hand clothes LONGING AND BELONGING Associations Price Clothes shopping Inspirations Figure 6.18 The Longing and belonging theme and categories INTRODUCTION As Weber and Mitchell (2004) note, if women are asked about clothes, they will almost invariably drift to sharing detailed stories of their lives, including “anecdotes that start out ostensibly about clothes, but end up being about so much more – events, family, community, relationships, body image, feelings, aspirations, attitudes, beliefs and thoughts about all sorts of things” (2004, p. 3-4). Hoskins similarly argues that it is impossible to talk about things people use without a connection to the lives they lead (1998, p. 2), because the material things people value are so closely interwoven 211 with their life stories that the two are extremely difficult to separate (Ibid). These points were strongly echoed throughout my wardrobe conversations. On countless occasions, a description of a piece of clothing taken out of a wardrobe turned into much more than just casual comments on fit, design, or material. At one end of the spectrum, what followed could range from simply voicing frustrations about homogenous styles and limited fit options available from the high street, to fantasising about the styles and shapes that women would like to wear, if their body, skin tone or current circumstances were different. At the more personal level, some clothes were strongly linked to memories of social occasions or loved ones such as partners, children, or parents. I previously mentioned that significance of memories connected to clothing is widely recognized in wardrobe research (see e.g. Woodward, 2007; Fletcher, 2016; Niinimäki & Armstrong, 2013). Yet, what I found interesting to notice as a designer-maker, was that such memories not only shape women’s feelings towards the item in question but they often also seem to have lasting influence on their feelings towards any similar items in the future. In several cases, this would be reflected in a series of later incarnations of the original garment. Lastly, on several occasions, my wardrobe conversations with women unfolded moving stories of clothes linked to life-transforming episodes, with significance that stretched well beyond the woman’s wardrobe [see Tanya’s narrative Appendix A.10, p. 498]. As a result, my findings provide further evidence for Miller’s (2008) claim that cultivating relationships to material possessions is not contradictory to cultivating deeper concerns in life and strong inter-personal relationships. In contrast to the view that material possessions distract from our deeper personal and social needs, largely rehearsed by the critics of Western materialism and consumer culture [see Chapter 1.4, p. 38], my wardrobe conversations with women clearly show that strong relationships with material things do not always imply weak relationships with people. Rather, the stories of my interviewees confirm that relationships to things, in this case clothing, can be vehicles for relationships to people and vice versa (Miller, 2008, p. 29). The observation that “the aesthetics of care” can easily extend from objects to people and from people back to objects (Ibid), is critical for my research because it also links back to Papanek’s argument, discussed in Chapter 1.3 [p. 31], that care for things and care for people draw on similar sensibilities [Chapter 1.3, p. 31]. This means that not caring about the things we use (including the clothes we wear) can also have wider implications for the care sensibilities we all need to nurture in other areas of our lives. 212 The theory of symbolic interactionism (Blumer, 1986 [1969]), explains people’s actions as reflections of the meanings that objects, events, and situations acquire in the process of social interaction (see also Tseëlon, 2016). What then emerges from my analysis, is that women’s care for a piece of clothing is often a way of nurturing the meanings, the feelings, and the relationships that an item may be associated with. This care does not diminish relationships with people, rather, it often enables the cultivation and extension of those connections that could not be otherwise maintained due to temporary absence, physical distance or even death (see also Stalybrass, 1993). In this way, clothes can become agents, “drawing in” relationships (Woodward, 2007, p. 158), as opposed to being frivolous distractions that detract from them. What also surfaces through noticing the traces of relationships in women’s wardrobes, is that for the women I interviewed, fashion has only limited influence over their clothing choices. It is the people in their immediate surroundings who usually influence women’s choices and preferences in a much more significant way. As Connor-Crabb (2017) also observed, it is not the catwalks and latest fashion news that determine women’s wardrobe decisions, but rather how these are interpreted by the people who matter to them (p. 201). In this context, Woodward also notes that women’s perception of fashion gets filtered through their social networks, and so when women are deliberating over their wardrobe choices “they are more often than not measuring this against the trendy woman who works in their office or a cooler younger sister than against a de-personalized image in a magazine” (2007, p. 119). This is clearly evidenced on Annabelle’s appreciation of the clothes gifted to her by her colleague Barbara, whose style she clearly admires. Emma’s recent purchase of a yellow leatherette skirt that she was attracted to because she had seen another woman looking fabulous in a similar one [see Fig A.146, Appendix A.8, p. 457], is also a proof that it is more often the sidewalk than the catwalk (Polhemus, 1994) that resonates in mundane fashion – the clothes that women actually wear. In the following pages I explain in more detail how the influences of women’s biographies and their relationships are echoed across the narratives of the women I talked to, through two key explanatory categories that emerged from my analysis: Connections; and Wardrobe Patterns/Habits. Please refer to the table in Appendix B.3 [p. 522] for a detailed break-down of all categories and top layer codes linked to Longing and belonging. 213 CONNECTIONS Childhood memories Among the first items that Emma looks for as she opens her wardrobe are two vintage shirts that her sons recently helped her to choose at a festival stall. As they appear from behind the tightly packed row of other items, I can hardly disguise how the brightness of their patterns takes me by surprise [see Fig A.139, Appendix A.8, p. 457]. Up to this point, most women I had encountered through either my dressmaking practice or my research (perhaps apart from Tanya), would naturally gravitate to much more subdued designs. Yet, as Emma rummages through her wardrobe thinking about what is worth showing, she seems to produce more and more similarly bold pieces. Her wedding top, for example, was custom made from a large geisha print fabric found on Etsy [see Figs A.148-149, Appendix A.8, p. 457]. Another of her favourite pieces is a black tunic with large white cranes that she was lucky to spot in an outlet and get for a half of its original price [see Fig A.155, Appendix A.8, p. 457]. Although it seems that Emma never consciously realized how strongly her love of prints is reflected in her wardrobe, on reflection she admits that her eyes seem to be drawn to patterns – especially Chinese and Japanese prints. She suddenly remembers another dress she made as a student from a material she had bought on her travels in Australia, and as the dress pops against the background of the picture on her wall, Emma’s long-term passion for Eastern prints is undeniable [Figure 6.19]. Until she mentions in passing that her glamorous grandmother used to have many similar clothes from her life in Singapore, Emma’s love of these designs appears to be a relatively random aesthetic inclination. Yet, her childhood memory of dressing up in her grandmother’s Singapore clothes offers an important link to Tanya’s story. 214 Figure 6.19 Emma loves Chinese and Japanese patterns and prints Tanya, a confident shopper with extremely clear ideas about how much she is prepared to pay for clothes, suddenly remembers to show me a jacket that she simply had to buy when she spotted it. She says she spent much more than she normally would on a charity shop purchase, but she simply could not resist. While the cut was not great, the jacket had cherries on it and that was what mattered to her [Figures 6.20-21]. Without a shadow of doubt, Tanya says she would buy anything with cherries on it [Figure 6.22]. It seems clear that unlike Emma, Tanya is fully conscious of the appeal that cherry patterns have always had for her and she also knows exactly where this attraction stems from. Her explanation shows with a unique poignancy how the largely unspoken details of personal histories can be pivotal in shaping women’s wardrobes and the clothes they love to wear. Tanya was born in the late 1940s in the communist Czechoslovakia and when she was about two years old, her father was arrested on political grounds and imprisoned for nearly nine years. Apart from one brief visit, Tanya did not see her father for most part of her childhood and lived alone with her mother. A pinafore dress that her father had bought for her in Budapest shortly before he was arrested, was the only link to his presence in Tanya’s early years. I don’t remember the dress, but I remember the feeling, Tanya tells me. She also recalls that her pinafore dress had a cherry pattern on it. This memory was later further reinforced by the fact that her mother treasured the little pinafore for many years, possibly as a reminder of the times, when she still had a family, and everything was all right. 215 Figure 6.20 A jacket Tanya could not resist because of its pattern Figure 6.21 Tanya's beloved cherry patterns tied with childhood memories: jacket 216 Figure 6.22 Tanya's beloved cherry patterns tied with childhood memories: skirt Emma’s inclination to Japanese and Chinese prints that she used to dress up in when she stayed with her grandmother as well as Tanya’s powerful story of her love for cherry patterns both seem to evidence that “what people are buying is not necessarily identical to what manufacturers think they are selling” (Hoskins, 1998, p. 195). It was not the luxurious silk material, the cut, the quality of the making or the high-end designer label that attracted Tanya to her jacket. What Tanya’s story clearly shows is that usual concerns such as cut, fit, material, quality of making, or provenance, can all be easily overlooked if an item has the crucial potential to provide a tangible connection to the elusive moments and sensations that women wish to treasure for the rest of their lives. The same is confirmed in Mary’s confession of a “splurge” in Max Mara, buying a classic coat with bracelet sleeves because it looked like something her grandmother would have worn. As another point in case, shortly after she got her first job, Nicola bought a shirt with a pattern that reminded her of her slightly eccentric gran. What surfaces here then, is that the clothes women love to wear seem to be in many ways intricately connected with the people they love (or would love) to be with. My wardrobe conversations also highlight that childhood memories have a lasting influence over women’s future wardrobe choices. Through materializing links between women’s past, present and future selves (Banim & Guy, 2001; Woodward 2007; Skjold, 2014), clothes can again enable wearers the feeling of “emplacement” 217 (Chong Kwan, 2016, p. 293) [see also Chapter 6.2 – Comfort, p. 169]. By occasionally or repeatedly referencing the styles, materials, or patterns that that have the ability to spark recollections of reassuring childhood moments, women seem to be nurturing connections to the most significant people and events in their biography. Clothes from other people Hoskins also remarks that “possessions that came into someone’s hands as consumer commodities may then ‘deviate’ from their expected trajectory and come to be invested with personal meaning” (Hoskins, 1998, p. 195). Such things are then mainly valued for their personal significance, rather than for their physical properties (Ibid). As I previously mentioned, personal meanings associated with family heirlooms, hand-me-downs, or gifts, have often been associated with inactive items kept purely for their sentimental value (Niinimäki & Armstrong, 2013; see also Niinimäki & Koskinen, 2011; Niinimäki, 2014; Mugge, Schoormans & Schifferstein, 2005; Harper, 2017). The role of emotional attachment to such items for extending clothing lifetimes has therefore been questioned on the grounds that there is little point in keeping clothes for a long time if they do not in fact get worn (see e.g. Fletcher, 2012; WRAP, 2016; Harper, 2017). Yet, my findings bring more clarity to some of these issues. What emerges is that the understanding of items with strong sentimental value as mainly dormant mementos and keepsakes is somewhat limited in scope and depth and I will here explain how my research further develops the understanding of women’s relationships to such items. As garments linked to significant occasions and places were addressed in the Chapter 6.3 Enablers [p. 193], the following pages will focus on items that are in various ways linked to other people – “inherited” and handed-down clothes, as wells as gifted items. Annabelle’s wardrobe provides a good point of departure as it seems to be full of her mother’s old clothes. While some of these are evening pieces, which by definition only get occasional airing at a theatre, most of the other, more casual items, do in fact get regularly worn. Annabelle says that wearing all these clothes always makes her think of her mother and she also admits that if an item gets commented on she relishes the opportunity to acknowledge its original owner. Naturally, she prefers some of these clothes to others. For example, she adores a light non-crease top that she 218 often combines with work skirts [see Fig A.133, Appendix A.7, p. 440], yet her mother’s cashmere jumpers are mostly too warm for her so they get used less frequently. Emma too has a number of pieces from her mother’s and grandmother’s wardrobes, that she actively wears. She feels that clothes sold in the high street are often boring and lifeless whereas her mother’s and grandmother’s items have got some life in them somehow. She also enjoys that the age of these clothes makes them unique, no one else is likely to have the same piece now. While she is worried about the fragile state of one of the dresses in particular [see Fig A.145, Appendix A.8, p. 457], and admits that she is always scared of it falling to bits, Emma still continues wearing all these clothes. Most of the time she is not actually noticing the worn parts and the accumulating holes. A skirt that literally disintegrated during a dance on her wedding night is a clear proof that Emma is prepared to embrace the risks of wearing clothes to pieces [see Figs A.147, A.149-150, Appendix A.8, p. 457]. It is the slightly worn state of clothes imbued with family connections and a history of wear that she finds especially attractive in comparison to the pristine feel of newly bought items. The same sensibilities are also reflected in Louise’s preference for clothes that have been worn before. She loves them for the softness they acquire through wear and she also enjoys the idea that someone loved the piece before and perhaps someone else will love it in the future. For all these reasons, most of Louise’s wardrobe consists of clothes that other people have given her. Perhaps the best example is her absolute favourite - the (once) black skirt that she wears all the time [see Fig A.36, Appendix A.2, p. 356]. While she clearly enjoys that her mother-in-law also used to wear this skirt years ago as a student, what is equally important to Louise is the plain, straight cut that makes the skirt easy to wear and easy to combine with different things for work. The fact that personal meaning and a connection to someone she loves would not be enough in themselves, is clear in Louise’s quite stoical comment that she will never wear her mother’s old dress, because it’s not me. Mary echoes this stoical attitude, reiterating that the reason why she did not keep many of her late mother’s clothes is that her and her mother’s skin tones were different and so colours and styles would not easily translate between them. On the other hand, a skirt that was a cast off from her aunt is simply perfect because it just really suits my shape and looks instantly smart in the morning [see Fig A.161, Appendix A.9, p. 474] . In addition, the material falls really well and so in the two years she has had it, Mary has worn this skirt maybe hundreds of times. 219 What these examples show is that items with strong personal meaning and sentimental value do indeed get worn and in many cases provide a great sense of satisfaction and enjoyment in use, so further reinforcing their emotional value. However, what also comes through clearly is that personal meaning and sentimental value linked to loved ones do not guarantee neither appreciation nor a strong emotional feeling towards an item of clothing. Their role in extending emotional durability of clothing therefore cannot be considered in isolation from other factors such as women’s personal preferences in terms of style, fit and colour and also each garment’s practicality and suitability for women’s lifestyles. In a similar vein, while gifting has featured in design and emotion research among strategies for extending emotional durability of design objects (Schultz, Kleine & Kernan, 1989; Schifferstein, Mugge & Hekkert, 2005), the results of my wardrobe conversations confirm the findings of SchultzKleine, Kleine & Allen (1995) that gifts, regardless of who the giver is, do not guarantee stronger feelings towards things. In fact, gifting can be almost counterproductive in this respect. Louise’s facial expressions as she shows me some of the items received from her mother-in-law [Figure 6.3, p. 164] are a clear proof that being given items that are definitely “not me” (Schultz-Kleine, Kleine & Allen, 1995; Banim & Guy, 2001; Woodward, 2007) makes women noticeably uncomfortable. This discomfort seems to be further multiplied by the moral dilemma of considering whether “getting rid of” the item would be offensive to the relationship with the giver. While my data does not offer sufficient evidence to propose that strong feelings for individual garments reduce further purchases, what my analysis does show, is that such feelings help nurture the sensibilities of care, appreciation and loyalty that significantly unsettle the logic of fast turnarounds and disposability. Similar to Kodi exchange objects studied by Hoskins (1998), these clothes defy the endless pursuit of novelty by instead valuing age, memory, and storytelling. Just like one of Hoskin’s informants Maru Daku, who chooses a betel bag of a specific, quite simple style, because this enables him to identify his own story with his grandfather’s (1998, p. 192), women I interviewed choose to wear old clothes imbued with meanings and feelings as these seem to help ground them in their lives and families and strengthen their sense of belonging in the world (Belk, 1988). Clothes with sentimental and personal meanings tend to exist entirely outside any fiscal values or judgements, both fashion cycles and market value are here surpassed by things that matter on entirely different grounds. It is therefore possible to suggest that although strong attachments to clothing with sentimental and personal value do not discourage further consumption in short-term 220 view, they still have positive implications for long-term practices, preferences, and possibly even shopping habits, as they indicate clothing choices based on other than fashion and market logic. Clothes that connect to loved ones are hence not just mementos and keepsakes but items with a rich potential in emotionally durable mundane fashion. WARDROBE PATTERNS/HABITS Different and Same These are unusual dresses; Annabelle says pulling out a couple of day dresses that her partner bought for her. While she is obviously touched by this surprise gesture, she also seems to be in two minds about the result: This neckline is a little different for me and it just about works…I can get away with it – just about… (Annabelle 1065-1084) Despite her very considerate phrasing, it seems clear that if they were not chosen by her partner, Annabelle would be unlikely to wear either of these dresses. Both their fitted style and the non -crease material match well with her usual choices, but the large floral patterns are not something she would normally go for in a dress. More importantly though, the cowl neckline of one of the dresses seems to unsettle her long-term reliance on V-necklines that she feels suit her frame. Figure 6.23 Annabelle's unusual dresses chosen by her partner 221 Annabelle seems to be at a point in her life when she feels quite confident about the kind of clothes she likes to wear and so she generally gravitates to similar items [see Chapter 6.5 Layering – Age, on the relationship between age and confidence in wardrobe choices]. At the same time, it is intriguing to observe how she also repeatedly emphasizes that the reason she likes a piece of clothing is because it is different. The same is also echoed in other women’s experiences. Despite their clear ideas of styles, shapes and colours they prefer simply because they learnt that these work for them [see Chapter 6.5 Layering – Age], most women I spoke to also seem to look for subtle ways of disrupting their own patterns of dressing by constantly longing for something just that little bit different to what they would normally gravitate to. Thus, clothes that may from an outsider’s point of view come across as more or less “adjustments of the same” (Skjold, 2014, p. 37), still seem to have subtle differences that are significant in the eyes of their owners. What connects all these clothes is their positioning on a notional scale that demarcates a kind of wardrobe comfort zone which helps women negotiate the sometimes overwhelming variety of possible fashion options. For Annabelle, V-necklines and plain fitted styles seem to do just that and so any items that divert too far from these preferences are more than likely to pose a wardrobe dilemma. This gradual fine-tuning of personal style, accompanied by continuous negotiation of the fine balance between ’the same, yet different‘ items, corresponds to what Skjold (2014) calls the “biographical wardrobe” or what Dankl (2011) refers to as “style biography”. Studying wardrobes of mature women, as opposed to younger participants, turns out to be especially enlightening in this respect because it offers a diachronic snapshot of such choices across many years (see also Skjold, 2014). What emerges then, is how a range of strikingly similar styles, colours and materials get revisited in individual wardrobes over long periods of time without much regard for fashion cycles and trends (Woodward, 2007; Dankl, 2011; Skjold, 2014). A good illustration here is Julie, who suddenly spots how the dresses she has laid out on her bed all seem to look the same [Figure 6.24]: 222 Figure 6.24 Julie's same dresses that make her feel comfortable It's funny actually, isn't it? Because each of these dresses that I'm saying are comfortable are very similar. I stick to wearing what I find comfortable (laughs). (Julie 508-515) Similar attitude is also echoed by Nicola who remarks that she is a creature of habit and comfort and so when something wears out, she usually goes and gets something very similar. Her wardrobe now feels more settled as after many years of being quite adventurous with her outfits, she has learnt what suits her and what does not, and she reflects this in her shopping habits. For example, all her trousers are variations on the same peg style which she feels suits her petite figure and so she stopped experimenting with other styles. For the same reason, she has entirely given up the idea of wearing a jumpsuit, something she always wanted, because every single time she attempts to try one on, she gets reassured that it just swamps her figure [See Chapter 6.5 Layering [p. 226] for more discussion on how styles and preferences do not remain static and how they can develop over time (compare also Dankl, 2011)]. What Nicola’s narrative also strongly demonstrates is how the styles that women settle into, or formulas for dressing (Skjold, 2014), have significant practical implications. Tried and tested options enable to quickly put together outfits of what almost becomes a personal uniform, without a need for long deliberation about what to wear [see also Chapter 6.3 Enablers, p. 193]. Pondering a myriad of possible combinations on a daily basis is unrealistic in mundane fashion, because women, 223 especially those with young children, often have only minutes to get ready in the morning. In addition, as Woodward (2007) points out, such “habitual clothing” also resolves the anxieties of those who feel less confident about combining different styles, colours and materials, as in this way they can easily “fall back on items they ‘know’ how to wear” (p. 120), an issue that is especially evident in Julie’s case [see Appendix A.1, p. 343]. Family influences Annabelle, however, opens another key point in reflection on women’s wardrobe patterns and personal style preferences. Like Julie, she looks amused by the striking similarity of the skirts she wears on a daily basis, as she lays them out on the bed [Figure 6.25]. I got a little bit stuck in my ways, she laughs, noticing especially their muted tones and the fact that they look kind of dull in that respect. This also instantly reminds her of a bright-coloured skirt that she had bought as deliberate attempt to try to break away from brown beige [Figure 6.26]. Figure 6.25 Annabelle's dull work skirts 224 Figure 6.26 Annabelle's deliberate attempt to try break away from brown beige As it turns out, Annabelle’s mother had the same thing and to this day brown and beige prevail in both women’s wardrobes. Similar connections between mothers’ and daughters’ wardrobes resonate across other cases, mirroring Woodward’s claim that “the most important relationship that is negotiated through clothing is that between mothers and daughters” (2007, p. 102). As I have previously noted, influences across generations are evident in multiple aspects of women’s wardrobes. My analysis also draws attention to the importance of considering how childhood memories of mother’s (and sometimes grandmother’s) clothes can be at various points in women’s lives echoed in their longing for similar clothing. Earlier in this section I discussed Emma’s love of Chinese and Japanese prints, as an example of what could be called cross-generational belonging through clothing. However, Emma’s referencing of styles previously worn by her mother and grandmother does not end with her love of Eastern prints. Her printed jacket with a diagonal zip across the front once again strongly echoes the style of her mum’s old jacket, whose shape Emma loves and so she wears the jacket a lot despite its quite fragile state [Figure 6.27]. Likewise, the raw silk skirt that she bought second-hand as a student and ended up using for her wedding almost twenty-five years later, is strikingly similar in both its material and style to her grandmother’s old skirt from Singapore that Emma used to love trying on as a child [Figure 6.28]. 225 Figure 6.27 Left: Jacket with a diagonal zip that used to belong to Emma's mother. Right: Jacket with a diagonal zip that Emma bought some years back Figure 6.28 Left: Emma's grandmother's skirt that she used to try on as a child. Right: Emma's wedding skirt As Emma’s example confirms, family background can have a vital role to play in mediating taste and style preferences (Dankl, 2011, p. 128). At the same time, Tanya, who is adamant that one of the 226 main reasons she loves wearing red is that her mother would never allow her to wear it, also shows that this process involves many entangled layers of negotiation and is hence all but unproblematic. Her mother, Tanya tells me, insisted that Tanya’s skin tone was far too dark for other than pastel colours, beige and light blue were considered the best. Tanya’s radical response to this imposition was eliminating all pastel colours from her wardrobe for years to come as soon as she was separated from her family as a student in London. In Chapter 3.2 [p. 64] I mentioned the research of Schultz-Kleine, Kleine & Allen (1995), who studied attachment to objects as a reflection of people’s life stories and their behaviour related to selfdevelopment. In their research, the authors also identified two competing archetypes of self-development behaviour which they described as 1) “affiliation versus autonomy seeking” and 2) “temporal change versus stability management" (p. 328). Each of these behaviours are given different emphasis at various points in our lives and so the most favourite objects tend to be either those that reflect the process of affiliation through desired links to other people, or, by contrast, those that strongly mirror the need for autonomy, and search for own individuality (p. 335). Similar tensions were also observed by Woodward (2007), who notes that women tend to go through an exploratory period that to a greater or lesser extent negates their experiences from their parental homes. Later, however, as women’s need to prove their own independence gradually converges with a desire to re-establish the links with their families and early lives, the process of maturing is also reflected in the re-alignment of some of their favourite styles with the those of their mothers (p. 104). Similar process, although without a direct connection to family ties, is described by Skjold (2014) in her model of “sensory anchoring” [see Chapter 4.3, p. 108]. Hence, like life itself, mundane fashion seems to evolve in relationship to endless competing needs, wishes and paradoxes, many of which are deeply intertwined with our often complex family ties. As Woodward puts it: Because clothing is non-verbal, it lends itself to becoming a means through which people can acknowledge the aspects of a relationship that they do not want to or cannot explicitly acknowledge. … As a subtle material practice, such contradictions are possible as they are not made explicit, and as such clothing does not necessarily cohere with the rest of the relationship. (2007, p. 102) 227 In this respect, Tanya’s wardrobe seems to be simultaneously a revolt against and an homage to her late mother. While an element of her personal “liberation” from the time when her mother selected her clothing is still mirrored in a sizeable proportion of items in bright colours, especially red and yellow, Tanya now also comfortably wears light blue, beige and all other pastel colours. Moreover, her love of handmade textiles, traditional embroidery and also her open-mindedness with regards to wear and tear of clothing, are all no doubt at least to some extent a testimony to her mother’s influence. One of her most fondly remembered pieces of clothing is a dress that her mother commissioned for Tanya while she was a student. It was remarkably simple, with spaghetti shoulder straps, made from vintage home-made canvas, with no attempt to disguise the signs of the material’s age, including the stains on it. With an immense sense of care and tenderness, Tanya now wears many of her mother’s old pieces, some of which are over sixty years old [see Tanya’s narrative, Appendix A.10, p. 498]. CONCLUSION – LONGING AND BELONGING This section discussed the multi-layered ways in which childhood memories and family ties get reflected in women’s future wardrobe choices. In sum, the analysis of my wardrobe conversations clearly highlights what could be called a “fashion lag”. Similar to the term “cultural lag” coined by William Fielding Ogborn (1922) to describe the common phenomenon when the changes in material culture (technology especially) outpace the changes in non-material culture (ideas, beliefs, symbols), “fashion lag” points to a dissonance between the fast turnaround of fashion items in the mainstream industry and the needs, beliefs and crucially the relationships of the women who wear and appropriate these clothes in their wardrobes at a much slower pace (see also Woodward, 2007; Skjold, 2014; Fletcher, 2016). While draining material resources in the pursuit of endless change, the current fashion system seems to blindly ignore the continuity of styles, habits and relationships cultivated in mundane fashion, through the everyday clothes that women choose to wear. As Skjold (2014) also notes, continuity is here often valued more often than change. From this standpoint, the narrative of the fashion industry is entirely incompatible with the narrative of mundane fashion, as both seem to be underpinned by entirely different sets of values. 228 As an important takeaway for extending emotional durability of clothing, the evidence presented here highlights how the largely unspoken details of personal histories are often pivotal in shaping women’s future wardrobes. The significance of early childhood experiences for long-term (clothing) practices has so far been largely ignored in research on emotional durability as well as in the context of fashion and sustainability. My findings therefore provide important initial clues on the potential implications of early education for fostering more sustainable clothing practices. What is here proposed is focusing not only on emotional durability of design but also paying more attention to our own emotional durability by nurturing the sensibilities that enable us to value and appreciate what we have before we resolve we need something else. 229 LAYERING [Please see the narratives of Mary and Tanya in Appendix A.9-A.10; p. 474, p. 498] Wardrobe stories Age Space/ storage issues Time LAYERING Letting go Wear&tear Length of ownership Figure 6.29 The Layering theme and categories INTRODUCTION As I highlighted throughout the explications of all previous themes, although material aspects of clothing have a critical role to play in emotional durability [see especially Chapter 6.2 Sensory experiences, p. 173], it needs to be noted that they still constitute only one ‘layer’ of women’s complex relationships with their clothes. Clearly, women’s wardrobes are not just containers where individual garments they wear now, used to wear in the past, or wish to be able to wear in the future, get accumulated. Previous research described wardrobe as material biography (Banim & Guy, 2001; Woodward, 2007; Dankl, 2011; Skjold, 2014) and argued that wardrobes capture in material form 230 women’s “co-existing views of self” (Banim & Guy, 2000, p. 313). Wardrobes also enable to appropriate what has been bought as a commodity into something that becomes integral to individual life story (Kopytoff, 1986, p. 61). Yet, what I especially wish to highlight in the wider context of this research is how women’s views on continuity and change are reflected not only in their relationship to individual garments, but also to the wardrobe as a whole. Crucially, what is also demonstrated here is that like any other emotional investment, relationships with clothes are not static and they evolve and change over time. Unlike Nicola, Kathryn or Golraz, who see the accumulation of clothing over time as a hindrance and possibly an obstacle to personal growth and well-being, for Tanya and Mary the opposite seems to be true. While in its literal sense, the process of layering is associated with putting on more and more items of clothing for physical comfort and warmth, Tanya and Mary embrace a notional layering also for another kind of comfort. Both women seem to derive a profound sense of contentment (Miller, 2008) and grounding from collecting the clothes they loved wearing in the past, those they enjoy wearing at present, and also those that may still slot into place (Mary) in the future. Aspects of layering resonate across the stories of all the women I interviewed and demonstrate themselves through women’s experiences related to age, their attitudes to the length of time for which they tend to keep clothes, their ability to let go of them, and the ways in which each woman’s space and storage options may influence all of the above. As I highlighted in the beginning, changes over time also play a vital role here, through changing patterns in wearing certain items, women’s changing preferences and fluctuating figures, as well as through the stories of items that acquire special significance in women’s wardrobes through continuous wear over many years. The ways in which wear and tear are seen as either a fascinating materialization of this experience (Tanya, Louise), a reason to stop wearing something (Mary), or how they are often overlooked for the reassuring familiarity they offer (Emma, Kathryn), are also interesting to note in the context of longevity and emotional durability of clothing. Here, all these issues will be discussed in more detail through the key explanatory categories that emerged from my analysis: Age; Time; Letting Go; Length of Ownership; and Wear and Tear. Please refer to the table in Appendix B.4 [p. 524] for a detailed break-down of all categories and top layer codes linked to Layering. 231 AGE Women’s aging in connection to wardrobe has often been portrayed in terms of negative experience. Undoubtedly, the process of aging and the related body changes can bring their own challenges in terms of clothing choices and these have been addressed by Twigg (2013), Townsend, Sadkowska & Sissons (2017, 2019) or Church Gibson (2000). On the other hand, Dankl (2011) also emphasizes that positive elements of ageing tend to be overlooked, focus is often given to signs of deterioration, and this undermines the process of growth through building on lifelong experiences. In line with this view, my findings strongly show that the process of getting older can also be perceived by women as an advantage with regards to their clothing choices. In comparison to their younger years, age often helps women acquire more confidence (see also Connor-Crabb, 2017) and more experience in terms of styles and shapes that suit them, which is in turn reflected in fewer shopping mistakes, fewer frustrations, and hence more successful relationships with new purchases and the whole wardrobes. As the below excerpts from my interviews demonstrate, maturing can be associated with to embrace one’s own limitations in a positive and constructive way, feeling comfortable in “one’s own skin”: I suppose you get to a certain stage, don’t you, in your life when you kind of know what suits you (Kathryn 350-351) So, I think a part of getting older is really just knowing what works for your shape and colouring and then you make less mistakes I suppose (Mary 2086-2094) I think maybe I’ve become more confident about wearing some of those things, but that’s not necessarily since having children, that’s probably just, you know, age, confidence, and just going - that’s more me (Emma 1016-1024) I think now that I’m in my thirties I just got used to the idea that there’s things that suit me and there’s things that don’t [laughs], I’m less experimental I suppose with clothes now, I’m just kind of, I know what suits me and what doesn’t and, you know, I stick to it [laughs]… (Nicola, 490-501) A number of previous studies demonstrated that the dissonance between the ideal self and reality can often result in high turnarounds of clothing in younger women’s as wardrobes, as women test 232 through clothing different options of who they think they might want to be, against the person they actually are (Banim & Guy, 2000, Woodward, 2007; Klepp, 2010; Skjold, 2014). As Woodward puts it: At the moment in front of the mirror women certainly do not feel they are simply expressing themselves as they wish; on the contrary, they are going through a long list of failed attempts to find themselves. (2007, p. 15) Maturity, by contrast, as my interviewees confirm, is reflected in the ability to better negotiate such dissonances, and hence make more satisfactory, long-term purchases. For example, Nicola (in her early thirties) now seems to have settled on items that she knows work for her figure, and her reflection on this process of learning resonates across other women’s narratives: when I was in my twenties I used to try lots of different patterns and I would be a little bit more interested in kind of what was fashionable at the time and try it out…I’ve always tried to find like a jumpsuit for instance that suits me but they tend to just swamp my figure, so yeah [smiles] (Nicola 490-501) Emma (now in her mid-forties) also says that compared to her decisions in her twenties, she has now become more thoughtful about the quality of fabric, the provenance, considering why she wants to buy an item of clothing and if it really is something that can work for her for a long time. Body image At the same time, the fact that women’s bodies and their own perception of them also change with age (often following multiple pregnancies), cannot be overlooked. As a result, some garments are no longer considered suitable to wear. Even though they may still fit, the subjective experience of fit often differs from the feeling women remember from the time when they originally wore the garment. For example, Hanka offered me a skirt that she says she will not wear anymore with the following explanation: I bought this long time ago in Malvern, before we had kids, and then we went to Barcelona the summer before - or the summer after - we got married, and I walked around Barcelona 233 in it and I felt really good, but now, you know, that was before the kids…now it doesn’t fit me quite the way it should, it doesn’t look good anymore (Hanka 651-657) Similarly, Louise felt upset by the well-meant comments of her neighbours and acquaintances who tried to reassure her that her body did not change at all after her recent pregnancy. Despite her petite figure, Louise herself strongly felt a difference. Hence, although she avoided buying maternity clothing for most of her pregnancy, after her son was born she actually bought several items with a much looser fit than she would normally go for, because feeling comfortable was especially important for her in that period. Some of these have now become her favourite staples, like the denim dungaree skirt which she found especially useful at the time because it was hiding what I thought was showing, she tells me laughing. Other changes may not necessarily be related to pregnancies but rather to shifting perceptions of one’s own body over time. Hanka, who used to like wearing short skirts in her twenties, does not wear anything with a length above the knee now. I don’t like my knee anymore, she says. Mary recently bought a wrap silk blouse as an incarnation of one she wore and wore until it fell to bits However, she finds that she does not wear it very often because she suddenly realized that now she feels less comfortable about it kind of falling open there [at the front]. As a result of such changes and shifting perceptions, other garments get appreciated especially because they help to cover the parts which are now considered less flattering. For example, Kathryn loves her semi-transparent bolero that she can wear over her sleeveless dresses to disguise her upper arms, that she does not like to expose anymore [see Fig A.106, Appendix A.6, p. 424]. She also likes the style of her new evening dress that allows her to show what she feels comfortable showing while not being too revealing [see Fig A.118, Appendix A.6, p. 424]: I suppose what I like about this is that you can expose the back but it’s not exposing too much of the back as this bit comes down and it breaks the back a bit, so it’s quite nice to show a bit of back - it’s a little bit flirty - but on the other hand it’s not showing masses when we’re becoming a bit older [laughs] (Kathryn 106-128) 234 Wardrobe quantities Layering is also reflected in the quantity of garments women accumulate in their wardrobes over time. As I noted in the introduction to this section, this is well illustrated by Tanya and Mary, who both seem to acquire clothing as a long-term investment while rarely discarding anything and so their wardrobes grow year by year [see Tanya’s and Mary’s narratives, Appendix A.9-A.10]. As Mary admits, her collection of clothes is now reaching a point where she might need to make some critical decisions on how to go on in the future, because her passion for collecting beautiful pieces can get time-consuming in terms of care and it also puts considerable demands on storage space in her house. Apart from Tanya and Mary, Annabelle also has quite an extensive collection of clothing, stored in two rooms. This corresponds with Woodward’s (2007) observation that older women tend to have larger wardrobes, both due to their tendency to build material biographies and also due to the fact that their generally more settled living conditions allow them to do so. However, as my conversations with women have also shown, wardrobe quantities are also affected by significant life changes such as divorce, moving, or sometimes a combination of both. For example, Tanya’s seemingly extensive collection of clothing would be in fact even larger, if her move from her previous family home did not force her to deposit some pieces into storage. Julie and Annabelle also had to seriously reconsider their wardrobes due to moving countries after their relationships with previous partners ended. Similar transformation is also implicit in Kathryn’s story, where her impulse for a major house clear out and discarding of many older pieces of clothing seemed to coincide with her recent divorce. On the one hand, such “wardrobe edits” can be an opportunity to discard past selves women no longer wish to be associated with and start anew (Banim & Guy, 2001; Woodward, 2007; Klepp, 2010). On the other hand, as demonstrated by Annabelle’s account below, the motivations are often primarily linked to simple practical concerns such as storage and logistics of moving between continents: I brought a lot of clothes TO the States and then back FROM the States and at some point, you’ve got to say: I can’t just keep on taking clothes around with me just because I have them (Annabelle 1268-1299) 235 Moving has also significantly impacted Nicola and Golraz, both being exceptions to the rule of building larger wardrobes with age. While their nomadic lifestyles no doubt had a role to play here, both women also strongly feel that their wardrobes should remain quite minimalist, or capsular, reduced to only pieces they truly love and wear on an everyday basis. The pattern of development in Nicola’s wardrobe therefore contrasts the tendencies in most other cases: I DEFINITELY had a lot more clothes when I was a teenager and when I was in my twenties, but the problem was that things would get like kind of slightly lost and I’m much more interested now in being able to see everything that I’ve got? And kind of know where things are? (Nicola 877-886) Interestingly, for Nicola, this is also a strategy of managing the demands of her busy job with early motherhood. She feels that in order to cope, she needs to be much more sort of uniform and organized [see also Chapter 6.3 Enablers, p.193]. TIME A lack of space or specific storage arrangements can sometimes lead to pleasant rediscoveries of clothes that women forgot they owned. Emma, for example, has a wardrobe in which clothes are stored on two parallel poles placed across the depth rather than the width of the wardrobe. For this reason, she normally only sees the clothes closest to the wardrobe door. What a sudden rediscovery of an older item that gets worn again shows, is that loved clothes are not necessarily items that women always hold in their active memory. Kathryn, for example, while showing me her knitwear, stumbles upon a cardigan that she loves because it falls beautifully. She seems very pleased, admitting that it often gets forgotten at the back of the drawer. This is important for several reasons. Firstly, it clearly shows that inactive garments are not always just things that take up space and never get worn again. Often, these items simply get forgotten due to life’s more important matters (Shove, 2009, 2012) and quickly acquire renewed relevance when they are found again. Secondly, such dormant items also demonstrate that similarly to our relationships with people, our relationships with clothes are not static and they develop over time. Just like bumping into an old friend who we are pleased to see again after a long time, a successful rediscovery of an older item shows that our past purchases can have long-term relevance, if given 236 the chance. Lastly, such re-discoveries further confirm that once clothes leave the shop check out, their relevance is more often judged in connection to our lifestyles and current preferences, than to wider fashion trends. Most of my interviewees also confirm that hanging onto an older piece of clothing often brings advantages in the future, because a rediscovered older item takes on the excitement of a new garment with the reassuring familiarity of the old. Mary tends to hang onto things because she has had the experience of them working much later on. This is also why she is not giving up on a coat that she bought because it was similar to her all-time favourite: But it might be one of those things where I bought it, I’m not wearing it a huge amount at the moment, but then I might, in a couple of years’ time, really fall back in love with it and wear it a lot, which is what happened with that skirt [she showed me previously] (Mary 735739) Changing patterns of wear These changing patterns of wear can be linked to a number of reasons. For example, Golraz, Louise and Annabelle all have quite a few items that they like very much yet cannot wear at the moment because they are more suitable for the warmer climates of their previous homes - Italy, France and Florida respectively [see also Chapter 6.2 Sensory experiences, p. 173]. Annabelle also has several work suits which she used to love wearing when she worked in the United States but does not wear them now because people in England don’t wear this stuff. Kathryn has a favourite jumper and a pair of trousers both of which she can only wear on her slim days, and Hanka is looking forward to a bit more independence from her young children so that she can go to town on her own and have a coffee wearing her beloved green woollen coat. Hanka, Louise and Annabelle also recall that they could not wear some of their favourite clothes following their pregnancies, but as their body changes gradually settled, they were pleased to be able to wear these clothes again. For Annabelle, who says her figure changed considerably after her two children, a desire to be able to wear her favourite old clothes again was the main motivation to get into the gym and regain her pre-pregnancy form. 237 LETTING GO Still, there are also times when despite repeated attempts to re-discover and wear an item again are unsuccessful. This comes through especially clearly in Hanka’s narrative, but similar experiences are shared by all other women. While showing me a shirt dress that she loved so much that she bought another of the same style in a different fabric, Hanka also tells me that she feels past the phase of wearing either of them [see Hanka’s narrative in Appendix A, p. 360]. Although there’s nothing wrong with these dresses, wearing them just does not feel the same as it did five years ago. This is also why she is concerned about some of the clothes she has put away until her children are a bit older, she hopes that it isn’t the case that when I can wear them again, I won’t like them anymore. Mary and Emma tend to hold onto things they hope will work better for them after a slight alteration. Yet, both also admit that this actually rarely happens because they never get around to making these changes. Women’s attitudes to the right balance between keeping hold of things that were once significant and loved and overburdening themselves with more possessions than they can reasonably manage seem to differ considerably from case to case. Julie, Kathryn, and Nicola all agree that they are not too sentimental about clothes and that they try to keep only those items that they love and use. Julie and Kathryn regularly chuck things out and Nicola has had to reconsider her possessions repeatedly due to moving. Hanka, Annabelle and Golraz seem to stand in the middle. They do like to keep unused clothes with the view of their possible usefulness in the future. Golraz, for example, is keeping the dress she loves because she hopes to give it to her future daughter one day. Yet, all three also agree that they are prepared to part with things that seem to only take up space in their wardrobes, without much regret. Tanya, Mary, Louise, and Emma consider themselves hoarders, all admitting that they find it quite difficult to say goodbye to their things. It’s kind of too pretty to let go, Mary says about her favourite blouse from her student days. In addition, she feels that parting with clothes is an open admission that she is not wearing something and therefore clearly wasted money on it. In contrast to Hanka, who strongly feels that if clothes are not being worn, they have lost their function, for Mary her clothes are a collection of aesthetic objects that give her pleasure because of beautiful fabrics, colours, and patterns. As I previously mentioned, her recent attempt at a house clear-out made her realize that her nice collection of clothes is among her most valued possessions. 238 As Dankl (2011) also notes, practical possibility of wear is often not essential in women’s relationship to clothing. (…) clothes offer a future continuation without actually having to wear the garment. (…) The enclosure and the possibility to choose when and if pieces are worn for public scrutiny make them collections for personal empowerment. These collections are kept due to their potential of caring for and preserving the past at the same time. (p. 139) For Mary, with her almost curatorial approach that brings her pleasure, her collection of clothes opens a myriad future possibilities that connect her past, present and future wardrobe choices. Annabelle’s skirt with a pattern that reminds her of the tropics is another case in point. While she struggles to make it work in her wardrobe, she is not prepared to part with it. I just don’t want to let go of that part of my life, she admits. LENGTH OF OWNERSHIP As I explained in more detail in Chapter 5.2 [p. 133], to start the conversation with a casual reference that women could easily relate to, I also asked about their most recent purchases. This question enabled additional insights that I had not anticipated. Firstly, it offered some extra clues on each women’s shopping habits and the frequency with which they acquire clothes, enabling me to corroborate their later claims with real life evidence. For example, in case of Emma, who put a lot of emphasis on her preference of second-hand shopping, mainly for ethical reasons, her latest purchase turned out to be a faux leather skirt from a high street shop, Emma herself being aware of this contradiction. Secondly, asking women about their newest pieces also revealed how perceptions of what is considered “old” and “new” differ between the cases. This is best exemplified on a comparison of Kathryn’s and Mary’s wardrobe. Whereas most Kathryn’s clothes were up two to five years old, with the newest piece bought only a month ago, Mary’s relatively more recent items turned out to be five years at the most. This usefully highlights the issue of differing perceptions of longevity and expected lifetimes (Cox, Griffith, Giorgi & King 2013; Gnanapragasam, Oguchi & Cooper, 2017). For Kathryn, the fact that an item she has had for four-five years is losing its shape a bit, seems to be accepted as a result of its 239 long life. Mary, on the other hand, finds something that looks a bit bedraggled after the equivalent amount of time a disappointment and a sign of poor quality. Asking about old clothes, on the other hand, showed that the age of items in women’s wardrobes can go up to fifty years back, or more, in case of ‘family heirlooms’ such as fur coats that are worn only occasionally and are therefore less susceptible to wear and tear (Skjold et al., 2016). Another insight in this context is that judgements about the length of ownership of individual garments are often unreliable and should hence be only used as a lead rather than approached as data in themselves (see also Laitala, Klepp & Henry, 2017). Quantitatively oriented studies often attempt to capture wardrobe inventories that include dating individual garments (Fletcher & Klepp, 2017). From my research experience, however, this approach is highly contested as it is often rather difficult for women to remember accurately the exact length of ownership of each garment [see also Chapter 5.2, p. 133]. Individual items in women’s wardrobes are often difficult to categorize in terms of age, possibly with the exception of those associated with a special occasion that is easy to date – such as for example a 50th birthday party. Like life itself, women’s wardrobes are not neat linear narratives but often rather messy accumulations of layers of past experiences and events that are not always remembered accurately. Good example here is Tanya’s dating of her favourite blue travel dress, which she says she has had for about twenty-five years [Figure 6.5, p. 165; Figs A.201-204, Appendix A.10, p. 498]. As I later found, however, the brand was founded in the year 2000 – i.e. only seventeen years ago at the time of our interview. As another example, in her answer to my question about her oldest clothes, Hanka claimed she had no clothes that go back to the time before she moved to the UK. Yet, as our conversation progressed, she came across a denim skirt kept and worn since her student days over twenty years ago. In addition to being symbolic links between the past, the present and the future (Banim & Guy, 2001; Woodward 2007; Skjold, 2014), old clothes also carry a more prosaic connection between women’s past and future selves, as my findings show. A garment’s continuous relevance seems important to women for one more reason previously not covered in research on longevity and emotional durability of clothing. Aside from the environmental implications in terms of extending clothing lifetimes, being able to wear the same item of clothing for many years seems to also have positive implications for women’s self-perception. For example, Kathryn feels very proud that she can still fit 240 into her favourite leotard that is now over fifteen years old. Annabelle makes a similar comment as she shows me a skirt that was a gift from her then boyfriend and later husband when she was just nineteen. Although the couple have since separated and Annabelle moved continents, the fact that she is still able to wear this skirt when she goes out in the evening, puts a smile on her face. Despite all the changes in her life over the thirty years, the skirt still fits, and Annabelle’s wide smile suggests that this gives her a welcome reassurance that in one way at least she is still the same person she was when she put this skirt on for the very first time. WEAR & TEAR Far from being just an indication of deterioration, wear and tear is an eloquent testimony to a longterm satisfaction and lasting relevance of individual items of clothing. It also mirrors the layers of experiences lived through while wearing these clothes and so rather than decreasing in value, wellworn garments often become indispensable parts of women’s wardrobes (Spivack, 2014; Heti, Julavits & Shapton, 2014; Fletcher, 2016). While women often fear the moment when a loved item will finally fall to bits, meaning they will no longer be able to wear it, this rarely seems to stop its continuous use. Experiences with such worn garments resonated across the stories of all the women I interviewed: so it’s falling apart so much that I can’t really do anything with it (Emma 345-355) you can see I’m very fond of that one because it’s a bit knackered [laughs] (Kathryn 429-431) yeah, so some of my work jackets, over the years, have REALLY got absolutely just hammered, really heavily used, so some of them just disintegrated (Mary 1528-1534) What is also interesting in this context is that many of such garments no longer seem to be seen objectively by their owners. Although items with visible signs of wear arguably do not fit into the wider societal norms that still tend to be geared towards newness and latest trends, well-worn clothes are often used with pride and personal comfort that largely disregards what other people may think. 241 Tanya is an especially good example here [see her narrative Appendix A.10]. As I noted in the Prologue to this thesis [p. 13], she obviously takes pleasure in the signs of wear and tear that her clothes show. For Louise, the fact that her favourite black skirt has now faded to an extent when it is certainly not the prettiest of her clothes, does little to stop its frequent use. To show it to me, Louise had to pull it out of the washing machine, which only confirms that the skirt gets constantly worn [see Fig A.36, Appendix A.1, p. 343]. Emma and Kathryn also regularly wear favourite items that they admit would benefit from more attention to mending or de-fluffing, but in the face of everyday demands they usually just end up putting them on without even noticing any wear and tear issues. This is also where the question of repairs and repairability comes in again [see also Chapter 6.2 Sensory experiences, p. 173]. Apart from Louise, all the women I interviewed were able to do minor repairs such as sewing on a button or repairing a hem, yet often they would also admit that they do not normally get around to doing such jobs. All of my interviewees also agreed that they would consider having their favourite items repaired if the repair would require more specialist skills. However, as Connor-Crabb (2017) also observed, in most cases these decisions were also linked to women’s perception of repairability as a function of price and effort needed to seek suitable services. Overall, my findings provide further support to Fletcher’s (2016) point that repairability does not only refer to the designable features of garments. What seems equally important is women’s perception of whether or not each individual garment is worth further investment in terms of time, energy and money. Mary’s comment on her favourite coat [see Figs A.188-191, Appendix A.9, p. 474] that nothing can quite measure up to resonates across other cases: the lining is falling to bits, but this is a coat where I would - replacing and repairing a lining can be expensive - this is a coat where I would bother, I would bother (Mary 626-635) As Mary’s comment confirms, items women love, have on the whole a better chance to get repaired (Mugge et al., 2005; Connor-Crabb, 2017; Love Your Clothes, 2017). At the same time, while Mary says she would bother to have her beloved coat relined, she has not done so over several years that the lining has needed attention. This usefully demonstrates that in mundane fashion intentions often do not come to fruition as women juggle other life priorities [See also Chapter 6.2 Sensory experiences – Details] 242 CONCLUSION - LAYERING This section focused on the ways in which clothes serve as tangible links between multiple events and stages in women’s lives and discussed how women’s relationships to clothes in their wardrobes evolve over time. While the Chapter 6.4 on Enablers [p. 193] highlighted satisfaction that stems from a garment’s fitness for purpose and its appropriateness to women’s current circumstances, the theme of Layering captures satisfaction derived from long-term ownership and use of clothing. What Layering importantly reveals in the context of emotional durability, is that the relevance of an item of clothing (or a lack of it) at one point in time is not finite, because different phases in women’s lives tend to be linked with different clothing needs and preferences. My research provides ample evidence that dormant clothing in women’s wardrobes is often likely to slot into place again in the future and to be worn and enjoyed repeatedly over many years. Hanka, for example, contacted me as I was writing up this thesis to say that in the last few weeks, she had hardly taken off the shirt dress she had told me she could never wear again [see p. 238]. This, of course, may not happen with all the items women own. However, what my research clearly shows is that while women’s lives mostly do not revolve around clothes, the collections of clothes in their wardrobes very much reflect the kind of lives they lead. This is well captured in Attfield’s (2000) point that: (…) to locate design within a social context as a meaningful part of peoples’ lives means integrating objects and practices within a culture of everyday life where things don’t always do as they are told nor go according to plan (p. 6) Just like women’s lives do not unfold in a neat linear sequence of significant events, successful relationships and fulfilled dreams, their wardrobes also inevitably contain clothes that are beautiful, useful and deeply meaningful to them, those that are insignificant but handy to have, but also items that they do not need now, will not need in the future or should have never bought in the first place. Bridgens & Lilley (2017) note that while designers are producing objects to be used in the future, they rarely look at that future. Yet, as I have showed throughout this thesis, while the current fashion tends to be faster and faster, women’s relationships with their clothes unfold at a considerably 243 slower pace - over many years and sometimes decades. Hence, if clothes are to be layered and enjoyed over time, learning to project long term use must be at the core of the design process. At the same time, to return to Norman (2004) [see Chapter 2.4, p. 51], while designers can produce attractive and useful things, the rest is up to the people who use them. Design cannot guarantee that people will bond to things, that part is up to each individual user (p. 225). As I have observed many times during my wardrobe conversations with women, a significant proportion of the items that were never used and never loved were not actually the “failed relationships” (Chapman, 2015 [2005], p. 24) I referred to in the opening chapter of this thesis [see p. 23]. Rather, they were relationships that rarely even started because women felt unsure already at the point of purchase whether and how these clothes could fit with their lives and their wardrobes. Van Hinte (1997) notes that the first step to successful long-term use is choice. My research seems to confirm that to enjoy the long-term satisfaction of layering in our wardrobes, the attention should not be directed solely to design but also to investing more effort in choosing well, buying only clothes that fit well with our personal circumstances, preferences, and needs. 244 RESEARCH IN PRACTICE: ONE THING COLLECTION To find the essence of a thing in the process of fabricating it. (Wim Wenders, Notebook on cities and clothes, 1989) INTRODUCTION The One Thing Collection is an absorption of this thesis, the purpose of my explorations over the three years of this research is manifested in the garments that I made in response to each of the empirical themes that resulted from my analysis. The process of making these clothes accompanied the writing up stage of my research, the making therefore complemented and extended the thinking and vice versa. At this point, I returned to Gatzen’s notion of “design through making” [see Chapter 1.3, p. 31]. While this approach was not unfamiliar to me as in many ways it reflected my studio practice before I embarked on this research journey, now I had the unique opportunity to underpin my practical explorations through the collection of experiences and narratives of the women I spoke to as my research progressed. The garments presented here are my interpretations of these experiences, they are my attempt to capture through tangible means the intangible and entangled reality of emotional durability of clothing. The continuous dialogue between the thinking and the making throughout this process reflected Gray & Malins’ (2016 [2004]) point that one of the roles of practice in research can be “using the skills of the artist/designer to visualize and understand complex processes (perhaps in other fields) – making the invisible” (p. 105). The aim was not to design a collection in a traditional fashion sense but to corrode the paradigm of disposable fashion by learning from the collections of clothes that stood the test of time in my interviewees’ wardrobes. Returning to what I set out to do in the Introduction to this thesis [see p. 16], the One Thing Collection is a distillation of my efforts to contest the dominant fashion business model “by understanding fashion as a manifestation of routine daily lives that remains with people over time” (Buckley & Clark, 2017, p.4). In line with my commitment to reflexivity throughout this research journey, it also needs to be noted that the design and making process described here reflects the learnings from my empirical research through the lens of my own design sensibilities. 245 THE PROCESS Although this chapter presented the empirical themes of Sensory experiences, Enablers, Longing and belonging and Layering in four separate sections, throughout my discussions I also repeatedly highlighted that all four themes are intricately entangled and mutually interdependent. This complexity must also be reflected in their practical interpretation. For example, a beautifully soft garment will not make it far if it does not fit well or if it needs to be dry cleaned after every wear. In my designs, I therefore aimed to capture this complexity by simultaneously considering the following [see also the Emotionally Durable Clothing Model, p. 168]: Multisensory perceptions with a special focus on soft feel, comfort and details. Practical considerations of everyday use such as versatility, adaptability, appropriateness for purpose, laundry, ironing, and easy combinations with other clothes. The poetic elements of women's narratives, referencing the largely unspoken details of personal histories that are often deeply embedded in women's clothing choices. Long-term use through a focus on repairability, alterability and styles that easily adapt to fluctuating figures. Figure 6.30 Design considerations in One Thing Collection Material sourcing All of these concerns were reflected throughout the whole design and making process, from the point of material sourcing [Figures 6.31-36]. I chose to use natural materials, as these prevailed in my interviewees’ stories [see Chapter 6.2, p. 173], largely due to their tactile qualities, pleasant feel on the body and better resistance to perspiration. I made every attempt to source all materials as ethically as possible, starting with locally available options. When sourcing locally was not 246 practicable, due to availability of materials suitable for my project, I carefully checked provenance of all materials and components with my suppliers. It must be noted, however, that the process of sourcing brought several challenges linked to smallscale production, that I was previously aware of from my designer-maker practice. These included minimum orders, suppliers’ willingness to disclose their sources and also the availability of suitable alternatives to widely available threads and components (see also Aakko & Niinimäki, 2018; ConnorCrabb, 2017; European Commission, 2019). Hence, for example, despite my decision to use natural materials, I eventually resolved to use polyester threads because I did not find a satisfactory alternative in the colour and quality I envisioned for my project. Due to care considerations [see Chapter 6.3, p. 193], I gave special attention to selecting materials that would resist creasing and would be machine washable where appropriate to the use of the garment. To see how each fabric reacted to washing, I wash-tested all material samples at 30˚C. I also wanted to ensure that each garment offered the possibility to be drip dried, without the need for ironing, because all my interviewees unanimously agreed that they avoid ironing whenever possible due to time constraints and more important life priorities [see Chapter 6.3, p. 193]. While woollen cloths I was sampling for the coat to be made in response to the theme of Layering would normally be expected to be dry cleaned, I was still interested to see how the chosen material would react to machine washing, and so any pre-selected woollen fabrics were also wash-tested. Another key element of my fabric sourcing was considering how materials would evolve in the future, through frequent wear and laundering. For this reason, most samples were washed repeatedly, to gage resistance to multiple washes. I was inspired by the many stories I heard of clothes that were loved because of the softness they acquired with time [see Chapter 6.2, p. 173] and I wanted to make something that would have the same inherent ability. For similar reasons, I also considered how materials would “absorb” any future repairs (Rissanen, 2010), approaching repair as a way of adding, rather than reducing the value of the garment. My tacit knowledge from the long-line of repairs and alterations I have done for my clients proved especially valuable here, as having handled such clothes for the many hours they sometimes took to repair, I felt that I could instinctively tell how materials would wear over years and how they would respond to future reinforcing or patching. This was important, because repairs can add extra volume to seams and other parts of garments and so it is 247 critical to ensure that they do not negatively affect the tactile qualities of garments [see Chapter 6.2, p. 173]. Otherwise a repaired garment can easily fall out of favour. In addition, Emma’s comment that she does not like the pristine feel of new clothes [see p. 219] especially resonated with me and encouraged me to further develop the use of hand-stitching details that I trialled in my early studio experiments [see Chapter 3.5, p. 80]. Hand-stitching in contrasting colour was on the one hand a way of incorporating my designer-maker signature and on the other a technique engaged to disrupt the pristine feel of the garments, by incorporating a “disturbance” (Rissanen, 2010). I wanted the clothes to feel “new and old at the same time” (Wenders, 1990). If hand-stitching was integral to the design from the very beginning, adding some more in the future when a repair is needed would not devalue the garment’s original look. On the contrary, each future repair could be an identifier of a chapter in its story. As hand-stitching is added over time, the story unfolds. For these reasons, stitches were deliberately not perfect, as I was conscious that this could revert the pristine feel I wanted to avoid. The aim was to invite and encourage the owner to dare to add more in the future. This approach to making clothes returns to the question of whether a design can be ever finished, discussed in Chapter 3.3 [p. 67] in connection to the “open design object” (Harper & Edvards, 2017), half-way products (Niinimäki & Hassi, 2011; Papanek, 2003 [1995]; Fuad-Luke, 2009) or things in motion (Tonkinwise, 2005). In this context, keeping in mind the possibilities of future lives my clothes may take on, I further developed my interest in working with rectangular shapes and full widths of fabrics [see Chapter 3.5, p. 80], to enable easy disassembly and re-use of material in the future. With the view of future repairs and alterations, all garments included generous hemlines for length adjustments and also to offer extra material for repairs. Lastly, my choice of materials also reflected my interviewees’ statements on colours, patterns, combinations, and easy wear. I aimed to enable multiple combinations between all the garments I was making, and I also wanted my designs to combine well with other garments in the future. As the wall printouts of the selections I made from my interview photos were covering the walls of my studio [see Chapter 5.3, p. 141], it was striking how blue, grey and black in a range of tones seemed to reoccur in the stories of favourite clothes. l was also intrigued by the countless variations on stripes and polka dots that seemed to reoccur throughout the interviews. 248 All the considerations described here were reflected in my final choice of materials. These included: MATERIAL THEME USE Black beehive weave cotton SENSORY EXPERIENCES One Dress LAYERING Coat pocket details Lightweight organic denim (9.5 OZ) ENABLERS Modern Workwear Navy blue and white stripe LONGING AND BELONGING Pinafore ENABLERS Modern Workwear seersucker pocket details Charcoal grey boiled wool LAYERING Coat Red polka dot and coffee hand- SENSORY EXPERIENCES One Dress facings, printed cotton ENABLERS belt, and pocket details Modern Workwear pocket details Table 6.2 Materials used for One Thing Collection Figure 6.31 Material sampling - wash tests 249 Figure 6.32 Material sampling - wash tests Figure 6.33 Material sampling - testing texture and feel of materials Figure 6.34 Material sampling - testing combinations of final materials 250 Figure 6.35 Sketchbook page referencing reoccurring patterns (stripes and polka dots) from wardrobe conversations Figures 6.36 Material sampling – testing combinations of final materials with threads for hand-stitching details 251 Styles, details, and fastenings The styles of all garments reflected the need for versatility in terms of accommodating fluctuations in weight over time and figure changes linked to age. At the same time, I was aware that a flattering fit should be at the core of each design as shapeless garments were invariably linked with negative associations throughout all my wardrobe conversations. The task ahead was therefore to balance shape with comfort and enable free movement and long-term flexibility. As I previously mentioned, I fully subscribe to Sisson’s (2016) claim that designers cannot expect people to want to wear their designs if they would not want to wear them themselves. In addition to this, my research also made me acutely aware of the vital importance of sensory perceptions of clothing. As a result, throughout the process of making the One Thing Collection I paid careful attention to imagining how wearing each of the garments I was making would feel. This was enabled by trying the toiles on, wearing them for hours, sometimes days, in some cases even washing them. I also used my hands to try the depth and comfort of pockets. Pockets were now included in all the garments without exception, mirroring their significance for an item’s utility and the independence they enable women, as it clearly emerged from my interviewees’ stories [see Chapter 6.2, p. 173]. My findings about the significance of other subtle details and fastenings [see Chapter 6.2, p. 173] were also carefully considered in all the designs. As my interviews confirmed that fastenings are a frequent reason of garment failure and disposal (WRAP, 2013), I again aimed to limit fastenings to a minimum. Just like in my temporary design responses [see Chapter 3.5, p. 80], I used only snap fasteners that do not require any extra openings in the material and can be easily detached if a garment is to be altered, re-used or recycled. At the same time, considering that buttons often belong to favourite details of loved garments [see Chapter 6.2, p. 173], I looked for fasteners that could become subtle decorative features, enhanced by the use of hand-stitching in contrasting colours that echoed the rest of the design. While I opted for subtle tones in all the designs, especially for practical reasons such as easy combinations (as explained above), I was also keen to reflect some of the more poetic elements of women’s relationships with clothes that emerged from the wardrobe conversations [see especially Chapter 6.4 Longing and Belonging, p. 211]. I felt moved by the stories of my interviewees that revealed some deeply intimate personal histories behind garments that may seem ordinary and 252 insignificant in the eyes of others. I therefore wanted to find a way how these could be integrated into my designs with a sensibility that would honour the trust the women I talked to gave me. I wanted these stories to be integral to my designs, while at the same time not exposing them to scrutiny by random passers-by. The inside of Tanya’s pocket, that simultaneously concealed and revealed a long history of wear [Figure 6.5, p. 165], provided a key inspiration here. While also mirroring the family histories of my interviewees linked to patterns and prints [See Chapter 6.4, p. 211], I decided to use the largely hidden construction details such as pockets and facings to sew in the hints of all the stories women shared with me through subtle contrasts of printed fabrics that enlivened the garments from the inside out. Finally, in reflection on the presentation of my temporary design responses [Chapter 3.5, p. 80], which despite of my attempt to convey an alternative to the mainstream narrative of fashion still seemed to be largely rooted in traditional fashion imagery, I decided against a final photoshoot of my One Thing Collection. Instead, I photographed the process of making these garments in exactly the same way I photographed my wardrobe conversations with women. Without any staging, simply capturing the process as and when it unfolded. I felt that this approach much better reflected the essence of mundane fashion, with all its idiosyncrasies and imperfect beauty, that I wish to convey through this thesis. 253 SENSORY EXPERIENCES: ONE DRESS There’s something about a dress, I don’t know, it’s hard to put into words, Mary told me. Her words resonated throughout the rest of my wardrobe conversations. Without an exception, each of the ten women I interviewed had a go to dress, as Louise put it, loved because of its suitability for most occasions. Such dresses are worn frequently, and just like Tanya’s blue dress [Figs A.201-204, Appendix A.10, p. 498] or Hanka’s cheque dress [Fig A.49, Appendix A.3, p. 372], they often soften through wear to a point when they feel like second skin [see Chapter 6.2, p. 173]. Women’s experiences with their go to dresses are reflected in my One Dress. After the iterative process of sampling [see p. 249], the material I chose for One Dress was a black medium weight beehive weave cotton that has a better crease resistance in comparison to a plain weave. As a way of exploring the process of the garment becoming lighter and softening through wear over the years of wear and washing, I deliberately chose a medium weight material. The light red polka dot cotton was then used for neckline facings for the reasons described earlier [see p. 253] and also for its soft feel. The same material was also used for other details, including the top part of the pocket bag and in the middle section of the reverse side of the optional belt [Figure 6.46, p. 262]. The design strongly references the styles of Tanya’s and Hanka’s favourite dresses (see above), yet I decided to use folds instead of gathers because I felt that these would be more suitable for the material I was working with. As I also explained earlier, another important consideration was avoiding a baggy, shapeless look that was generally dismissed by my interviewees. Reflecting the concerns of mundane fashion, I aimed for a casual and versatile garment that would be at the same time easy to dress up, for example in combination with its optional belt. In reflection on my experiences with folds from my temporary design responses [see Chapter 3.5, p. 80], I made sure that all the folds in the design were wide enough to be comfortably ironed (if required), yet also well-balanced to avoid extra volume in the sensitive areas of waist and hips. The neckline and all hems were hand-stitched for the reasons I explained earlier in this section, and also to enable easy length adjustments. A long hand-stitch is much easier to unstitch than machine stitching. As during my conversations with women, I noticed that they would often roll up or turn up their sleeves, the One Dress sleeves have a wide hand-stitched hem that can be turned up easily. 254 Lastly, like all the other garments in the One Thing Collection, the One Dress has comfortable deep pockets that enable to fit everything in without a need to carry an extra bag. 255 Figure 6.37 Sketchbook page – the Sensory experiences theme 256 Figure 6.38 One Dress - the toiling process. Testing placement of folds, size, and shape of pockets (Toile 1) Figure 6.39 Adjusting size and shape of pockets (Toile 2) 257 Figure 6.40 Cutting out in the final material 258 Figure 6.41 Top with pre-stitched neckline. Background: wall printouts from wardrobe conversations Figure 6.42 Skirt with pre-stitched, extra wide hemline 259 Figure 6.43 Details in polka dot printed cotton. Left: top pocket bag. Right: neckline facings Figure 6.44 Top and skirt final assembly 260 Figure 6.45 One Dress – pre-stitched for hand-stitching in contrast colours 261 Figure 6.46 One Dress with optional belt – pre-stitched for hand-stitching in contrast colours 262 ENABLERS: MODERN WORKWEAR I was fascinated by Nicola’s description of her work dress in which she can go straight from the board rooms onto a ladder. Already in my temporary design responses, I started exploring the idea of “modern workwear” in relationship to the strategies of versatility and trans-seasonality [see Chapter 3.5, p. 80], through translating the simplicity and multi-functionality of everyday Slovakian folk costumes into current context. The experiences of the women I talked to strongly highlighted the importance of work outfits in which they could find their smart and comfortable me, enabling them to forget what they are wearing and focus on the task ahead. This is why I decided to explore the idea of Modern Workwear further. In addition to the sourcing considerations described earlier in this section, referencing the idea of workwear and the strong prevalence of blue colour across my interviewees’ wardrobes, I chose to use lightweight indigo blue denim for my Modern Workwear design. I then used the navy blue and white stripe seersucker for the top pocket bag detail and the red polka dot cotton for the facings of the button up sections on the sides. As I mentioned in the section on my temporary design responses [Chapter 3.5, p. 80], continuous wearing of the clothes I made in the initial stages of my research was a part of my practical explorations, feeding in helpful insights for later design iterations. What I realized while wearing the first “modern workwear” design I made [see Chapter 3.5, p. 80], was that while the bat-wing top was comfortable and also practical in terms of resisting perspiration (in line with the recommendations of the Design for Longevity report (WRAP, 2013)), the extra volume of fabric in the sleeves also meant that it was difficult to layer with other garments that had less generous sleeves. For this reason, I decided to rethink the design and adopted the same style as I used in the One Dress also for the top of Modern Workwear. I previously mentioned that the folds I used in the first version of the “modern workwear” proved to be challenging when it came to ironing [see Chapter 3.5, p. 80]. In addition to this, my initial concern that folds in the waist area could be an issue due to adding extra volume in sensitive areas, was confirmed by multiple references to similar issues by the women I talked to. Yet, with the benefit of my multi-level analysis accompanied by wall printouts and selections of garments from the women’s wardrobe narratives, I noticed that many of the favourite skirts that my interviewees showed me seemed to have dropped yokes [Figure 6.48]. This was interesting, as a dropped yoke seemed to offer the right solution for taking the volume away from the waist area. At the same time, in the light 263 of my findings, it was also essential to make sure that the Modern Workwear skirt is adjustable, so that it can flexibly adapt to women’s figure changes and weight fluctuations over time. With this in mind, I resolved to include button up panels with two sets of sew-on snap fasteners on each side, thus allowing for flexible adjustment by 3 or 6 cm [Figures 6.50-52]. Just like the One Dress, the Modern Workwear also has sleeves that can be easily turned up, as well as large pockets and generous hemline. 264 Figure 6.47 Sketchbook page – the Enablers theme 265 Figure 6.48 Sketchbook page - yokes on favourite skirts. Figure 6.49 Modern Workwear toiling - testing the balance of folds (Toile 1) 266 Figure 6.50 Experimenting with side panel adjustments Figure 6.51 Skirt side panel adjustments with snap fasteners, hand-stitching in contrasting colours 267 Figure 6.52 Experimenting with skirt side panel adjustments, detail Figure 6.53 Cutting out in the final material 268 Figure 6.54 Pattern pieces in the final materials, including materials for hidden details Figure 6.55 Skirt pocket construction 269 Figure 6.56 Construction of skirt yokes, folds, side panels and pockets Figure 6.57 Hand-finishing of top facings 270 Figure 6.58 Modern Workwear top and skirt - pre-stitched for hand-stitching in contrast colours 271 LONGING AND BELONGING: PINAFORE Women’s memories of pinafore dresses, often in connection to their mothers, reoccurred in several narratives. As the wall printouts were hanging around my studio [see Chapter 5.3, p. 141], I was also intrigued by noticing that many favourite dresses referenced the pinafore style. This seemed to fit well with my findings on the significance of childhood memories and family ties for women’s future wardrobe choices, as I explained in Chapter 6.4 Longing and Belonging [p. 211]. In addition to this, Hanka’s description of wearing an apron over one of her favourite dresses and feeling like a star made me think that a pinafore dress would combine well with both my One Dress and Modern Workwear designs. In the context of mundane fashion, the idea of a protective yet stylish garment to wear over work clothes after return home deserved further exploration. The material I selected for the pinafore was a navy blue and white stripe seersucker, which I considered suitable for its easy care qualities, soft feel and also as a reference to the countless stories of stripy garments I heard throughout my wardrobe conversations [Figure 6.35, p. 251]. After careful testing for colour fastness, the indigo denim used for the Modern Workwear was also used for the top pocket bag and I also used diagonal placement of the bottom pocket bag as an extra decorative detail [see Figures 6.69 and 6.71]. As I started finalizing the pinafore toiles, it became clear to me that I needed to work on these simultaneously with the Modern Workwear design because the two needed to fit comfortably together. At the same time, I also wanted the pinafore to work as a standalone garment to be used either as a dress on its own or in a combination with a T-shirt and trousers. I therefore moved between the two options, once again trying for myself how different versions would feel on the body [Figures 6.61-62 and 6.66]. For example, I initially considered the option of tying the top behind the neck. Yet, when I tried this version on, I realized that when I put my hands in the pockets, my hands pulled the neck-strap, and this made the wearing uncomfortable. As a result, in the final version I used the combination of sew-on snap fasteners to fix the top to the centre-back (again using two sets for adjustments like in the Modern Workwear) and extra straps at the centre-back and inside side seams to allow multiple flexible options of wrapping the skirt. The final version of the pinafore also includes a pleated panel at the centre top, as a way of balancing my aim to work with simple, rectangular shapes (as explained earlier in this section), with shaping 272 the garment and allowing for flexibility also in the bust area. While pleating the stripy material for the central panel was time-consuming, I thoroughly enjoyed the process and felt reassured about my choice of material by the lovely soft hand of the fabric as I was working with it. Aligning the stripes of the skirt and the top was also a time-consuming process, alternating the direction of stripes would have been an easier way forward. However, while I considered and tried this option, I felt that it would optically add volume to areas that women did not want to draw attention to. The length adjustments of the pinafore are enabled by both moving the snap fasteners on the neck-straps and again a generous hemline. 273 Figure 6.59 Sketchbook page – the Longing and Belonging theme 274 Figure 6.60 Pinafore fastening (Toile 1) Figure 6.61 Trying the fit and feel (Toile 1) 275 Figure 6.62 Trying the fit and feel (Toile 2) Figure 6.63 Fitting over the One Dress 276 Figure 6.64 Front panel pleating sample for Toile 3 Figure 6.65 Pinafore top front and back (Toile 3) 277 Figure 6.66 Trying the fit and feel (Toile 3) Figure 6.67 Fitting over the Modern Workwear (Toile 3) 278 Figure 6.68 Pinafore top in the final material - front and back 279 Figure 6.69 Pinafore construction - pocket bags, pleated front panel and facings Figure 6.70 Pinafore in combination with Modern Workwear 280 Figure 6.71 Pinafore top detail – pre-stitched for final top-stitching 281 LAYERING: COAT As a top layer that offers protection, warmth, comfort, and also as a piece of clothing that tends to be bought as a more long-term investment, a coat seemed to be a suitable garment to capture the theme of Layering. Most women I talked to have a favourite coat they owned for many years, several of these garments showed obvious signs of wear and tear as a result, but despite this they were still loved and kept in use. Being among the more valued items of clothing, coats were generally well looked after and repairs were more likely in comparison to other garments, if for example a lining was torn, or a button fell off. For all these reasons, a coat seemed to provide the perfect top layer that tied across the multi-layered elements of emotional durability of clothing. As I explained earlier in this section, the material I used for the coat was a dark grey boiled wool that I selected for its practicality, lightness, and a lovely soft touch. Considering that coats are items that are more likely to be repaired than other, less expensive items, boiled wool was also chosen as a material that is forgiving in terms of wear and tear, yet it also responds well to repairs and alterations. Small holes, for example, can be darned almost invisibly. Larger damage, especially on darker backgrounds, invites many creative options of visible repairs that can enhance, rather than devalue the original plain design. The style allows layering of several garments underneath, without the coat feeling too loose or baggy. This is again enabled by the soft drape of the boiled wool and the raglan sleeves, that adapt well to different figures and can also accommodate more loosely fitting garments such as for example a bat-wing top. The coat is deliberately unlined, because I aimed to retain the lightness and the softness of the material. In this way, it could also be worn across most seasons, taking the UK climate as a starting point. However, the construction also enables easy insertion of lining, should the owner prefer this option, or as an opportunity for a future alteration of the design and another step in the coat’s history. Like all the garments in One Thing Collection, the coat has generous pockets. These are lined with the material used for making the One Dress, thus linking all the layers of my practical reflections on the findings from this research journey. 282 Figure 6.72 Sketchbook page – the Layering theme 283 Figure 6.73 Coat Toile 1 before the insertion of the collar Figure 6.74 Coat collar (Toile 2) 284 Figure 6.75 Testing the size and placement of pockets (Toile 2) Figure 6.76 Coat Toile 3 after wash test 285 Figure 6.77 Cutting out in the final material Figure 6.78 Cutting out in the final material, markings for placement of buttons 286 Figure 6.79 Reverse side of sleeves, hand-finished seam details Figure 6.80 Insertion of sleeves 287 Figure 6.81 Coat before the insertion of the collar Figure 6.82 Collar insertion 288 Figure 6.83 Coat in combination with One Dress 289 CHAPTER SUMMARY Chapter 6 summarized the findings of this research and discussed their implications for extending emotional durability of clothing by design. For this end, the core part of the chapter was divided into four sections, each of which addressed one of the four empirical themes that emerged from the analysis of my wardrobe conversations – (1) Sensory experiences, (2) Enablers, (3) Longing and belonging and (4) Layering. I here also highlighted that each thematic section is linked to the wardrobe narratives of those of my interviewees whose experiences in connection to the particular theme were especially pronounced [see indications at the beginning of each section: p. 173, p. 193, p. 211, p. 230]. The four thematic sections discussed the key aspects of each theme in connection to the experiences of all my interviewees, also addressing how my findings link to previous research. The concluding section followed the process of making the One Thing Collection, understood as an absorption of this thesis, through the garments made in response to each of the four empirical themes. The next, final chapter, offers a retrospective look on the thesis in relationship to the three research objectives, summarizes the key insights and contribution to knowledge, addresses the limitations of my study and suggests possible avenues for future development of this research. 290 7 CONCLUSION Concluding the research objectives Points of discovery and contribution to knowledge Contribution to knowledge summarized Limitations Future development 291 CONCLUDING THE RESEARCH OBJECTIVES This conclusion first outlines how the three research objectives have been addressed through the structure of the thesis. Broadly, the thesis is structured in three parts that mirror the three research objectives in moving from a contextual, global, understanding of the research problem, through to the practices of ethnography and fashion design and making. Here I outline the key insights in using sensory methodology to study emotional durability of clothing, before outlining the core discoveries and contribution to knowledge. The chapter concludes with future development and limitations of my study. Objective 1 (Thesis Part One): To critically review relevant emotional design theories and explore the possibilities of their practical application in fashion design and making. In Chapters 1 to 3 I contextualized my research within the urgent call to rethink the ways in which we engage with fashion in the future and I critically discussed the key theories and concepts that underpinned my research journey. In Chapter 1 [p. 23] I positioned myself as a researcher-practitioner and explained how reflexivity has been applied throughout this thesis to address the issues of validity and as a way of recognition of how my personal and professional background framed my inquiry. I examined the overlapping concepts of fashion, clothing, dress and style and in this process I found that Tulloch’s (2010) perspective on ‘style as agency’ especially resonated in the context of my research, because it highlighted users’ active role in digesting, appropriating and possibly even redefining ‘fashion’ through their use of everyday ‘clothing’. Equally, Tulloch’s (2010) take on ‘style narratives’ mirrored my intentions to capture women’s everyday experiences through their own words. I here also examined how my research sits within the wider tradition of design thinking that highlights the role of human agency and personal responsibility throughout the lifetime of designed objects, for us as designers, makers as well as users of products. Papanek’s notion of “Our Kleenex Culture”, which, he argued, normalizes the mindset of disposability, seemed to have special potency in the context of research on emotional durability. I saw that my designer-maker philosophy sits very well with the current calls for human perspectives on fashion, especially Gatzen’s (2018) notion of ‘design through making’, Fletcher’s (2016) plea for ‘post-growth fashion’ and Von Busch’s (2018a) 292 suggestion that designers should cultivate ‘emotional and sensorial closeness to their users’. In the concluding section of Chapter 1, while considering the relationship between consumption and material culture, I gained reassurance that conflating the two is extremely unhelpful for the efforts to encourage more sustainable and richer relationships with the material world. Chapter 2 [p. 43] reviewed key approaches to clothing longevity in the context of reducing the damaging impacts of the current production and consumption patterns on the environment. In a discussion of the current discourse on fashion rhythms, I found that my research would best be described as slow fashion research practice, thus mirroring Clark’s (2008) view that ‘slow’ approaches to fashion unsettle the established hierarchies of designers-producers-consumers and cultivate a long-term view of design objects. Following on from here, I looked into the current research on life-cycle assessment and noted its inherent challenges in predicting how clothing is used in everyday life, once it leaves a laboratory setting. I also gained reassurance that despite the difficulties in accessing ‘soft’ data, extending the active life of clothing is still considered the most effective way of reducing environmental impact and enhancing the sustainability of clothing practices. Importantly, however, any potential savings achieved in this way are contingent on reducing and slowing down the material throughput across the whole value chain. User values and expectations are a crucial factor in this respect, along with considering both physical and emotional durability of clothing. At the end of Chapter 2, I identified Norman’s (2004) concept of three level design, that progresses from visceral to behavioural and at last to reflective aspects of design, as a framework with key relevance for my further research. Chapter 3 [p. 57] directly focused on my objective of examining a range of theoretical perspectives in research on design and emotion, with the view of their practical application in fashion design and making. In this process, I gained an understanding of the history and main strands of enquiry in emotional design and identified design for emotional durability as the focus point for my research. Its focus on what Di Salve, Hannington and Forlizzi (2004) referred to as “sustained and reflective”, as opposed to “short and reflexive” (p. 252), emotional responses to design, seemed critical for my interest in long-term emotional experiences with clothing. With this in mind, I here also examined how objects with significant emotional value feature in the current culture of obsolescence, focusing also on critical voices that question the links between emotional attachment and reduced volumes of consumption. 293 The second half of Chapter 3 first focused on key attempts to formulate guidelines for designers who want to apply emotionally durable design in their practice. The following section then detailed how previous research on design and emotion featured in some of the currently proposed strategies for extending longevity and emotional durability of clothing. In the latter part of Chapter 3 I highlighted the lack of empirical evidence on the impact of these strategies in practice, and hence a significant gap in knowledge between design recommendations and the lived experience of clothing. This provided a clear focus for Objectives 2 and 3 of my research. The chapter concluded through the reflective section Research in practice: Temporary design responses [3.5, p. 80]. This section is the fulcrum that starts to link theory and practice. It is also a link between the first part of the thesis with parts two and three. The designs in this section are presented as an impression of the first, exploratory stage of my research, that trialled the ‘design and thinking through making’. The research problem here is how absorbing the contextual foundation and design for longevity can be applied in the move from the macro to the micro level of my research and from theory to practice. Objective 2 (Thesis Part Two): To identify how the different ways in which women experience and engage with fashion affect the emotional durability of clothing. Chapters 4-5 covered the methodology I chose to address my research aim and objectives and discussed my fieldwork experiences and data analysis. Chapter 4 [p. 98] first explained that I approached this research from an interpretivist perspective, which I believed most adequately reflects the complexity and the intricate character of everyday experiences with clothing. I reiterated that I entered this research as a researcher-practitioner and so the empirical stages of my study were accompanied by an independent design research that aimed to contribute to the final objective of articulating my findings through a series of garments/fashion artefacts. At the same time, I explained how in the course of this research it emerged that the empirical stage along with its detailed analysis (Objective 2) should be prioritized over designing a larger series of new garments as originally intended (Objective 3). As my contextual review pointed to important methodological challenges in studying emotional durability of clothing by using quantitative methods such as questionnaires, my methodology 294 stemmed from a combination of my designer-maker experience with my background in ethnography and cultural studies, an approach that has not been previously used in this area of research. The work of the anthropologists Robert Murphy and Sarah Pink shaped my recognition that integrating ethnographic methods in interviewing involves a process of knowledge co-creation, with strong implications on reflexivity and ethical considerations in both the field research and the articulation of findings. Following a review of prior studies that touched upon different aspects of women’s wardrobes and emotional durability of clothing, I specified my interest in exploring how the sensory methodology introduced by Pink (2015 [2009]) for studying everyday experiences can be applied in my fieldwork. In Chapter 5 [p. 124] I summarized the methodological and ethical issues I considered before interviewing women in their homes as well as my own preparation for each interview. In line with the reflexive approach I adopted, I here also reflected on the ways in which my presence and my contribution to the conversations with women shaped the character of my study and the data I collected. In a similar vein, I described how including several clients of my studio enriched this study and I also reflected on my experiences of establishing rapport with my interviewees in order to achieve the “thick description” (Geertz, 1973) that my research aimed for. To conclude this stage of my research journey, the experiences that women shared with me, captured in audio recordings, photographs, and my research notes, were analysed in four main stages: 1. Transcription 2. Wall printouts and wardrobe narratives 3. Codes, themes, and categories 4. Sketchbook reflections and selections for final designs These are partly presented in Chapter 5 and extended versions are included in the Appendices in support of the research findings. 295 Objective 3 (Thesis Part Three): To create a series of garments that reflect women’s experiences with emotionally durable clothing and propose new ways of extending emotional durability by design and making. Chapters 6 [p. 160] summarizes the findings of my research and in line with the overall aim of my study, discusses their implications for extending the emotional durability of clothing by design and making. The chapter is introduced by a reflection on the use of sensory methodology in studying emotional durability of clothing, and it also addresses why I decided to present my findings through an emphasis on the wardrobe narratives of each of the ten women I interviewed. The four following sub-chapters each address one of the four empirical themes that emerged from the analysis of my wardrobe conversations with women: 1. Sensory experiences, 2. Enablers, 3. Longing and belonging, and 4. Layering. In Chapter 6 I also explain how these narratives [see Appendix A, p. 342] are simultaneously to be approached as “in-vivo, in-wardrobe” (Fletcher, 2016, p. 170) design development process which culminates in addressing the Objective 3 of this research by a garment made in response to each of the four empirical themes. This One Thing Collection, is a distillation of women’s narratives collected during my research. It is inspired by women’s wardrobe collections, and rather than being a collection in a traditional fashion sense, it aims to corrode the paradigm of disposable fashion by learning from the collections of clothes that stood the test of time in my interviewees’ wardrobes. POINTS OF DISCOVERY AND CONTRIBUTION TO KNOWLEDGE Sensory methodology In the discussion of my fieldwork I noted that my choice of approach to the empirical phase of my research was partly motivated by the hypotheses that asking women why they love something may not be the best way of finding out why they love something [see Chapter 5.1, p. 125]. My experiences from integrating the sensory methodology in my wardrobe conversations with women confirm that sensory approaches to wardrobe studies can offer valuable layers of information on subtle expressions of emotion and satisfaction that can be hard to access through questionnaires and other 296 purely verbal approaches to studying women’s relationships with clothes. A detailed reflection on the benefits of sensory methodology for studying emotional durability of clothing is included in the introductory section of Chapter 6 [6.1, p. 161]. The key insights from this process include: • Benefits of sensory approach for a deeper understanding of experiences that may be difficult to verbalize. • Loved clothes encourage rich sensory engagement, while in case of those that “do not work” sensory engagement tends to be avoided. • Focus on handling clothes draws attention to deep appreciation of details such as buttons, stitching, necklines, linings, and belts. • The key importance of tactile qualities of materials for women’s wardrobe choices and long-term appreciation of individual items (e.g. soft touch, light weight and softening through wear and laundering). In addition, as I noted in Chapter 6.2 on Sensory experiences [p. 173], sensory methodology has strong potential to extend the practice of fashion design and making, by on one hand providing a deep understanding of users’ everyday experiences with clothing and on the other encouraging designers and makers to reflect on their own sensory perceptions of the clothes they wear in their creative work. As my own experience from this research journey confirms, it enables designers to “think of fashion as intimacy” and “open emotional and sensorial closeness to their users” (Von Busch, 2018a, p. 81). In this way, sensory methodology can also help unsettle the current paradigm of fashion, by nurturing “new breed of designers” (Crossley, 2004, p.45), who care less about catwalks and are more concerned about the long term relevance of their work for their users. Four empirical themes: Sensory experiences, Enablers, Longing and belonging and Layering The overarching point to highlight in connection to emotional durability of clothing is that women’s relationships with the clothes in their wardrobes stem from a myriad of sensory impressions, practical needs and personal histories which are often so closely intertwined that it is quite 297 impossible to disentangle them. While through my detailed analysis I identified four key themes that enable researchers and designers to grasp some of the leading principles to navigate the complex territory of emotional durability as reflected in women’s wardrobes; emotional durability of a garment can be rarely reduced to any one of these. My research demonstrates that the entangled concerns of women’s relationships to their clothes can be streamlined into four areas [see also the Emotionally Durable Clothing Model, p. 168]: 1. Sensory experiences Women’s perception of clothing through multiple senses, touch, and vision in particular. 2. Enablers The ways in which clothes enable women to lead the lives they live; the key concerns include everyday practical considerations and appropriateness to circumstances. 3. Longing and belonging The largely unspoken details of personal histories, childhood memories and family ties, that are often pivotal in shaping women’s future wardrobe choices and the ways in which they relate to what they wear throughout their lives. 4. Layering The relevance of an item of clothing at one point in time (or a lack of it) are not finite, because different life phases tend to be linked with different clothing needs and preferences. A deep satisfaction is often derived from use over many years and across multiple life phases, and the reassuring familiarity that result from this process. 298 What seems striking then, is that current design strategies for clothing longevity [see Chapter 3.3 and 3.4, p. 67 and p. 71] often represent artificial divisions and fragmented approaches that have little in common with women’s lived experiences of clothing (see also Connor-Crabb, 2017). For example, emotional durability tends to be presented as a separate strategy, often emphasizing that meaningful relationships need to be fostered through craftsmanship, storytelling or user engagement in the design process. Yet, my findings clearly demonstrate that emotional durability of an item of clothing hinges on a number of other, often quite mundane concerns, for example, how easy it is to wash, if it needs ironing and how it combines with other things in the wardrobe. As I demonstrated on the process of making the One Thing Collection [see Chapter 6.6, p. 245], the task ahead is then in avoiding the temptation to “escape complexity” (Manzini, 2017) and instead work with multiple strategies and strands of knowledge in unison, embracing the entangled beauty of mundane fashion. Listening, Discovering and Making In the light of the above, it seems critical to reiterate that there are no shortcuts to emotionally durable design. Designing with people in mind necessitates taking the time to listen and reflect on the many entangled aspects of their lives, and how these can be translated into more sustainable and emotionally durable clothing choices. In my thesis, this is reflected in the presentation of findings through the wardrobe narratives [see Appendix A, p. 342] that provide one starting point. My own experiments in “design through making” (Gatzen, 2018, cited in Bollier, 2018), illustrated on the One Thing Collection, demonstrate how the key findings from my study on mundane fashion can be absorbed in design practice. While most previous design projects in this area were experimental (Townsend, Sadkowska & Sissons (2017), Townsend & Sadkowska (2017)), diagnostic (ValleNoronha) or creative/expressive (Riisberg & Grose, 2017; Rissanen, Grose & Riisberg, 2018) [see Chapter 3.5, p. 80], the making of the One Thing Collection extends the conversation on how an indepth understanding of the quotidian can be reflected in garments that balance everyday requirements on wearability with women’s unique personal histories and deeper emotional needs. At the beginning of this thesis, I referred to critical voices of those who argue that overfocus on materials will not resolve the core issues of fashion and sustainability (Fletcher, 2016, 2014 [2008]; Brooks et al. 2018). My research also highlights that a focus on behaviour alone is not a solution 299 either, because behaviour often emerges from what materials and designs enable us to do [see Chapters 6.2 and 6.3, p. 173 and p.193]. Hence, as Van Hinte notes, “every project requires its own harmonized combination of solutions” (1997, p. 21), as we are not looking for “mass answers”, but instead for, “a mass of answers” (Fletcher, 2007, p. 130). In addition, my conversations with women also made me acutely aware that any real impact in fashion and sustainability can only be achieved if the current discourse is balanced against what matters from women’s own everyday perspectives. Although most of my interviewees would no doubt agree that a healthy environment is essential for our futures, the everyday reality revolves around concerns that are felt with much more immediacy. Despite gender stereotyping, examples might include a complex mixture of daily tasks, such as getting oneself prepared for work, getting the children prepared for school, household management and so on. It is therefore important to recognize that long-term future is often shaped by much more short-term, mundane concerns (Thaler & Sunstein, 2008; Partnoy, 2013, Roberts, 2015). My research shows that the quotidian must be tightly integrated into the current discourse, if sustainable fashion is not to become an irrelevant “do good” exercise (Von Busch, 2018c) but an integral way of how we think about the future of our wardrobes, and consequently, in a more holistic sense, the future of our planet. CONTRIBUTION TO KNOWLEDGE SUMMARIZED The core contributions of my thesis are in three areas linked to my research objectives: 1. Extending and deepening the discourse on emotional durability 2. New methodological approach to studying emotional durability of clothing 3. Rich contextual data and imagery of clothing in use through wardrobe narratives Contribution 1: Extending and deepening the discourse on emotional durability of clothing • The thesis applies a unique combination of theoretical underpinnings, ethnographic methods and design practice; extending the current research on 300 emotionally durable design, specifically: Chapman, 2015 [2005]; 2008, 2009; Haines-Gadd et al., 2017; Mugge, 2008; Norman, 2004. • The thesis extends the understanding on clothing longevity and emotional durability, specifically: Niinimäki, 2011; Niinimäki & Hassi, 2011; Niinimäki & Koskinen, 2011; Niinimäki & Armstrong, 2013; Niinimäki, 2014; WRAP, 2013, 2015; Connor-Crabb, 2017. • The thesis extends the emerging discipline of wardrobe studies, with its focus on clothing in use, specifically: Woodward, 2007, Dankl, 2011; Skjold, 2014; Fletcher, 2016; Fletcher & Klepp, 2017. • The Emotionally Durable Clothing model presented in Chapter 6.1 [see p. 161] extends Norman’s (2004) concept of three level design in relationship to women’s lived experiences with clothing. • Overall, the research enables a model for an ethnographic tool in fashion that could aid students, designers, and makers, to navigate the complex landscape of emotional durability of clothing. Contribution 2: Sensory methodology in wardrobe studies and fashion design and making • The research establishes methods to access rich contextual data about clothes in women’s wardrobes. Applying sensory ethnography within wardrobe conversations produced unique material for observation, analysis, and coding [see Chapter 6 [p. 160] and Appendix A & E [p. 342 & p. 535]]. • The methodological contribution to knowledge resulted in four key empirical themes and twenty-seven explanatory categories [see Table 6.1, p. 169], presenting a holistic view that has not been previously applied to emotional durability of clothing. 301 • The development of the multi-level analysis [see Chapter 6 [p. 160] and Appendices [p. 342]] established a richness of data that demonstrates a unique continuous dialogue between qualitative empirical research and the practice of fashion design making, thus introducing a new approach to studying emotional durability of clothing. Contribution 3: Rich contextual data and imagery of clothing in use through wardrobe narratives • The thesis resolves an academic gap between empirical data on clothing in use, applying ethnographic methods and design practice. • The thesis establishes a pathway from theoretical study in fashion sustainability and sensory ethnography to an applied practical outcome embodied in the making of One Thing Collection. • The thesis establishes four empirical themes: 1. Sensory experiences, 2. Enablers, 3. Longing and Belonging, and 4. Layering [see Chapter 6.2-6.5, p. 173-244] that demonstrate a ‘thick description’ and granularity of detail on women’s experiences with clothes, that are applied in practice within the One Thing Collection. • Applying a substantial volume of rich contextual data and imagery the thesis establishes the concept of mundane fashion. The concept of mundane fashion builds specifically upon Buckley and Clark (Fashion and Everyday Life, 2017) and Fletcher (Craft of Use, 2016). Beneficiaries - Research audience This research will be valuable to a breadth of researchers and students of fashion, particularly those concerned with emotional design, fashion futures and sustainability. The study will also be of interest to designers-owners of micro and small fashion businesses whose business model, like my own designer-maker practice, aims to counteract the mindset of disposability in the fashion industry. 302 While the mainstream narrative of fashion is ruled by large players and high-street chains, the fashion sector largely comprises of small and micro businesses (see e.g. FSP, 2018-21; Statista, 2017) who are often major innovators in the current fashion landscape, especially in terms of transition to more sustainable practices (Aakko, 2016; Connor-Crabb, 2017; European Commission,2019). In addition, design and production industries of fashion and clothing can use this research as a point of reference to reconceptualise their practices towards greater customer satisfaction and environmental, social, and cultural sustainability. LIMITATIONS Naturally, all research has limitations, often linked to methodological decisions made along the way and the timeframe available. The most obvious limitation of this study is in the size of the sample for the empirical stage of the research. However, as I explained in Chapter 5.1 [p. 125], my decision to work with a smaller sample of participants was informed by the initial stages of my fieldwork. My experiences from the first few interviews confirmed that to benefit from the richness and depth of “thick description” (Geertz, 1973) that I aimed for with my study, enabling also multiple levels of coding, analysis and interpretation of results, reducing the number of participants for the empirical study was necessary. It could also be argued that the snowballing sample of the women I interviewed resulted in a focus upon a specific demographic of the UK fashion consumer. While the international background of some of my participants provided a richness of experiences and diverse cultural influences, on the whole all the women I spoke to were graduates who have or previously had (some on maternity leave) professional careers. It also needs to be noted that my conscious decision to focus on the experiences of mature women [see Chapter 5.1, p. 125] is naturally reflected in my data. My analysis indicates that including a younger age group in my sample may have affected some of the results, especially in connection to the themes Sensory experiences and Layering. While the age group and makeup of the sample might have some inherent limitations, as the wardrobe narratives included in the Appendices demonstrate [see Appendix A, p. 342], despite their similar demographics a diversity of opinions and experiences was expressed by my interviewees. 303 Due to my choice of qualitative approach, the findings presented here should not be generalized on the wider population and globally. Yet, this research offers some clear methods of analysis and outcomes that could be used or/and re-appropriated within fashion research and practice. What is clear, is that adopting a qualitative approach provided me with the granularity of detail in the analysis and contribution to knowledge [see the Appendices] that could not have been achieved if I adopted a quantitative approach. While the One Thing Collection conceptualizes the learnings from the theoretical and the empirical stages of my study into design and making practice, further research would be needed to assess the benefits of this way of working for extending emotional durability of clothing. In Chapter 4.1 [p. 99] I explained that in the course of this research it emerged that most emphasis should be put on the empirical stage (Objective 2), to maximize the insights from listening to women’s experiences with the clothes they already own. As my findings demonstrated, emotional durability of a garment develops over many years, and it often fluctuates across different life phases. Testing the One Thing Collection in terms of emotional durability within the time constraints of doctoral research was therefore deemed methodologically insignificant. Yet, a clear direction for post-doctoral research is offered here. Lastly, this approach to fashion design and making sits outside the production methods used in the “current condition” (Fletcher, 2016, p. 272) of the fashion industry at large. However, what is proposed here is not an approach to be scaled up, thus residing within the current narrative of growth and scale [see Chapter 1.3, p. 31], but rather a way of working to be “scaled across” (ConnorCrabb, 2017) by micro-businesses and designers-entrepreneurs operating within the new narrative of “post-growth fashion” (Fletcher, 2016). The conclusion presented here clearly demonstrates that this thesis fulfilled its aim and objectives, by extending the current knowledge on longevity and emotional durability of clothing in connection to fashion design and making through the notion of mundane fashion. As the next section will show, the study also lays the foundations for multiple future enquiries to be developed. 304 FUTURE DEVELOPMENT As my research progressed, multiple future avenues for both my future research and practice seemed to emerge. For example, I was intrigued by several spontaneous conversations with my interviewees’ husbands and partners, which made me think that studying men’s long-term relationships with their clothing would provide an equally fascinating material to study. As I indicated above, there is also scope for extending this research to more participants and also to other (especially younger) age groups for comparison. Another key point that emerges from my study is that emotional durability of clothing relies on a shared responsibility. On the one hand, it is the responsibility of designers and makers to consider long-term use of their designs. At the same time, however, users need to recognize that just like any other relationship, our relationship to clothing needs to be an investment from both sides. As I stated in the conclusion of Chapter 6.3 [p. 193], being less emotional in the process of acquiring clothes may enable us to have richer emotional experiences in the process of wearing them. To experience rich long-term relationships with our clothes, we need to invest more time and effort in choosing well. This, of course, has wider implications beyond the realms of this research, for example: fractured links between designers, producers and consumers, consumer habits, the nature and availability of appropriate clothing retail outlets, time management and more. As I identified in the course of this study, further helpful insights in this respect can be offered by the body of research in behavioural economics (see e.g. Thaler & Sunstein, 2008; Partnoy, 2013; Thaler, 2015; Roberts, 2015), that I will consult in more detail in my post-doctoral enquiries. In addition, the experiences from the design development process and making of the One Thing Collection led me to the decision to further develop this way of working in the future. As I explained in the discussion of limitations of this research, while I strongly felt that the timeframe of doctoral research did not provide the opportunity to user-test my designs in a methodologically significant way (based on my findings on the long-term nature of emotional durability), I will consider this option in my post-doctoral research. In connection to this, because my research also highlighted the contested nature of using fashion photography rooted in the ‘traditional’ fashion narrative, I would also like to explore the possible avenues of using photography in a way that would be meaningful in the new, post-growth narrative of fashion. 305 As I also indicated in the section on the core contributions of my research, I see the potential for creating a teaching tool to encourage students of fashion related courses to consider the issues of emotional durability in their design work. I have started this process as a part of my research-based teaching on the MA module Creative Innovation and Entrepreneurship at the University of Huddersfield and have already discussed the possibility of testing the future development of this tool internationally. To conclude, in Chapter 1.3 [p. 31] I indicated that my current study was underpinned by a triad of concerns: 1. Focus on the human dimension of fashion through understanding user needs and expectations. 2. Identifying effective ways of extending the emotional durability of clothing through design. 3. Imagining alternatives to the status quo and promoting a parallel economy of fashion production through micro-business models. With both retrospective and prospective view on my study, I feel that my understanding of the issues related to the first two concerns has significantly progressed during this research journey. Looking ahead, I am looking forward to the opportunity to further explore the possibilities offered by the third concern through my current engagement at the AHRC funded project Rethinking Fashion Design Entrepreneurship: Fostering Sustainable Practices at Centre for Sustainable Fashion, London College of Fashion. 306 REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY 307 Aakko, M. (2016). Fashion in-between. artisanal design and production of fashion (PhD thesis). Helsinki: Aalto University. 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Amsterdam: Butterworth-Heinemann 337 MUNDANE FASHION: WOMEN, CLOTHES AND EMOTIONAL DURABILITY Milada Burcikova A thesis submitted to the University of Huddersfield in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy September 2019 School of Art, Design and Architecture, University of Huddersfield Volume 2 of 2 APPENDICES 339 A. WARDROBE NARRATIVES ................................................................................................... 342 JULIE: Feel that - it's like not wearing anything ............................................................... 343 LOUISE: I just like it because it's been worn before ........................................................ 356 HANKA: I wear an apron over it and I truly feel like a star............................................... 372 NICOLA: I can go straight from the board rooms onto a ladder in this dress .................. 389 GOLRAZ: It has been very loyal to me - that's why I am loyal to it .................................. 409 KATHRYN: That reminds me of a nice evening out with girls .......................................... 424 ANNABELLE: It's like that feeling of hugging her ............................................................. 440 EMMA: My eyes must just be tuned into patterns.......................................................... 457 MARY: I just love those colours zinging together ............................................................ 474 TANYA: I don't remember the dress, but I remember the feeling ................................... 498 B. THEME TABLES .................................................................................................................. 517 SENSORY EXPERIENCES ................................................................................................... 518 ENABLERS ........................................................................................................................ 520 LONGING AND BELONGING ............................................................................................. 522 LAYERING......................................................................................................................... 524 C. INTERVIEW SCHEDULES ..................................................................................................... 525 Interview schedule per participant.................................................................................. 526 Interview schedule per garment ..................................................................................... 528 D. INTERVIEW TRANSCRIPT EXAMPLES ................................................................................... 530 LOUISE (LINES 273 - 328) ................................................................................................. 531 MARY (LINES 1400 – 1453) .............................................................................................. 533 E. CODE BOOK EXAMPLES ..................................................................................................... 535 CODE BOOKS 5&6 (OF 7) ................................................................................................. 536 340 FINAL CODE BOOK........................................................................................................... 556 THEMES AND CATEGORIES 2 (OF 3) ................................................................................ 560 F. CONSENT DOCUMENTS ..................................................................................................... 562 INFORMATION FOR PARTICIPANTS ................................................................................. 563 INFORMED CONSENT FORM ........................................................................................... 567 PERMISSION TO USE TRANSCRIPTS AND PHOTOGRAPHS ............................................... 571 341 A. WARDROBE NARRATIVES Julie Louise Hanka Nicola Golraz Kathryn Annabelle Emma Mary Tanya 342 JULIE: Feel that - it's like not wearing anything ABOUT JULIE Julie is a human resources manager in her late fifties, and at the time of our interview she lived with her two sons (at university), in a rented house in a small village in South Oxfordshire. Although English by origin, Julie spent an important part of her life in France where she raised her sons with her French partner. When her boys were teenagers, Julie brought them back to England. She recently bought a house in the same village where they had lived since their return to the UK and at the time of our interview they were preparing for the move. PREPARING FOR THE INTERVIEW Julie was one of my first clients when I lived in Oxfordshire and over several years I repaired and altered quite a few garments for her and her sons. Some of her new clothes used to go straight into my studio before she even brought them home because standard sized jacket sleeves tend to be too long for her arms. When she agreed to take part in my research, I arranged to stay with a friend nearby to be able to talk to Julie on a day when she was off work. When I arrived, she offered me a quick drink in the kitchen and after another reassurance about the interview process she invited me upstairs to her bedroom where most of her clothes were stored. JULIE’S WARDROBE I regret you not being around she tells me as we start talking about the most recent addition to her wardrobe, because this one, actually, it’s nice and silky, it’s just that bit too long [Figure A.1]. She is showing me a white blouse that comes as a set with a sleeveless jumper. Julie seems to like the material a lot, and has worn the blouse a few times already, yet she still seems unsure about the length of the blouse which she suspects may look better on a taller person. This bit is virtually at my knees, she says laughing. Another new piece is a thick woollen sweater which she loves. The only problem is that the material turns out to be a bit itchy, so she has to wear a long-sleeved T-shirt underneath [Figure A.2]. Although the blouse was clearly bought for work, the thick jumper is a weekend one, she says. 343 There are some things that are very definitely not weekend. No! The other way around - which are very definitely not work. Like I wouldn’t wear that for work. But also, temperature wise as that’s a consideration too. Because weekends I tend to, if I’m here, it’s a lot colder than if I’m at work where the heating is much higher. Yeah, so a sweater like that I would just die of heat at work. But also, I wouldn’t really feel comfortable wearing something like that at work. Figure A.1 Figure A.2 344 Work wardrobe Julie’s job requires a professional wardrobe and so she generally makes a very clear distinction between her work outfits and her weekend clothes. Although some of her clothes might be suitable for both, she often feels unsure about styling options and combinations. For example, as we talk, she shows me a new jacket she bought but has not worn yet because she does not know how to wear it [Figure A.3]. When I make a few suggestions for dressing the jacket up and down with some things she already owns, she seems both pleased and surprised. I can’t even see it but you’re right!, she says, it does look better [laugh] but I just can’t see these things. Comfort One of Julie’s main considerations for choosing new clothes is comfort and softness of material. Whereas when she was young, it was not unusual to lay on the bed for half an hour tryin’ get our jeans zip up, the priorities are different now. I REALLY REALLY love wearing things that feel nice and are super-comfortable; and a top she often uses for work as it is very comfortable to wear is a good example. It might work with the white jacket - she tries to match the two and encourages me to feel for myself: Feel how soft it is! Feel that - it’s like not wearing anything. [Figure A.4]. Figure A.3 345 Figure A.4 Similarly, there is a dress which she says feels gorgeous. Julie bought it because she loved the feel of it when she tried it on, and she also liked the brownie-taupe colour [Figure A.5]. She also has one similar that is comfy and good for work [Figure A.6]. Okay, this is last year’s - it’s only last year’s but I still love it. This is a work dress. Same colour, as you see. It’s either that or black or navy. That hangs really nicely, and it doesn’t crease. So, well it does a little bit but then it’ll fall out, you know. Figure A.5 346 Figure A.6 Figure A.7 Julie also shows me another one that she bought while she was living in France and one more of the same style in black that she also likes wearing to work. Laying all these dresses out on the bed next to each other she notices how very similar they are, and it suddenly makes her laugh [Figure A.7]. It’s funny, actually, isn’t it?, I’m not very adventurous…I stick to wearing what I find comfortable, she smiles. Comfort is also a reason why she does not wear some of her clothes at the moment. Several of her more fitted work dresses feel a little tight around her waist right now and although she could still fit into them without a problem, the tight feel makes her uncomfortable about wearing them. Her description also shows how subtle details may influence this feeling in quite a significant way. 347 That’s quite a nice dress but it’s a little on the tight side. Oh, and it’s got that as well [showing the slit – Figure A.7]. So, you have to kind of feel comfortable in the first place because that flaps [laughs], so if you’re already thinking it’s a bit tight around your tummy and then you’re flashing your legs at the same time [laughs again] it’s not a nice feel. Figure A.8 Clothes shopping Julie does not particularly enjoy clothes shopping and would therefore really appreciate having someone with her for honest feedback. Styling advice would also be welcome as she admits to owning more clothes like the white jacket [Figure A.3] that she had bought but has not worn yet because she does not quite know how. Her dislike of shopping also means that she does not always try things on in shops: sometimes I’m guilty of seeing something in the shop that I think is lovely looks lovely - so I find the right size and buy it…whereas obviously I should try it and think of the things I have. She also admits to not being very adventurous in her choice, I do fall for things on the hanger before I’ve even tried them [laugh]…and that’s probably why I always stick to the same things. Interestingly, this is why she sometimes prefers buying on-line. Having the possibility to try the clothes on in the comfort of her own home gives her more time for a decision because it’s easier for me to try it on if I am home and got it. While she would be unlikely to return clothes bought in a shop because it requires the extra effort and time of going back, Julie finds it quite easy to return things bought on-line and has often done so. By her own admission, her lack of confidence in styling is also reflected in her muted colour palette. Although she likes wearing stripes and has several Breton stripe tops that she often wears at 348 weekends, in general I don’t tend to have multi-coloured anything, do I?, she comments. The one exception is a jacket that she bought at a shopping trip with a friend who is extremely interested in fashion and likes to experiment with colours and different styling options. They both tried on and ended up buying the same jacket she said you should you should you should, Julie remembers, because I would normally never go for something this colour. Despite this, Julie has worn the jacket a lot, so much so that the fabric now looks worn out and shiny [Figures A.9-10] and the contrasting lining on the cuffs which she used to wear turned up has gone almost grey and does not come out when dry cleaned. It’s such a shame, isn’t it?, she sighs. And this kind of detail - you know, I appreciate [showing mismatching buttons on the cuff – [Figure A.11]]. So that kind of thing I appreciate and very often, you know, that kind of comes with expensive pieces as opposed to cheaper dresses. So, I think I can feel when I’m wearing them that they’re well-made and that I appreciate. But not just for the sake of it being a Paul Smith or whatever. Because, I mean, that doesn’t interest me one way or the other really. I don’t know enough about them to know much about their designs and I don’t follow them. Figure A.9 349 Figure A.10 Figure A.11 350 Oldest clothes Just like with the jacket that is now practically worn out, when Julie finds clothes that she likes a lot she tends to wear them and wear them and wear them and forget to wear something different. She has had a few clothes like that in the past but because both her return to the UK nearly ten years ago and also her preparations for the upcoming move required downsizing and reconsidering her wardrobe, she has not kept many of her older items. Currently, her main storage consists of two built-in wardrobes located in her bedroom and partly shared with her sons. For the last few years, the house they live in (a 17th century coaching inn) has been affected by damp and so some of her more valuable clothes remain protected by polyethylene covers. One example is one of her oldest dresses from France which she remembers wearing frequently when her sons were little [Figure A.12-14]. She looks worried taking it out of the plastic cover and noticing that it is actually stained. However, as she starts talking about it, her face lights up with happy memories. Figure A.12 351 Figure A.13 Figure A.14 Oh, this would never fit me now! Such a shame… It seems to be all stained around here as well, look! I’ll show you a picture downstairs with it, that’s very old. I’ll show you and we can 352 work it out roughly. So, that was a wedding in Holland and how old are they [her sons in the photo]? Four, he [the younger one] looks like three, I would say. I don’t know - two or three. He was so naughty! He was playing with the confetti and he kept putting it under the bride’s dress - disappearing under her dress [laugh]. But that’s that dress, that’s why I’ve got kind of fond memories. Because that was such a nice occasion. Well, I’ve worn it lots, but I mean that was one occasion that… There is also another one from this time that Julie remembers wearing in their garden in Paris when the boys were babies. It is a summer dress, rather short and probably too young for her now [Figure A.15]. There is little chance she would still be able to get it on. I don’t even know why I’ve still got it, she says with surprise. These two garments are more or less exceptions as generally Julie tries to only keep the clothes she wears. When I ask if she has anything from her university years for example, she says I really don’t think I have because I chuck stuff out. Figure A.15 Amazing story As she looks for some older clothes, she suddenly comes across a top which makes her eyes light up again and she tells me I gave it to her some years back [Figure A.16]. 353 This is one that you gave me. This has been such an amazing story! And I’ve worn it a lot under that jacket [the Paul Smith jacket]. That’s inside out - wait a minute - let me turn it round for you. Because this has been super! And it wasn’t even yours, was it, originally? Was it somebody gave it to you? [You know, I can’t remember…Maybe I bought it in a charity shop…Oh yes, it was from a friend of mine! She was doing a clear out at some point and she gave it to me. You know, I liked it, but I like wearing things that are tight and I didn’t like the loose fabric hanging on me. But I’m glad to hear it’s worked for you.] Well, I love it! And it’s a nice material. So that’s incredible ‘cause that’s my H&M one [pointing to a dress [see Figure A.7)]] and it’s so soft as well. So, I mean, you don’t have to go to these lengths [pointing to the Paul Smith jacket], do you? To find a nice piece. Figure A.16 Although this suggests that Julie does not mind wearing second-hand clothing, she never really shops for clothes in second-hand and charity shops. The combination of her dislike of shopping in general and her lack of confidence in mixing and matching older and newer pieces means that she feels she just does not have the patience to rummage through large quantities of second-hand clothes. So, 354 despite the success of the second-hand cowl neck top [Figure A.16], most of Julie’s more formal work items come from well-known designer brands, as these perhaps more reliably guarantee the desired result. A work dress from Ralph Lauren is a good example [Figure A.17]. Figure A.17 That’s very comfortable to wear because it’s a bit stretchy. That suits me, do you think? I can feel that it was quite well made - it’s a heavy one and it’s cut in such a way that it hangs nicely. Yeah, I like that one. Her description of this dress is just another confirmation that soft material and comfortable fit are key factors for Julie. When she feels good and comfortable in an item of clothing, she does not particularly care if the piece is second-hand, if it comes from a high street chain or if it is an expensive item from a well-known designer. However, as she also appreciates quality of construction and detail, when possible she opts for more expensive items that more reliably match her expectations in this respect. 355 LOUISE: I just like it because it's been worn before ABOUT LOUISE Louise is a French tutor in her early thirties and lives with her partner and son in their house in a small village in Kirklees, West Yorkshire. She is French by origin and moved to the UK with her partner just over ten years ago, for the second part of his degree. After they both finished their UK studies, they decided to stay. Louise is now working part-time and looks after their young son. PREPARING FOR THE INTERVIEW We arranged to meet on a late weekday morning when Louise’s son is usually asleep. Although we were prepared for the alternative of having to divide our conversation in two or more instalments in case the baby wakes up, this did not happen, and Louise and I were able to talk in one uninterrupted session. She greeted me at the door with a wide smile and offered me a cup of coffee which we had together in her sitting room. She seemed both slightly nervous and curious about the interview, so we used this time to discuss any questions she had. Like some of my other interviewees (Julie, Emma, and Kathryn), Louise felt she did not really have interesting clothes. I therefore reassured her that I was interested in her wardrobe as a whole and the clothes she wears on a regular basis, not necessarily in any extraordinary pieces. Just like before all my other interviews, I also reiterated that she will be able to withdraw any images or parts of the transcript that she would prefer me not to use. However, she turned out to be extremely comfortable with both photography and audio recording from the very beginning. Soon she invited me upstairs, into the bedroom, where most of her clothes are kept. LOUISE’S WARDROBE The main storage for Louise’s clothes consists of a large built-in wardrobe in the bedroom, divided equally between her and her partner. Many of her clothes are between ten and fifteen years old. Louise still keeps and wears several items from her teenage years in France. The pair of trousers she was wearing at the time of the interview, for example, is one that she has had for nearly fifteen years [Figure A.18]. 356 This pair of trousers is the only one I wear. They’re so old - this is Benetton, right? And I got that [thinking]…so, I’m going to be thirty-one this year, I’m thirty and my mum actually bought that for me when I was about sixteen?! So, they’re so old and I didn’t wear them for a long time. But I kept them anyway because I thought it’s good quality. And then one day I found it in my mess [laugh]. I was like - wow! And I wear it all the time! Because it’s so comfy - it’s just so comfy! Yeah, it’s a good shape and it’s good quality as well. So, you can tell I’ve had it for so long and I wear it almost every day [laugh]. Figure A.18 Apart from these, she also has one much older pair of trousers which she still likes wearing in the summer [Figure A.19]. I’ve got things like that - these were my pants once! And this is twelve years old, the size, right? So, I got them when I was twelve, these pants. Honest! And then I loved it! I just loved those pants. Anyway, it was straight and…God! It’s so, I can’t wear it outside now - it’s full of stains and it’s probably a bit pink-ish now. It’s supposed to be white. But, anyway, my grandma’s fixed it several times. So, she changed the zip, the button there, she had to do some work over there. Obviously - it’s since I was twelve! I’m thirty now [laughs]. But I just loved it so much! And when I grew out of it she cut the bottom to make it like - a bit like you’re wearing today, like a shorter pants. So, she cut the bottom so that I could still wear it. And I still wear it now [smile]. I love it! In the summer - because it’s got an elastic band, so, I don’t know, I like it so much. So yeah, that’s a funny one. It’s like a treasure hunt in my wardrobe. 357 Figure A.19 The advantage of old clothes Quite early on in the interview Louise made clear that she does not like new clothes, or clothes shopping as such, because it is difficult for her to find what she would like: I like simple clothes, you know, and I can’t find anything. This is the main reason why her wardrobe mainly consists of clothes given to her by other people, particularly her partner’s mother (which she refers to as mother-inlaw). Unlike Louise, her mother-in-law gets great satisfaction from clothes shopping and she often browses small French boutiques to buy presents for Louise, her partner, and their son. Louise also has several items given to her by her grandmother, who is a dressmaker, and like Louise, also likes simple, good quality clothes. Her grandmother’s wardrobe is very well edited, Louise says, with about twenty pieces of clothing, about half of which she bought and the rest she made herself because she can’t find anything she likes in shops [laughs]. Because they both have very similar figures, they can easily pass clothes to each other. So, look at that! How cool is that?!! That’s sooo old [laughs]. She used to like good quality ones and keep them forever. So, yeah, you can take a picture of my lovely shorts [laughs]. When I garden, you know, and like in the summer. It’s good quality. It’s like - I don’t know how old that is, honestly. But it’s really old and it’s amazing. So, she gives me lots of things! I guess now they would sell that for a lot of money, right? These high waisted ones [laughs] [Figure A.20]. 358 Figure A.20 Apart from vintage pieces like these shorts, she also has some much more recent pieces that come from her grandmother’s wardrobe. Louise received several of these during her pregnancy as she did not want to buy any maternity clothes that can only be used during a very short period. Therefore, she needed clothes with adjustable features that could accommodate her changing body. This one, she gave it to me after pregnancy because of the elastic band [Figure A.21]. It’s Zara, but you know it was - she’s worn it a lot, so it’s a little bit damaged. But it was perfect. I loved it afterwards because of the elastic band and now it’s too light, you know, it’s not warm enough. But that’s worked a lot. Figure A.21 Several other items in Louise’s wardrobe are from her mother, her sister and her best friend. Many of these handed down clothes are up to forty years old. One of Louise’s favourite pieces is a skirt that Louise remembers her mother wearing when she and her sister were children [Figure A.22]. Because of the style and the little pearls at each end of the drawstring [Figure A.23], Louise used to 359 call it the Pocahontas skirt and she felt very excited when her mum finally offered to pass it on to her. It was just, you know, so cool! I loved it. (…) And I used to call it the Pocahontas skirt when I was little. And when I was old enough my mum said: do you want it? And I said: yeah! I’ve always dreamt of having your Pocahontas skirt! [laughs] So, I’ve worn that a lot, a lot, a lot. Especially when I was pregnant because it can extend. Unfortunately, that destroyed the skirt. It’s stretched. And you can tight it a bit but it’s just - it’s lost its glory [laughs]. And also, it’s broken here [a part of the hem is unravelling]. So, I suppose that can be fixed. But yeah, it’s lost, you know, the little pearl that made it this - that gave it it’s Pocahontas style. Figure A.22 360 Figure A.23 Despite the lost pearl, she is keeping the skirt because it has served her well and so it might be useful again sometime in the future: you never know. All the inherited clothes that Louise so enjoys wearing indicate that she is not too concerned about the latest trends and she is also adamant that she is not interested in fashion or fashion brands at all. However, she still seems to have a very clear idea about her own style and the kind of clothes she likes or dislikes. While a considerable part of her wardrobe consists of gifts and clothes that were handed down to her, she does occasionally buy new clothes as treats for herself. She admits that in the past her clothes shopping included a few failures, but these were much more frequent when she was younger. When she buys new clothes now, she tends to wear most of them. Louise likes prefers things that are versatile and can be worn in different contexts across the seasons. Some years ago, she bought a white top with broderie anglaise front and sleeve details. She likes it very much because it is a little bit different but still very simple and therefore it gets worn very often [Figure A.24)]. Another treat she bought for herself was a denim dress that she wanted for a long time [Figure A.25]. She is very satisfied with her choice because she finds she can wear this dress both at work and at home and so it gets worn frequently. 361 Figure A.24 Figure A.25 Colours (Yellow) One thing Louise also loves are bright colours, especially yellow. She adores the yellow colour of the jumper [Figure A. 26] she bought about five years ago and says she consciously tries not to wear it too often as she realised she wears it in too many photos. This one was a treat. I was with a friend in what is called House of Fraser, where I never go because it’s just too expensive. And they had some sales on and I love yellow! It’s my favourite colour [laughs]. And I don’t know, I spotted that one and it looked like good quality for once. Because, you know, at least it will last longer. And I don’t know - I like the colour and since then I wear it all the time. And it’s still not broken anywhere, so that’s good. I love it! I love it. Obviously, it needs ironing. (…) It’s cute! And it’s just so nice and soft, you know. And I like the design, so, yeah, that’s probably one of my favourite clothes. When I travel I usually wear that top. I’m a bit boring. 362 Figure A.26 Simple Apart from colours, what is very important to Louise is simple style and straight cut. She prefers plain elegance and does not like extravagance in material or design. For this reason, she truly likes her plain blue dress that she once bought to wear for special occasions and has worn it often since [Figure A.27]. Apart from the subtle horizontal pattern, the dress is quite plain, cut straight and finishes just over the knee. That one I love! I wear it every time there’s something going on, like, I don’t know…That’s from TK Maxx, I think, but I don’t know the brand. I don’t know brands, really. So, I just got it because it looks nice and if there’s a wedding and event - something, I’d wear that one. That’s my go to dress. [laughs] Because it’s nice - simple, you know. And it fits well. 363 Figure A.27 One of her favourite skirts, that was a gift from her mother-in-law, is also a perfect example of her favourite simple style. As she shows it to me, she suddenly notices a missing button [Figure A.28-29]. That I wear all the time as well. Yeah, it’s nice - because it’s simple! Straight, simple - so yeah, that’s what you want. So that I wear a lot and she gave me that. I’ve lost a button here brilliant! It’s probably here somewhere. I would still wear it, I don’t care [laughs] but it’s…Yeah, I don’t know where the button is as well, so that’s another problem, I suppose. Figure A.28 364 Figure A.29 The lost button does not particularly worry her because she normally wears this skirt with a jumper that covers the top. However, in case that some of her clothes need similar minor repairs, it is usually her partner who takes care of them because Louise herself does not sew. When they need more complicated repairs or alterations, Louise tends to wait for a trip to France to ask her grandmother for help. But if the repair is more urgent, like last summer when her only summer jacket tore when she was leaning over the pram, she uses the local clothes repair shop. Other key considerations for Louise are the softness of material and comfort. Soft touch, she thinks, explains her love of second-hand clothes because they would have softened through wear and repeated washing. She is conscious that quality plays a critical role here ‘cause if you wash a Primark top fifteen times then it would be dead, right? - it wouldn’t be soft [laughs]. However, the clothes passed onto her by her mother in law and other family members have all stood the test of time, just like this work dress that she loves [Figure A.30]. That one is from my mother in law as well, but that’s old. She had it when she was a young girl and she adjusted it for me. That’s very old - you can tell, you know [laughs], and it’s just really nice. She said: ah, do you want it? So, I tried it on and it was a bit too wide, so she did that [showing how it’s been taken in – [Figure A. 31]]. She took it to someone who did that to make it a bit more, a bit tighter. And it’s really, really nice. I love it! 365 [So, do you actually wear it?] At work, yeah, because it is a bit - it’s not the most, the comfiest one when you spend your life on the floor crawling [with her young son]. But at work I do wear it. I like it. I like that [showing the detail of the bows] - I think it’s cute. And it’s old. You know, I just like it because it’s been worn before. I don’t know, I find that cool [laughs]. Someone loved it and now I love it and maybe someone else will love it one day. Figure A.30 Figure A.31 366 Revealing Appropriateness to social context is another concern for Louise, as she finds that some of her older clothes and a few of those given to her by others are too short or too showing to be worn in public. Some people don’t care, she laughs, but I would NEVER go out with it ‘cause it’s too short, you know, and I’m considerate of these things. She also makes clear distinction between her wardrobe for home and for work, particularly for professional recognition. I try to look my age, [laughs] especially when I’m at work - to gain some respect, you know [laughs] because I look, I could look like I’m eighteen couldn’t I?, she explains. Having a young child has also influenced her preferences: I live my life on the floor. Before I used to wear sometimes tight things that were not that comfy but I thought - ah, I can live with that … now - NO!, I want something comfortable. This is also one of the main reasons why she has not recently worn another of her favourites, a cool brushed leather skirt with two metal clasps [Figure A.32-33]. That one I love, an old one from my mother-in-law. And I guess I love it because it was the first skirt that her dad got her when she was probably eighteen? So, it’s really old. You know, she’s in her sixties now. But look at that! (…) Look - you can remove the buttons here like that. And you’ve got little buttons here as well. I didn’t wear it for a while because it’s quite tight [laughs] and I couldn’t really breathe when I had it on. So, that was a concern. But I think it would fit me now, so I should really get back to wearing it. I don’t know - I like it. It’s cool, you know, with a black top or something. And it’s so old and it’s funny. Yeah, I like this one. I’ve worn it a lot before and then I’ll probably go back to wearing it now. But I’m thinking - yeah, it’s open here, so I don’t know. We shall see. You know, at work I want to be comfy but smart and not showing off everything [laughs]. 367 Figure A.32 Figure A.33 Practical considerations Related to this are other practical considerations like ironing. As a mother of a young son Louise feels that her time is precious and so she tries to keep any menial tasks to a minimum. When I have free time, I don’t want to spend it ironing, she admits without a hesitation. Her effort to limit ironing also influences the frequency with which she wears some of the pieces that she may otherwise like: I think that’s quite cute, I like it, but, you know when you wash it you have to iron it, so that makes me not wear it very often because every time I take it I’m like - ufff! - I’ll have to iron it afterwards [laughs]. 368 Another factor that affects the frequency of wear of some of her lighter pieces is the Yorkshire climate which is rather different to warm French summers: I brought all my summer clothes and then I realized - oh! - I moved to Yorkshire [laughs]. This also applies to quite a few of the gifts from her mother-in-law, who often does not realise how significant the differences in the weather can be. However, Louise also repeatedly comments that some of the gifts from her mother-in-law as well as from her own mother are just not me. Her description of a fluffy top that her mother-in-law gave her some years back well captures how she feels about some of these gifts: I would NEVER wear something like that - it’s just not me! - I’d look like a bird! [Figure A.34]. Her facial expression as she shows me this top speaks for itself. Figure A.34 Despite all this, Louise is grateful to her mother-in-law because she appreciates her best intentions. She also admits that often her mother-in-law finds treasures for her. For example, there is a dress that she used to love wearing to work because it’s like not wearing anything, it’s so nice to wear. It was again quite light, so Louise could combine it with a colourful cardigan, and it looked pretty and cool [Figure A.35]. In addition, some of Louise’s all-time favourites also come from this source. This includes her most loved piece, a black day skirt by Sisley, that her mother-in-law (now in her sixties) used to wear as a student [Figure A.36]. Louise wears this one all the time and so when I visited the skirt was in the dryer. However, she kindly offered to show it to me in the kitchen at the end of our interview. 369 Figure A.35 Figure A.36 It’s awful, it used to be black and now it’s grey? So, my favourite clothes, well, they’re probably not the prettiest. [laughs] (…) My favourite black skirt - it’s easy to wear it, it’s straight and I wear it at work with anything. It’s very old, right? You see, it was really black, but I don’t know - I love it! It’s so versatile! And it’s just, oh, I love it! So, that I’ve been wearing for, you know, since I’ve met my partner. Probably good fifteen years. [laughs] And look at that! It’s still good! Second-hand clothing seems to possess the kind of reassuring familiarity that Louise likes. Long history of wear and washing not only softens the materials but it often also gradually reshapes each 370 item so that it almost adjusts to the body. You put it on and it’s like a second skin really, she says with a broad smile. 371 HANKA: I wear an apron over it and I truly feel like a star ABOUT HANKA Hanka is a geologist in her late thirties and she lives with her husband and three children aged seven, five and three in a small rented house in a little hamlet under the Malvern Hills. For the last seven years, she has stayed at home to look after the children but now hopes to return to work when her childcare commitments allow her to do so. Her doctor-husband currently works in a hospital too far away for a daily commute and so he only comes back home at weekends. Hanka is Slovak-Hungarian by origin and before she moved to the UK with her Czech-Austrian husband, over ten years ago, she also lived in Austria, Czech Republic, Germany, and South Africa. PREPARING FOR THE INTERVIEW I have known Hanka since my student years in Prague and later she commissioned me to make her wedding dress. This long-term relationship provided the rapport needed for my research and it also enabled me to interview Hanka despite her busy lifestyle that would otherwise hardly allow the time or concentration to take part in a research project of this kind. To allow the flexibility in fitting our conversation around her childcare commitments, I arranged to stay with Hanka for three days so that we can talk as and when she can. During this time, we had an opportunity for one longer conversation of just under two hours as well as three shorter instalments to expand on some of the topics we discussed in the longer session. Staying at Hanka’s house also gave me a chance to explore most of the items we talked about in much more detail than most research interviews would allow, and it also enabled me to see Hanka’s clothes in the context of their daily use. For example, I watched her quickly putting on the clothes from the previous day for the morning school run during which she often has to pick up and carry her still sleepy youngest son and, as she says, often ends up with mud marks from his shoes on her top. When she returns home, finally also having time for her morning coffee, she can give a bit more thought to her outfit for the day and make a bit more of an effort if she has the energy. 372 HANKA’S WARDROBE Since Hanka arrived in the UK with her husband, they have lived in more than six locations, moving frequently for the specialist training he was undertaking. This nomadic lifestyle also affected Hanka’s wardrobe because every move meant reconsidering which clothes she still wears and values, to decide if they are worth moving to the next location. She did not keep many clothes from the time before she came to the UK. She explains this by the fact that at that point she mostly had clothes from high street and second-hand shops. Only after they first moved to Worcestershire, a couple of years before her first son was born, she started getting better clothes that she values more. This time corresponds with the start of her professional career in the UK after finishing her second MA in hydro-geology. It also coincides with Hanka’s discovery of an independent local boutique that promoted small labels with a strong focus on provenance and natural materials. Hanka soon befriended the owner and was a frequent visitor and customer. Although the boutique, as she refers to it, no longer exists, it is obvious that it played an important role in shaping Hanka’s wardrobe through nurturing her interest in small, edgy labels with a strong focus on quality and brand narrative. She mentions the boutique repeatedly during our conversation. Her discovery of the Scottish label Brora Cashmere also falls into this time. Her fortunate win of a voucher that enabled her to buy her first Brora items led to her lasting loyalty to the quality and the longevity the brand stands for. In their current house, the storage for Hanka’s clothing is quite limited. She does not have a wardrobe of her own. Her folded clothes are stored together with her husband’s in two open shelves in their bedroom. As she starts talking about her recent purchases she first pulls out some of her daughter’s dresses that are stored in a built-in wardrobe in her children’s bedroom together with her own dresses, coats, and other hanging clothes. The first thing she shows me is a coat that she bought because she really loved the fabric. However, now she is not quite sure about its size, she thinks it is a bit too big for her perhaps. Her face lights up though with the next item she comes across., Here is my favourite summer dress, she proudly tells me [Figure A.37]. 373 Figure A.37 I bought it before the summer, in a summer sale. It’s from TOAST and it’s like, it’s a night dress/lounge wear and that’s why, you know - their day dresses are normally quite expensive, but pyjamas and night dresses are a bit more affordable. So, this one was on sale for £35 or £30? And it’s a beautiful linen and when I was in Slovakia, I wore it as a dress and then I also slept in it, and then, you know, I hardly every took it off [laughs]. It didn’t matter at all - only that it needed washing after a while. And I wear an apron over it and I truly feel like a star [smiles]. On-line shopping Having mostly lived in the countryside for the last few years, and especially because it is hard to go clothes shopping with three young children, Hanka now buys almost all her clothes on-line. I recall a conversation Hanka and I had a few years back when she tried to talk me out of my reluctance to include an on-line shop to my studio website. As I made clear earlier, personal contact with my clients has always been key to my studio philosophy and I am still inclined to think that it is extremely difficult to make choices about fabrics and clothing without the opportunity to see them in real life, to touch, to feel and try them on. Yet, Hanka also tried to make me understand that despite her fully 374 appreciating my reasoning, many women like her, who would perhaps love to buy what I make, may simply not be in the position to shop for clothes in the way they might ideally imagine. The possibility to shop on-line, she argued, gives them the option to buy clothes they would otherwise not have access to. The coat she shows me is a good example [Figure A.38]. This is my favourite coat, an autumn coat. I bought it through Vestiaire Collective - do you know that website? Well, I don’t know how I first found it, but that’s where I bought this coat because I wanted one that was like cross-seasonal. But, you know, I couldn’t find anything decent on e-Bay and this looked quite reasonably priced, something like £40 or so. And it didn’t look particularly appealing in the photo but then when it arrived, I was super excited by the quality and the cut - the whole of it. It looked so much better when it arrived - amazing! Figure A.38 Another item worth noting in this context is a dress that Hanka bought when they lived in Aberdeen, because she needed inspiration [Figure A.39]. She says she knew the label (Lowie) from the boutique and so she looked it up on-line and bought this dress on sale. She hands the dress over to me and when she sees me exploring the side seams, she suddenly says: the only fault of this dress is that it doesn’t have pockets. The explanation that follows is also interesting: I don’t know, it was, not this summer but somehow before then - spring or summer. So, I bought it and then when I tried it on, I wasn’t quite [sure]… So, I did not wear it one summer at all and then last summer I got it out and I wore it all through the summer. I wore the white linen one and a couple of others and I feel so very good in this one now. It’s like, in the summer, you just put it on, and you don’t need to worry about anything. 375 Figure A.39 Hanka’s description of not liking the dress at first but then rediscovering it a year later, the dress suddenly becoming one of her favourite things to wear, reoccurs throughout our conversation and it also strongly resonates in other women’s stories. She later shows me several similar examples of items that may not have fully captured her imagination initially but over the time she found ways to wear them and so they became staples in her wardrobe. A Breton stripe dress, also bought on-line, fits into this scenario. The way she feels about it now is clear from the expression on her face [Figure A.40]: 376 Figure A.40 This is a simply fantastic summer dress! Well, this one, the material is just great! And I thought to myself, well, how come she’s putting these plastic buttons here [on the shoulders]? It’s Margaret Howell. It was, I think, it’s a collection from two years ago and someone bought it and I guess they didn’t feel good in it, so they put it one e-Bay at a reasonable price. And when I first put it on, I wasn’t quite sure about the length and everything but then I wore it in Slovakia in summer and it feels so nice! And one feels really good in it. Well, it’s really good and fits well. Hanka is well aware of similar changes in preferences that seem to happen with time. She also show me several things which once belonged to her absolute favourites, yet she does not enjoy wearing them anymore. There is a tartan shirt dress which she used to like a lot and felt really well in it. She puts it on, as if to try and see if she can re-remember that feeling, but she looks unsure [Figure A.41]. When she was expecting her first son, she tells me, she wore this dress so much that it started coming apart at the centre back seam, and she shows me how she repaired it [Figure A.42]. Since then, however, she wore it only very rarely. This may partly be linked to her figure changes following three pregnancies, as one gets bigger and all. Still, Hanka does not seem to think that is the only reason. I think it’s because you wear some things and then something changes, and you stop wearing it. As if, you know, you’re past that phase, just like I feel I’m past the phase of wearing this 377 one. There’s nothing wrong with it, but somehow, I don’t know - I used to put it over anything in summer, over jeans, or shorts or so and I just went out to town. I don’t know why it happens. Figure A.41 Figure A.42 She also shows me a dress of the same style, just different fabric, that she later found on e-Bay because she loved the other one so much. She thought she would enjoy wearing this one too, but she has hardly ever worn it though [Figure A.43], she says. As we speak, we come across other examples of such unsuccessful re-incarnations of favourite garments and these also later appear in 378 the narratives of my other interviewees. Especially interesting in this context is a jacket that Hanka bought in an attempt to replace a similar one that she loved and wore out many years ago [Figure A.44]. It turns out that the original jacket was one that we both bought as students in Prague and I later also bought the same for my mother. Since then, it turns out, all three of us literally wore the original one to pieces and we all have tried, and failed, to find satisfying replacements. I don’t know, there was something about the cut, Hanka says, what I liked was that it was rather light but you could put a sweater or even two under it, it was a bit oversize. Yet, none of our later attempts , as we agree, could quite live up to our fond memories of wearing this rather ordinary and inexpensive military inspired jacket by a famous high-street brand. Figure A.43 379 Figure A.44 Clothes stored away Some of Hanka’s more precious clothes such as cashmere, occasion wear, and her most expensive woollen coat, are currently stored away, partly to protect them from moths but also because they are not suitable for her current lifestyle of a stay at home mum of young children. Hanka is looking forward to the times when she will have more space to store her clothes in a way that will make everything more easily accessible. She would also like to be able to wear some of her more elegant clothes, such as her green woollen coat, but she has to wait until her children a bit older. Now, she says, you always have to pick the kids up in their muddy boots - really - that would be the end of the coat in two months. She also feels that it would be a shame to wear out such a nice coat on school runs, only for getting in and out of the car. On the other hand, being aware of how her preferences can also change over time, she hopes that it isn’t the case that when I can wear it again, I won’t like it anymore. 380 Figure A.45 Figure A.46 381 Figure A.47 Hanka goes to the trouble of getting her box of stored away clothes for me and she puts it on the floor in the sitting room where we have now moved for more light and space for the growing pile of clothes that she has gradually pulled out of her wardrobes. She slowly unwraps the coat sealed in two layers of protective plastic [Figures A.45-46] and tries it on with interest [Figure A.47]. It looks good but at the same time she also looks hesitant., It seems smaller than it used to be, she says, well, I guess it’s me putting on weight [laughs]…as it used to be somehow bigger. This seems to well illustrate Hanka’s concerns about many other of her older clothes. After three pregnancies, she is conscious that her body shape has changed and so many of the clothes she bought before she had children do not fit her in quite the same way that they used to. While she may be able to fit into them, she says it often feels different and it is not quite what it should be. Her perception of her body has changed considerably over time, she feels: well, I no longer dress in the same way I used to when I was twenty, because - you know - my figure has changed completely and so for example the over knee length skirts - you know - somehow it bothers me now. Hanka’s body image also limits the frequency with which she wears her newer clothes as some of them make her feel self-conscious about her body. In the light of this, a common feature of many of 382 her favourite dresses is the fact that she can just put it on quickly and not to worry about her figure [see also Figure A.39]. It’s also linen and it feels so good, it’s very easy to wear [Figure A.48]. So, you just put it on and somehow, you see, it makes you - you just look much better in it. You don’t need to feel self-conscious - you don’t feel that it makes you bigger or smaller and it’s just right. Well, I feel very good in it. For me, for my figure, it is a very good shape. And this one is almost the same - the style, you know. You also just put it on and wear a pair of Birkenstocks and you can go shopping to IKEA [laughs]. Well, it’s such a lovely material, a cotton, I think it’s cotton shirting - as far as I can tell at least. But it has lovely feel to it. Figure A.48 She particularly loves one of these dresses, which she has worn very often as a result [Figure A.49]. Again, she puts it on for me, over the clothes she is wearing. The fabric is slightly stiff now because it is linen and the dress has just been washed, but it will soften through wear, she reassures me. Hanka does not iron any of her dresses, she only dries them, as when you can dry them outside on a windy day that’s the best. As soon as she puts the dress on, she automatically rolls her sleeves up – a habit she has with all her tops. Because the dress is a little too short, she only wears it with 383 trousers now, when I’ don’t feel comfortable with my bottom - or just like, you know, when one wants to hide a bit. However, she would really love if it was just that little bit longer, so that she can also wear it as a summer dress. Figure A.49 Quality Longevity is among Hanka’s primary considerations when she buys new clothes. She appreciates clothes that hold their quality and somehow don’t age. In this context, she repeatedly mentions knitwear from Brora Cashmere as something that you have for life. She now has several pieces from Brora and gradually adds to this collection because of her good experiences with those she bought previously. As an example, there is a jumper (now also packed away to protect it from moths) that she used to wear to work almost every day for two years. Now it has some bobbles, she says, but they’re hardly visible in the pattern and if I could be bothered to remove them it would be like new again. Hanka has a good collection of knitwear and there are quite a few items she wants to show me. I have quite a few sweaters that I love, she says. Her favourite cardigan is also from Brora, she bought it on sale, and she feels it is the most beautiful colour she knows [Figure A.50]. It goes well with several of her dresses and helps her to liven things up. Then there is a stripy one from Margaret 384 Howell, made using offcuts of wool [Figure A.51] and another thick stripy one she bought from a small Spanish label because she loved the colours and the roll neck [Figure A.52]. She likes it because it is warm, it’s a bit itchy, but otherwise, I like it sometimes, she explains. Another is for special occasions, and she again puts it on as she shows me [Figure A.53]. Figure A.50 Figure A.51 385 Figure A.52 Now, it doesn’t really go with these stripes, so it doesn’t look quite right, but I like it. It’s a good colour combination and everything. You know, with a dress or even if one has a good pair of jeans, so it’s good over things. It’s from Catherine Andre. I’m not sure, she may have been at Missoni’s before, a designer, it’s from France. She has knitwear with quite a bit of pattern. Usually it’s too much for my taste but I really liked this one. And I still do. And when I wear it well, I wore it to a Christmas Fair at the school, it gets noticed and people do say that it’s a nice jumper. Figure A.53 386 Old clothes When I ask about her older clothes, going perhaps back to the time before they moved to the UK, Hanka tells me she does not have any of those anymore. However, later on in our conversation she comes across a denim skirt [Figure A.54] which I remember her wearing when we were students in Prague (over fifteen years ago now). This skirt is super! Well, that one was from H&M when I still lived in Vienna. So, it’s still, you see, that one is from Vienna! And it’s, when I lost a bit of weight, it’s a 38, it was a bit too big for me and it didn’t fit properly, so when I was in Vienna, I thought about getting rid of it. And then, I put weight on again, and now it fits me beautifully [smile]. You know, I put it on, and it really makes my figure look good. Figure A.54 Still, this skirt is more of an exception as Hanka does not seem to be too sentimental about clothes. She feels quite strongly that they only have a function when they are worn. She enjoys buying new clothes, often as a way to somehow change oneself, but admits that while she truly likes many of her clothes and tends to wear them often when they are new, she also likes a change after a while. In a couple of years, you know, one wears them so much that one wants to move on, to liven things up, for not being in such a boring routine, she says. When I ask if she has any clothes that she would find 387 difficult to part with, possibly because of a memory attached to them, Hanka finds it difficult at first to recall anything like that, but later says she used to especially remember underwear. She explains: I know exactly when I used to wear it but then it no longer fit, it’s done its job, I had it for years afterwards and never wore it again [a sound of a closing zip as she packs things back into her box of precious clothes]. You know, one looks at it, yes, there is the memory. But then the time came I gave it away and have no regrets. Because the memory stays in my head and I don’t want to have too many things, I have quite enough as it is. Clothes seem to be crucially important for Hanka because of the way they make her feel when she wears them, yet when they are no longer wearable for whatever reason, especially when she has grown out of them in any sense, she remembers the feeling they used to give her when she first got them and is ready to look for something that will give her similar memories in the future. 388 NICOLA: I can go straight from the board rooms onto a ladder in this dress ABOUT NICOLA Nicola is an art historian and curator in her early thirties. She lives with her husband and their young son in a flat in Leeds. Both she and her husband are Scottish by origin and they moved to England because of their jobs several years ago. PREPARING FOR THE INTERVIEW Our interview took place on a Sunday afternoon, only a week after their move to a new flat. Nicola kindly agreed to meet me despite this transition and when I arrived, she greeted me at the door with a warm smile. Their flat already looked lived in and everything seemed in its place. On my complimentary comment, Nicola responded that they simply had to do everything very quickly because of her very demanding work schedule. She offered me a drink, but as it seemed clear to me that it was not easy for her to fit in our appointment, also arranging for her husband to take their little boy out to avoid distractions, I politely refused and indicated that I am happy to start as soon as she feels ready. We therefore had only a very quick introductory chat standing in the kitchen, after which Nicola invited me to see her wardrobe in the bedroom. As Nicola is a researcher herself, and had finished her PhD only a few years ago, she was familiar with the ethics procedures and did not have any additional questions. She also looked quite comfortable with recording and photography; however, she still welcomed my reassurance that the full transcript and all the photographs will be given to her for approval before publication. NICOLA’S WARDROBE Just like Mary, who I interviewed shortly before her, Nicola had also thought about how she would present her clothes to me ahead of our interview. I kind of tried to put things which I would normally hang in my wardrobe together in a kind of coherent narrative, she said, opening the doors of a large built-in wardrobe [Figure A.55]. 389 Figure A.55 In the last few years, she has led quite a nomadic life that included several moves in the space of seven years. This lifestyle has also significantly shaped her wardrobe because of all that moving around you have to be quite capsular. While she used to have many more clothes when she was younger, the disadvantage was that she was not able to see all that she had when she was getting dressed, things would get like kind of slightly lost. Her preferences however changed since. Now, Nicola is much more interested in being able to see everything that she has and kind of know where things are, because her everyday dressing is then much easier. These concerns are reflected in her carefully edited wardrobe, in which she makes a clear division between the clothes she wears for special occasions and work events and those items that get worn on an everyday basis. A large built-in wardrobe in the bedroom contains mainly occasion wear, some favourite older pieces and also Nicola’s collection of shoes, which by her own admission would easily get out of control with a little less self-restraint. I could be a real shoe collector if I let myself get too carried away, she confesses. Her everyday clothes are then stored in a bathroom cupboard because Nicola finds this to be the most efficient option, that’s where I get dressed, so, it makes sense. 390 Favourite clothes Most of Nicola’s current wardrobe goes only a few years back, which she explains by the fact that rather than having a sort of walk-in back catalogue of everything you’ve ever worn she now decided to try and just keep things that I REALLY love - that really matter to me. One such thing is a vintage coat that she bought at a flea market in Edinburgh when she was a student [Figure A.56]. She has had it relined several times since and wore it to work all last winter. It’s probably my favourite coat because it’s so unusual and a lot of people comment on it when I wear it. People are - wow! - you know that looks so retro! And I think it IS - it’s probably like seventies, sixties or seventies. But I just really love it. It’s just something I really enjoy wearing and I think it kind of goes with everything as well? So, it’s probably the oldest thing, you know the one thing that I really kept. Figure A.56 391 Another item that Nicola has had for many years is a dress that she remembers wearing the night she met her husband thirteen years ago [Figure A.57]. She refers to it as a long-term friend and she also remembers wearing it to her sister’s eighteenth birthday. She’s going to be thirty next weekend, she says smiling. This I’ve had for a long time. I kept this one because it really means a lot to me. But also, it’s one of these dresses which again, you can kind of dress up or down? It’s like you can kind of wear it with just like trousers and top underneath and have it almost like a jacket sort of style. Or it’s, because it’s a wrap dress, you can wear something underneath like a slip and make it a bit more evening. (…) I just thought that was kind of an interpretation of a dress that I saw on the catwalk that I really would have liked to have owned. And it was just from La Redoute, you know, a long time ago. But I just had so many good times in this dress Figure A.57 Nicola also kept her second wedding dress which she bought because she needed something that she could change into for ceilidh dancing in the evening [Figure A.58]. Although she loved the dress she wore for the wedding ceremony [Figure A.59], it was entirely unsuitable for ceilidh which is almost like a sport, so she needed a dress that allowed free movement. 392 I’ve worn it SO many times. I wanted something that I’d wear again, and my sister got her bridesmaid dress, I said to her: I’m having one bridesmaid, so you can wear WHATEVER you want and I want you to get something that you’ll wear again. So, she got an Alexander McQueen dress that she’s worn several times since then and I got this. It’s a Pied de Terre dress from the same place. An I just wore this to Times Higher Education Awards, I’ve worn this to other people’s weddings, it’s just like one of those dresses which I really adore. I know it’s not retro, it’s not really retro, but it kind of is antiqued in that way, I thought it was quite twenties. So, I thought it was quite a useful shape for me. People loved the fact that I ceilidhed with the second dress in the evening. It was kind of a surprise, I went away for a bit with Nick and I changed, and it was just so much more comfortable, oh my goodness! I LOVE that dress [the first wedding dress], that dress WAS comfortable, but it was corseted. So, you know, when I took it off, I was just so grateful for like Chanel at that point [laughs]. Figure A.58 Figure A.59 393 Practical concerns Comfort and practicality are key in Nicola’s everyday wear. Juggling the demands of her current job with motherhood is now significantly reflected in her clothing choices. It’s gotta be quick, it’s gotta be practical, it’s gotta be kind of relatively easy to keep and maintain, she sums up. She also needs things which are not gonna tear and things which aren’t gonna get kind of too messed up because she often ends up carrying her little boy, especially in the morning. In addition to this, Nicola’s current role involves many diverse tasks. On the one hand, there is public speaking and boardroom meetings and on the other, exhibition installation and hanging. Therefore, her professional wardrobe has to kind of balance between the very very formal and the very kind of practical, informal. One of the latest items was therefore bought with exactly this in mind [Figure A.60]. This is actually a really recent thing I bought but that can probably be a long-term friend [laughs]. It’s funny because this is from Jigsaw and I tried on two dresses, there’s another one like this and it was VERY similar to some of the jerseys I saw in Disobedient Bodies - did you see that exhibition? When I was in that room, I wanted one of those winter dresses so BADLY. And I finally saw one in Jigsaw and I tried it on and it was JUST a little bit, because I’m quite a small person, it was just a little bit overwhelming? So, this one actually kind of matched my body proportions a lot better. And it actually just looks so much more kind of, I don’t know, grown up and kind of - makes me feel the part when I’m in certain kind of formal spaces. And it’s also really good for winter because it’s got long sleeves and it’s cosy. I LOVE stripes! I’m completely obsessed with ANYTHING in a minimalist stripy kind of style. And it’s actually quite flattering! 394 Figure A.60 Exceptions to the rule Quite an unusual occurrence in Nicola’s wardrobe in terms of colour, material, and style, is a dress that she bought especially for a dress code event she was invited to a month ago [Figure A.61]. This is interesting! This is like - I don’t wear green or colour at all very often. But I had to go to a book launch and it was on dress code and it was for the suffragettes’ history, they actually included my great great aunt who was a suffragette within the book. So, I wanted to go there and represent my great aunt and I thought - right - I need to wear something really like, you know, one of these colours and I need to really go for it. So, I got this dress, and again, everyone was saying - oh, that’s such a nice dress! That’s such a nice colour on you! So, I don’t know, I may wear more green now. So, it’s called a skater dress? I’m not sure, it’s bought on-line, but I LOVE the colour because I DON’T usually wear colour, so it was quite unusual for me and I quite like lace, you know. Most of my clothes are very minimalist, so when I dress up it’s quite nice to wear something a bit more like - I don’t know - antique or kind of playful Victorian, that sort of thing. 395 Figure A.61 Understanding one’s style Nicola also finds that now she is in her thirties she just got used to the idea that there’s things that suit me and there’s things that don’t [laughs], and so she tries to choose styles that she knows work well for her figure. This means she is less experimental with her clothing; her wardrobe is not as interesting as it used to be [smiles]. Yet, she has found her own style that fits with the diverse requirements of her professional life and motherhood. This is ANOTHER dress that kind of does that sort of role [Figure A.62]. Again, it’s kind of quite good for my proportions, I think. I need something which is more like waist orientated. There is all sorts of dresses that I would love to be able to wear but because I’m quite petite I need to wear a certain style. And this is something, again, people comment on this when I wear it. They go like - - that really suits you - that’s a really chic one. So, anything with this kind of, I’m not really sure what the cut’s called? But this kind of cut is good for me and the skirt is also good because it is the right cut length for me. So, it’s a good, good work dress [smiles]. 396 Figure A.62 Professional self-presentation Nicola works in quite a senior position relative to her age and so she finds that appropriate professional self-presentation helps her to boost her self-confidence. I guess it’s just when I wear something that I’m comfortable in I feel like more in control of the room. This applies especially when she hosts important events. A blouse that she wore recently was a perfect choice in this sense as it was hosting but also kind of practical, but also stylish and kind of not detracting, and she shows me a photo on her phone [Figure A.63]. Figure A.63 Nicola strongly feels that in her job it’s quite important that I look the part and so recently she bought another piece that she finds suitable for similar occasions [Figure A.64]. This is something I wore to a thing called The Artist Dining Room, where I had to give a dinner speech. So, I had to kind of dress up and again, I wanted to be sort of not too dressed up 397 [laughs]. So, it’s kind of in between. And I’ll probably wear this to a reception tomorrow night? To host at work. So, it’s quite a good gallery dress, you know, that I can use and things. It’s a viscose or something, it’s good because it matches everything as well. It’s like it matches red shoes, it matches black shoes, you can be quite kind of playful with nail polish when you’re wearing this dress. So, you can go for almost any of those colours and it will look really good. Yeah, I quite like the nude background as well. I’ve so far worn it as a dress, but I could wear it over trousers as a tunic. I like things which are kind of adaptable. Figure A.64 Shades of grey Black and grey are dominant in Nicola’s wardrobe, because they are easy to wear colours that she can just accessorize or not. Moreover, she believes these colours are more suitable in her work context as she does a fair amount of public speaking and does not want colours to distract too much from what she is saying. Many of her everyday work clothes therefore tend to be variations on the same theme, generally in grey tones. To see her everyday items, we move to the bathroom where they are stored. Here, Nicola shows me several pairs of grey and black trousers and skirts as well as tops with subtle patterns to match the same colour scheme [Figures A.65-A.70]. 398 Figure A.65 Figure A.66 399 Figure A.67 Figure A.68 Figure A.69 400 Figure A.70 She especially likes her pyjama shirt that she remembers buying in her first job after she finished her doctoral research. It is easy to combine with many other things and the pattern also reminds her of her grandmother [Figure A.71]. Figure A.71 401 Another favourite is a gingham shirt which she likes both for its practicality and for the history of the material [Figures A.72-73]. This would normally be in my drawers, but this is a TOAST shirt that I just really like? It’s really good for work, I feel really kind of comfortable in it? It’s such a nice material, I just LOVE the material, I LOVE gingham! I don’t really have that many things which are gingham, but I just really LOVE the kind of history of gingham. I saw an article in one of TOAST magazines and it was talking about that history and I just thought - gosh! - that’s REALLY smart marketing? Because that REALLY makes me want to wear it, you know, and kind of almost like buy into that history? [laughs] So, I don’t normally, I’m not normally influenced by kind of, too much of like campaign but I thought that was really smart because I had an intellectual context to it? Which I liked? And it was in TOAST magazine and then they brought this and a dress version of this? And the dress version was a bit too long for me but the shirt I just really liked. The collar goes underneath things really nicely? So, it’s good for winter. But I just [whispering], I just love the material [whispering]. Figure A.72 402 Figure A.73 Chanel An important work favourite is a cardigan which Nicola finds very comfortable and useful for conferences because it is light and travels well [Figure A.74]. She loves anything Chanel inspired, loose, but still elegant styles, and pearl buttons. I guess when you find something you like you just kind of buy it again, she says and so if she comes across a similar top she will buy it. She finds this style very easy to wear and she knows she will get a lot use out of it. Figure A.74 403 If money were no object, Nicola would also love to have a real Chanel suit. Admitting this is a bit of fantasy right now, she feels that it would DEFINITELY get a lot of wear which would make good economic sense. She recalls that someone once told her that if she buys something very expensive, she should divide the price by the number of times she wears that item. Since then, Nicola says, this rule has influenced most of her new purchases. I probably buy a lot more like in Whistles and L.K. Bennett now because I know those things will last and I can justify the cost because I know I’ll wear them a lot, so quality is now among her primary considerations. Enjoying clothes Despite all her current practical concerns, Nicola is adamant that it’s really important just to have clothes that you like wearing and that you really - like - enjoy having. Now she has her little boy, there is no time to browse the shops. Shopping’s like a treat and so she buys most her clothes on-line. However, she still LOVES fashion and spends most of her evenings scrolling through Instagram for minimalist style inspirations [Figures A.75-79]. She is obsessed with stripes and has numerous outfits with variations on the same, stripy theme. I remember reading something about the word ‘iki’ which translates as ‘chic’ in Japanese, it was all basically based on sailor wear? And I just became obsessed with that idea - like kind of stripes and cool colours, I wear lots of things like this. Figure A.75 404 Figure A.76 Figure A.77 405 Figure A.78 Figure A.79 406 Nicola only wears jeans occasionally, at weekends, but she loves her pair of mum jeans in her favourite peg style [Figure A.80]. She finds the colour contrast of the panel that goes down the side especially attractive. She also points out, however, that her father, who is a very stylish man and has otherwise been a great influence , would not approve of this design. He’s of the opinion that no one should buy stone-washed jeans ever [laughs]…because they should be bought in indigo and they should never have holes in them. He DOES wear jeans but he’s NEVER the one for stonewashing. Figure A.80 407 A special treat from her travels, a Chinese jacket bought last year in Amsterdam, stands out in Nicola’s collection of predominantly black, grey, and stripy outfits [Figure A.81]. It is still wrapped in the original tissue paper. However, Nicola seems to welcome the opportunity to unwrap the parcel and proudly shows the jacket to me. There is a LITTLE bit of colour [smiles]. It’s got kind of shoulder pads, again, it’s quite good for my body shape. I don’t know when I wear it but I really want, I just wanted one for ages so I finally found one that suited me so I just got it. I just love this kind of effect [buttons]. Figure A.81 Similar to the green lacy dress she bought for the book launch, the style, the colour and also the material of the jacket break away from the dominance of practical considerations that currently rule her wardrobe. Although this may change again in the future, right now her lifestyle requires more versatile pieces, just like one of her most recent work outfits [see Figure 6]. I can go straight from the boardrooms on to a ladder no problem in this dress [smiles], which truly sums up Nicola’s current wardrobe expectations. 408 GOLRAZ: It has been very loyal to me - that's why I am loyal to it ABOUT GOLRAZ At the time of our interview, Golraz was a research student soon to turn thirty. She lived in a student house in Huddersfield, West Yorkshire, sharing with several other postgraduate students. Iranian by origin, Golraz came to the UK in 2015 to do her PhD in architecture. Previously, she worked in an architecture studio in Tehran and she also lived in Italy and Germany. PREPARING FOR THE INTERVIEW Our conversation took place early in the morning on a weekday when Golraz planned to work from home. She greeted me at the door and took me straight into her room on the ground floor of a large Victorian terrace. Despite the early hour, Golraz looked fresh and prepared. She was dressed comfortably in her home leggings and a T-shirt and she seemed to be looking forward to the interview. I had seen Golraz recently and so there was no need for a longer introduction on the day. I made sure she felt comfortable with the recording of our conversation and then I placed the dictaphone discretely on the coffee table next to her computer which seemed a suitable spot that could cover the whole room without drawing unnecessary attention to the device. Similarly, I also tried to make the transition to taking photographs as casual as possible while again re-assuring Golraz that any photos she does not like for any reason will not be used. Even though I used a large DSLR camera for this session [see Chapter 5.1 (p. 125) for more detail], Golraz seemed very relaxed about photography. She also made clear that she does not mind if I take images that would include her face and the whole body (in addition to the photos of details and hands that I mainly wanted to focus on). GOLRAZ’S WARDROBE As I explained in Chapter 5.1 (p. 125), to help my interviewees to relax into the interview, I first asked them to tell me about their latest piece of clothing. In the answer to this initial question, Golraz did not seem to need much encouragement and without any delay or hesitation, she showed me a skirt that she had bought quite recently in the sale at the House of Fraser [Figure A.82]. 409 Warmth At first, she says, she found it reaaaaly unique, however, she had second thoughts later. Suddenly the skirt actually felt too long and perhaps a bit old fashioned for that reason, yet Golraz still managed to wear it. She shows me how she normally pulls it much higher up, over her waist, because then it feels different … then you think it’s a dress. What she especially likes is the pattern and also the feeling when I touch it. While stroking the fabric, she encourages me to try for myself. ‘Is it quite soft?’, I ask, expecting her to expand on the feel of the fabric. Yeah, and it feels kind of warm, she tells me. From now on, the conversation flows quite seamlessly without the need for more prompting. Figure A.82 Warmth, it turns out, is one of Golraz’s primary considerations when she buys new clothes, especially since the time she has moved to Yorkshire. Cold weather really bothers me, it hurts me!, she explains laughing, so, when I see something, I’m like, woooow! Because I feel like it’s warm. It can just make me reaaaally warm. 410 Moving clothes Figure A.83 When Golraz moved to the UK, she brought her often used clothes in a large suitcase that she now stores at the top of her wardrobe [Figure A.83]. She also brought more of her clothes with her later visits back home and her mother also sent some of her favourite everyday items in the post. A coat, that was a gift from her aunt, also arrived in the post from Iran [Figure A.84]. I reaaally love it, Golraz says as she pulls it out of the wardrobe. At the same time, she points out that this rarely happens to her with gifted clothes. Usually when people buy me clothes I don’t particularly like it. Usually because of the size or because of the colour or because of the texture. If I went to buy this, I wouldn’t buy it maybe because it has some golden buttons. But the combination…The thing came to me and I like it. Figure A.84 411 Golraz’s current wardrobe includes several garments that she strongly associates with her first moments of independence as a student in Milan, where she studied for her MA. These clothes, she tells me, have a special significance for her as she associates them with many fond memories of her student days. I loved myself more than now…at that time, and I was WAY more happier…I AM still a happy person but then…I was REALLY enjoying every second of my life. Apart from her Italian clothes, Golraz also has some items that she bought two-three years back while she was working in Tehran, after finishing her MA. She also regularly wears a couple of much older garments that her parents bought for her when she was at high school. Then there are also some relatively recent items that she bought since she moved to the UK. Quality and affordability For Golraz, buying new clothes is a long-term decision and so she mostly avoids buying cheap clothes. Instead, she aims to buy good quality because she wants her clothes to last for a long time. She also aims not to have too many clothes as this, she reiterates several times during our conversation, does not make her happy. Her ideal wardrobe would include only a few items that she could wear regularly. Despite this, right now she has much more than she would ideally wish to own as because of her fluctuating weight she can no longer comfortably fit into some of her older items. As one such example, Golraz shows me a duvet coat that she bought in Italy [Figure A.85]. Like with many of the other items she later shows me, she remembers exactly when she bought it. With this coat, she especially remembers that she was not in a very good economical situation to afford something that expensive. Yet, she bought it anyhow because she liked it very much and believed that its good quality will make the coat a worthwhile long-term investment. She never regretted: This is - like this is the thing that I like - still this is my choice after so many years. Maybe it’s been 6-7 years that I have it? Still I haven’t seen something that I wished - oh, I wish I didn’t have this, and I have that - because this was what I wanted. 412 Figure A.85 [So, are you still satisfied with it?] Yeah, I’m very satisfied with it. It’s very warm, the only problem I have is that when I bought it, it was actually a little bit loose for me. Now [laughing], it’s kind of very tight - that’s the only problem. The thing is that one of the main reasons that I don’t want to get fat is that I want to be able to wear it! Similar to the time when she first bought the coat, Golraz’s current concerns about not being able to fit into it anymore, come down also to economic considerations. First of all, I can’t afford to buy new clothes, she says laughing. However, as she continues, it becomes clear that Golraz’s perception of affordability is also closely linked to her strong views regarding value and style. This means that she does not want to spend money on items which she knows will not last in her wardrobe, either due to inferior quality or because they do not match her expectations in terms of style and design. Yeah, I can go and buy something - for like any money that you have you can afford to buy clothes. But I won’t be happy wearing them. Even if I buy - if I buy like socks - I care about them. They may look similar to other socks but for me there are some very important details that I paid attention to. Like if it has two colours, then, what are the two colours and like what proportion are they? This is very important [laughs]. On the one hand, Golraz here points to the current affordability of clothing but on the other, she also explains that despite her love of a bargain and clothes shopping in sales, price is not the primary factor in her shopping decisions. 413 Details and care Quality, Golraz repeatedly says, is crucial in her shopping decisions. When I ask how she may judge it, she explains: at first, I look at details - if it just happened random or it’s really planned - how they end things. The significance of such subtle details for Golraz’s relationship to her clothes is confirmed in her description of one of her day dresses [Figure A.86]: I also like that it kind of has the zip here [opens the zip], which is, see how nice it is? That’s what I like because when I wear it I kind of think that I am taking care of myself - because somebody actually took care of this. This has been loved, you know [smiles], that’s - that’s what I like. Figure A.86 Although she clearly likes this dress, it also turns out that she does not get to wear it as often as she would like. Firstly, just like many of her other clothes, the dress is too tight for her at the moment. Secondly, it needs to be washed by hand or dry-cleaned, which is another important factor that affects the frequency with which she wears some of the clothes in her wardrobe. Oh yeah, that’s another problem I have. Some of the clothes that I have I love them so much but I have washing problems with them so I can’t wear them really. I can’t put them in the 414 washing machine. Nowadays when I buy something I kind of check if I can just put it in the dryer, in the washing machine. Any items that require ironing are also a challenge for Golraz in her shared accommodation with a limited storage, because for me anything that I take out takes lots of time to just again put it back in the same place, so that’s a problem. Her main storage for clothing is a double door hanging wardrobe, with two full-width drawers at the bottom. In addition to this, she has a small IKEA hanging shelf where she stores her accessories and shoes, and two hooks on her room door for hanging light jackets. Overall, she finds that this limited storage considerably affects the ways in which she can use her clothes, because I just don’t see it because it’s somewhere there and I don’t remember. This also influences Golraz’s new purchases as she is well aware that every new item only aggravates this situation: now, whenever I buy something - I’m like just - where are you going to put it then? Shopping decisions Golraz admits that she enjoys people’s compliments and that she cares about their comments on her outfits. Yet, when she shops for clothes, she prefers to be on her own. When I’m buying clothes, I don’t need people’s opinion, because she feels that other people’s views can distract her from her own preferences. The most important thing for Golraz is to be in love with what she is buying. To demonstrate on an example, she finds one of her favourite dresses in her hanging wardrobe. The way she feels about it is instantly obvious from her expression as she proudly shows the dress to me [Figures A.87-88]. This is so beautiful! Oh, I love it, I love it! I could wear it and I was so pretty [laugh]! The back is - that’s really lovely [showing how the back is different from the front]. It’s lovely - it’s just lovely! [Did you bring it from Iran?] Yeah, I bought it in Italy. I took it home, I brought it here, I was not the same size. It wasn’t the right size for me, and it is not still. You know I’m keeping it because I, kind of, I don’t know, I can just give it to my daughter maybe [laugh]. I love it so much! 415 Figure A.87 Figure A.88 Interestingly, one of the older pieces that she is still able to wear despite her weight fluctuations is a cardigan that her parents bought for her about fifteen years ago [Figure A.89]. Golraz is very impressed by its quality, especially the way it withstands washing, as despite having been washed countless times over the years, the cardigan still retains its original colour. She pulls it out of the wardrobe and as she starts showing it to me in more detail Golraz suddenly decides: it’s really good 416 and I want to wear it now. She puts it on, laughing, and again points out to me how it still looks like new and fits perfectly after all these years. Figure A.89 Looking truly comfortable, Golraz then keeps the cardigan on for the rest of our conversation [Figure A.90]. It’s easy, you know, right size, right everything - and it never dies. Never dies! I can imagine wearing it when I’m one hundred years old, she tells me with a smile on her face. However, she is also aware that the reason the cardigan still fits her comes down to her parents’ good advice. She fondly recalls the shopping trips with her parents, who she says never tried to influence her in terms of style or price, but they always encouraged her to buy things with a looser fit. If it were not for them, she admits, she would again end up buying something really tight which can’t go through my neck anymore [laughs]. Figure A.90 417 The coat Another piece that Golraz appreciates for its quality, versatility and general usefulness is a coat that she bought several years ago in a sale of a small Iranian label [Figures A.91-93]. So, this is another thing that I really love. See, the only problem it has that it’s not designed particularly for England. It doesn’t have a zip, so when it’s so windy [laughs]…It has a belt, it works properly in Tehran where I bought it. It doesn’t work as good here. But it helps me a lot whenever I’m wearing a dress or something. Figure A.91 At that time, I needed it for the same purpose as I’m using it now - something black and, like, useful. I needed something waterproof and at the same time not very cold inside and I wanted it to be black. And you know it’s very easy to wear. When it’s not windy and it’s not heavily raining, I just wear it and I don’t use the belt even. It feels really good. Figure A.92 418 Figure A.93 Golraz also comments that when she wears this coat, she instantly notices that people treat her differently, as a fancy girl and shop assistants promptly volunteer with theirs can I help you? This is in sharp contrast to her experience of wearing her other weather-proof item, a very ordinary jacket that is one of her most treasured pieces of clothing [Figure A.94-95]. A choice of outfit, Golraz explains, depends on her mood: because there are some mornings that I say - yeah, actually I don’t want to wear any make-up, I don’t want to look any better than I am at the moment. And then that’s what I wear. Unlike the black coat that seems to attract a lot of attention, this jacket seems to make her virtually invisible. Nobody even sees me, she says laughing. This simple black jacket with a hood is one of the items that Golraz remembers buying with her parents when she was still at high school. Originally, it felt a little too big because her father once again insisted that she goes for a looser fit so that she can put several layers underneath. With 419 the benefit of a hindsight, Golraz appreciates that this was the right decision as it is thanks to this that she is still able to wear the jacket now. If it were not for her parent’s advice it would no longer fit her. The fact that the jacket have gone through a lot of washing without any considerable signs of wear is for Golraz a proof of very good quality and she explains that she now thinks of the jacket as a friend: I wear it very often because I like it! Like we are now, I think, after so many years, friends. You know you, you don’t look for friends - you don’t look if they’re beautiful or they’re…You know, you just want them to be trustworthy. That’s the same feeling I have with it [smiles]. I think it has been very loyal to me - that’s why I am being loyal to it [still smiling]. Figure A.94 Figure A.95 420 Climate This jacket is also one of the few older pieces that are suitable for Yorkshire weather. The difference in climate, is another important reason why Golraz is now not able to wear some of her older clothes bought in Iran or Italy. A skirt bought in Italy, which she still finds really lovely [Figure A.96], is one such example. In this case, Golraz did not wait for the sales to buy it as she didn’t want to risk it. It was perfect for the weather and the climate in Italy and so she wore it very often at the time. She would wear it higher up, over her waist, like she now wears the new skirt she showed me at the beginning of our conversation [Figure A. 82]. You know, it was really nice with a top and this and it felt really good, and I was thinner at the time, so I was happier, Golraz smiles and sighs at the same time. Figure A.96 A dress for a friend’s wedding Another piece she decides to show me as she looks through her wardrobe is a dress that she remembers wearing to a close friend’s wedding [Figure A.97]. Weddings in Iran, Golraz explains, require a strict dress code, you have this responsibility to wear something REALLY fancy. Although she suspects many people would think this dress does not look special in any away, or perhaps not even appropriate for a wedding, when she matched with a black belt [Figure A.98] Golraz received many compliments on her outfit and so has no regrets about the choice. When I wear it, you will admit that it really looks nice, she tells me laughing. It looks good on me and I feel good when I’m wearing it. I don’t feel, you know, when sometimes you wear something, and you feel like it’s not me particularly - it’s like a posh girl, 421 I don’t know. Sometimes I don’t feel like it’s me. But this is something that when I wear it, like, in weddings even, which is very formal, I feel that I’m myself. So, I feel good and I look nice in it, yeah. Figure A.97 Figure A.98 Trousers As we speak for quite a long time, having already covered a considerable part of Golraz’s current wardrobe, it suddenly strikes me that there was no mention of trousers yet. When I prompt her with a question, Golraz recalls only two pairs of trousers in her life that she LOVED, and she no longer has either of these. One pair was passed onto a family member in Iran, and the other, which she used to wear with her duvet coat, soon wore out around the crotch seam. 422 Golraz later explains that finds shopping for trousers rather challenging and tiring too, because unlike for example trying on a jumper, trying on trousers in a shop involves a lot of undressing. This means that she tends to go for the same tight style over and over again. Although it does not particularly work for her, by her own admission, Golraz does not really invest much effort in looking for better solutions. Shopping for trousers, she says, is weird because most of the time one size is too small and the next one up is too big. And it makes you feel bad, you know, it makes you feel like there’s something wrong with you, she comments with a resigned laugh. Eventually, as she continues browsing through her wardrobe, she finds a pair that she wants to show me. Before she says anything, she stretches the waist [Figure A.99]: That’s very good because it’s [showing how it stretches] and I usually go for that kind of trousers nowadays. I don’t have to deal with this part [showing waist] because this part has like an elastic so does the job. Figure A.99 This last remark feels symbolic of Golraz’s relationship to most of her wardrobe. She loves clothes that are functional and versatile, that make her feel good about herself, and she tries to make them work for her for as long as her fluctuating weight allows. 423 KATHRYN: That reminds me of a nice evening out with girls ABOUT KATHRYN Kathryn is an osteopath in her early fifties. She lives with her teenage son in a house in a small town in Buckinghamshire. She is English and grew up in London, but she travelled extensively with her family and later also with her ex-husband. PREPARING FOR THE INTERVIEW Kathryn and I met on a weekday morning when she was not working because later that day she was leaving for a long weekend with her girlfriends at her holiday chalet in Devon. I have known her for a few years through her late father who was a good friend of mine. After he passed away, Kathryn and I have kept in touch. When I arrived, she offered me a cup of coffee, proudly showing me her new kitchen that she had recently connected with her living to create an open plan living space. Like Julie, Louise and Emma before her, Kathryn too mentioned that she might not have enough interesting clothes to show me. Therefore, while we were drinking coffee, I explained again that I am interested in her daily wardrobe rather than anything extraordinary. I also reassured her that she can withdraw at any point and that any parts of the transcript or images she does not feel entirely comfortable with, will be removed. After this, Kathryn seemed keen to start and so we moved upstairs, into her bedroom. KATHRYN’S WARDROBE The main storage for Kathryn’s clothes consists of a large built-in double wardrobe and a chest of drawers, both in her bedroom. She stores her chunkier knitwear and accessories under her bed and she also regularly puts her seasonal clothing away in the attic. Taking things out before the new season is always exciting as Kathryn often finds something she forgot about in the meantime: I LOVE getting the summer stuff out of the attic because then I’m kind of like - oh! I’ve forgotten I had that! - that’s REALLY REALLY nice. She tries to keep only the clothes that she actually wears, admitting that she tends to be quite ruthless when it comes to disposing of clothes. Kathryn feels that most people, her including, tend 424 to gather far too much stuff and then it can tie you down. For this reason, whenever she buys a new piece of clothing, she tries to make a point of revising her wardrobe at the same time: I try and just sort through if there’s something here that could do with being chucked away. The things she no longer wants are then taken to charity. Second-hand clothes This wardrobe rotation is also one of the reasons why Kathryn no longer has many second-hand clothes. She says she used to have more second-hand items in the past, but now she does not shop second-hand very often. She finds some second-hand shops quite smelly and this does not encourage her to actively look for second-hand clothing. However, as long as they are not worn out, she is quite happy to wear second-hand items. In fact, several pieces that she bought at charity events are among her current favourites. It is therefore the experience of shopping rather than the clothes as such that puts her off more second-hand purchases. Ah! Here’s another one that I love! [Figure A.100]. This, actually, ‘cause my job, I can’t usually wear skirts, you know. Because it’s quite hands on. But, actually, this - because it’s an A line - I can sometimes. I just put some stockings underneath and things. And this I love because I got it from a swish party. You know, a friend was fund-raising for cancer or something Cancer Research. And it’s White Stuff, which I love. Yes, and another friend was like, you know, she brought this in and it was great! As it didn’t cost me anything other than giving some money to charity. And that I love because I love anything that’s kind of applique and things like that. And it’s got the zip up the side, which is brilliant. So, if I’ve had too much to eat, I can still get into it [laughs] and it’s lined, so you’re all right. So, yeah, I love that. That’s really nice. So, that was fun. That’s a nice one that reminds me of a nice evening out with girls. 425 Figure A.100 Independent boutiques What Kathryn truly enjoys is shopping in independent boutiques and directly from makers at markets, craft fairs and special events. I always love it when it’s something that somebody has made themselves, she feels that these clothes offer an extra human touch. She also likes the little details that often distinguish these pieces from high street fashion. She finds applique, hand-stitching and nice buttons particularly attractive. I LOVE it when people have lovely buttons, she says, and so she also has her own button jar which she uses in her new hobby of up-cycling. I suppose everyone likes to have things that are a little bit different, just like the cats print on a top that she bought in a small boutique near her holiday home [Figure A.101]. She decides to find it in her ironing pile downstairs to show me: So, it hasn’t been ironed yet [laugh]. But I thought it’s quite fun, so I thought I’ll show it to you. … Well, it is lovely! And that is from a lovely shop in Devon called Poppy and Blue and they sell quite a lot of one size things - because they’re quite baggy. But this has got like the bat wings sort of thing, so, actually it’s really flattering even though it doesn’t come all the way down. Yeah, actually it’s quite wide and so you could have something that isn’t long 426 sleeved and looks really good still. And I love the cats. Can’t resist the cats. And Poppy and Blue do a lot of lovely lovely things. And! I think this was like ten or fifteen pounds - it’s quite a good value as well. Figure A.101 Another similar example is a coat with quirky details that she finds attractive and unusual [Figures A.102-104]. Actually, I love this coat! I just wear this all the time. So, this I love the fact that it comes with a scarf. You think you’re getting value for money [laugh]. But they’ve also stitched this in which means the scarf stays put, which is also really good. So, I quite like that - it’s almost like being a kid and your mum is making sure you don’t lose something. And then you’ve got different buttons. So, I love that and I like the lining. The lining’s really good. You can put buttons on easily [laughs]. It isn’t finished very well, which you will have noticed because you’re a seamstress. But it’s things like [examining the coat in detail] - oh, that’s not too bad, that side, but the other side is a bit off. But I still like it because I think, well, it’s still a very good value. It didn’t cost me a huge amount of money, but I wear it all the time and it’s a nice shape on me? [So, was it again an independent shop where you bought it?] 427 Yes, it was a little boutique. So, it’s Joe Browns? But you can also get it by catalogue and so they’re quite reasonable priced things. But they’re a little bit quirky and they’re a bit, sort of, you know, slightly hippie. But I quite like it because I like the fact that you’ve got the sort of brocade things, the velvet and then it’s done it on the pocket [showing] and, you know, and I do like the shape of it. I’ve had it for ages. Figure A.102 Figure A.103 428 Figure A.104 Versatile clothes Kathryn appreciates clothes that can be worn in different ways and so have lots of use. She shows me another item from an independent boutique which she likes because you can wear it as a boob dress or you can use it as a long skirt, so it can be a maxi skirt [Figure A.105]. For similar reasons, she also likes boleros. Her gauzy one, for example, is a really great staple because it kind of goes with everything which is great, so that’s a favourite [Figure A.106]. Figure A.105 429 Figure A.106 Another truly universal item is her stripy leotard which she can wear for cycling, yoga, or Pilates, but also dressed up and combined with a skirt [Figure A.107]. She finds it REALLY handy, which is why it is the one of the oldest pieces she has kept. This I’ve had, I’m quite proud of that, that I’ve had for about fifteen years and it still fits me. A leotard is great … I mean - if you go cycling the wind doesn’t get in there, if you do yoga, or Pilates, or just wear it under a skirt. You can have like a maxi skirt and then you just have this. And then sleeves keep you nice and snug. And this one goes right up to the neck. Figure A.107 430 Good times with friends Apart from their practical aspects, many of Kathryn’s favourite clothes are also linked with memories of good times spent with friends. A brocade coat that she bought at a charity event in London stands out among these [Figure A.108]. This is a good one to talk about. It’s one of those things that you can wear with a pair of jeans or you can, kind of, you know, dress up or dress down. (…) I got it, actually, it’s a lady who has, in King’s Cross, a second-hand, sort of vintage clothing shop? And she, all the profits go to this school in Afghanistan, for girls. Her background is - her mother and father were - he was an eye surgeon and she was a nurse and he was working out there, so she remembers being out there as a child and she wanted to help the girls because they weren’t being educated. So, what she did was she did a big clothes sale at a church. So, it was this way and a friend of mine said: oh, this is taking place. And she had lots of clothes which were like that she said they’re designer ones, they’re not well-known designers. I mean that’s who it is [showing]. But she just had some nice unusual clothes. And it is nice, isn’t it? So, that’s a nice piece. Whenever I get that out I kind of think that it was, it was all, you know, so it was a fund-raising thing. And it was, I was with a really nice friend, with some of her girlfriends, and we were all sort of having a nice time. Figure A.108 431 Travel souvenirs Kathryn’s practical concerns are also reflected in her love of buying clothes as souvenirs from her travels. Such clothes are then everyday reminders of her break and her travel memories. It just makes me think about being on that beach and that part of the world, she tells me about one of her all-time favourites, a summer dress from India. She cannot show me the dress because it is packed away in the attic for winter but talking about it still puts a smile on her face. Another of her travel souvenirs is a T-shirt that she bought in an outdoor shop in a small town in Canada while she was travelling with a friend [Figure A.109]]. Kathryn wears it quite often, either to play tennis or just as leisure wear at home. She particularly loves the little badge with maple leaf at the bottom edge of the shirt. This little detail caught her eye and so she also bought a pair of tracksuit bottoms from the same company [Figure A.110]. This was very popular with an ex-boyfriend of mine [laughs]. He loved this! He loved the fact that it had the cheeky paw marks on the back [laughs]. And again, I just love the logo, the logo looks really good. (…) And it’s just, it’s like so soft on the inside. So, this I love. It’s nice, happy colour and drawstring’s great for slouching around [laughs]. It’s like from, you know, when you were a kid. It’s kind of, but then it has got the paw marks on the back. Figure A.109 432 Figure A.110 Figure changes Kathryn’s weight tends to fluctuate and so she appreciates stretchy materials, elasticated waistbands, and drawstrings. She also likes side zips which she finds easier to do up when she had too much to eat. There are several items that she likes very much but cannot always fit into. A pair of jeans with a large floral pattern and her favourite woollen bolero are two examples of her slim day [laughs] clothes that she can only wear occasionally [Figures A.111-112]. Figure A.111 433 Figure A.112 This also means that Kathryn’s more long-standing items are generally tops, as her trousers and skirts tend to be more affected by her figure changes – as she explains on the example of her old denim jacket [A.113]. I tell you this is a favourite as well, actually. That’s good. Yeah, and goes on holiday. So yes, I like this one because I usually put my keys in there and I’ve got my summer dress on and then I kind of, you know. And this was a - was it a TK Maxx? Was it? That was a TK Maxx one. So, that’s great. I have had it for ages, because I haven’t changed on top that much? So, I’m all right. My trousers end up changing quite a lot. Figure A.113 434 Practical considerations Kathryn’s osteopathic practice is quite hands on which means that the main consideration for her work wardrobe is practicality. She also has a dog which she often takes to her practice, taking it for countryside walks on the way there and back. Her daily wear therefore must fit around these needs. I end up dressing a bit like a mum, she laughs, and all my clothes have got pet hairs on them. One of the most recent additions to her wardrobe is a dress that seems perfect for this lifestyle. Although she has only had it for about a month, Kathryn tells me she is already very fond of it [Figure A.114]. This I love because it’s kind of like - I love these buttons. And it’s just, it’s incredibly flattering piece. It’s so simple, then you’ve got the yoke and all of this [showing fold at the back]. And you’ve even got pockets - though I know it’s not good to put things in your pockets. But I love that because that just looks really nice with leggings and it’s like a dress but it’s like you almost feel as though you’re not wearing a dress. And then you just - I go out and walk the dog in it and things. So, I love that, so that’s new. Figure A.114 435 Another practical item that Kathryn wears both to work and at weekends is a bright coloured top that is easy to combine with leggings or jeans [Figure A.115]. Despite numerous washes over the years, it has kept its original shape and is generally very easy to look after. I’ve had this for years and it looks new still. Probably because it’s one of those synthetic fabrics. And I’ve had it for about, probably, six years or something. And if I go travelling, I don’t need to iron it. It’s, you know, it’s a lovely colour. And it just goes with leggings and things and it’s good old Wallis. And that I wear a lot. And I’ve never really got bored of it. So, that’s been a good buy. … I do really like natural fabrics. But sometimes it’s quite nice having a few things like that which is really really easy. Figure A.115 Good value Along with her love of independent boutiques, Kathryn also has some favourite high street brands and so she admits that she does shop in the big stores sometimes. However, whether it’s a small boutique or a large high street chain, she still loves getting good value. Kathryn says she finds it difficult to go and buy something really really extravagant for herself, yet she is conscious that some of her more expensive pieces were no doubt a good investment. Her favourite skirt from TOAST is 436 a particularly good example [Figure A.116]. She has worn it for years and she can still imagine wearing it regularly in the future. This is what I’ve had for years and years. ‘Cause I like the fabric? And this is one from TOAST, which is really expensive. But cost per wear, it’s good [laugh]. Yeah, yeah, I love it! I love the way that it’s gathered like that - it’s really nice. And then it sits over your hips. And this one, as I’ve got a bit bigger, I have to pop it on over the top. But, yeah, I’m still all right round the waist. So, I used to slip it on like this [showing]. I can’t cause I got too big [smiles]. So, now I pop it over my head and then it is fine because it just sits on the waist. Because then the rest of it is nice and full. So, it’s fine. I love it, it’s great. I can actually amazingly still fit in that one. Figure A.116 Another similar example is an expensive pair of trousers that she bought on the recommendation of a sales assistant without realizing how much it cost [Figure A.117]. Despite the price, Kathryn has no regrets at all because she has had a lot of use from these. Apart from their perfect fit and elasticated waist, another strong advantage of these trousers is that they do not necessarily need ironing. The design works well with a crumpled look and so even un-ironed, they look good once she puts them on. This certainly suits Kathryn as she admits that her ironing is very cursory. 437 It’s a bit embarrassing because it’s in a bit of a state but I wear it all the time. It looks like maternity trousers. But, actually, you can have it so that it goes up to here [shows the waist] or what you’re meant to do really is to fold it over? So, you have a kind of fold over. And the fabric is quite stretchy? But I love the cut as well, I like the shape. (…) It was really expensive, and I only got it because one of the sales assistants went and looked on the rails and said: oh, just try this with that, you know. She knew exactly what she was doing. And it didn’t have a price tag on it and then when I went to the till it was like - it was a hundred pounds. And I was like - I never spend that much on a pair of trousers [whispering]. And then I thought well, if they look perfect on me? And they are divinely comfortable and very very flattering. Figure A.117 438 Dressing up As Kathryn’s daily life does not give much opportunity for fancy outfits, she always looks forward to special occasions with friends that give her an excuse to dress up. When she goes out in the evening, she loves designs that cross over at the chest. She also likes styles that expose her back but points out with a smile that there must be a good balance between exposing and not exposing as she is getting older. Her most recent evening dress, bought for a friend’s fiftieth birthday party, combined the two requirements perfectly [Figure A.118]. She tells me she loved wearing it as it looked good with heels and was also a little bit flirty without revealing too much as the open back was divided into two sections. Figure A.118 This evening dress, like many other of Kathryn’s all-time favourites, fits her well, makes her feel good, and it is now also a reminder of some good times with friends. That was a really nice night out so there are happy memories there, she says with a wide smile, obviously looking forward to another occasion to wear it in the future. 439 ANNABELLE: It's like that feeling of hugging her ABOUT ANNABELLE Annabelle is an education specialist in her early fifties, and she lives with her children and her boyfriend in a house on the edge of a commuters’ town in Buckinghamshire. She is English but for many years she lived in Florida where she studied for her postgraduate degree and later got married. Seven years ago, she moved back to England with her son (9) and her daughter (19), who is now back in the US at university. PREPARING FOR THE INTERVIEW Annabelle daily commutes to work in London and we met on a Thursday afternoon when she kindly arranged to finish early to allow some daylight for the photos. Because of her busy family commitments, arranging a meeting at a weekend would be much more complicated and likely even impossible. When I arrived at her house Annabelle was not back yet, but she soon phoned me to apologize and arrived within ten minutes. On her way back from work she picked up her son and was held up by arrangements for his planned transfer to another school. When they arrived, her son proudly told me all about this and showed me his playroom full of Lego as well as some of his favourite gadgets. Annabelle then instructed him to play on his own and leave us to our conversation, which he did for most of the time except for two brief interruptions. Annabelle offered me a cup of tea and contrary to my concern that she may find the interview too tiring after a busy day at work, she seemed refreshed by the change of topic. Although we had never met before, after only a few minutes of our introduction she found her iPad to show me, with a genuine excitement, a dress that she had just ordered on-line for her partner’s birthday. She was also interested to hear more about my research, and she had clearly also looked at my research profile on-line. It turned out that Annabelle also interviewed people during her PhD research and so she was familiar with the ethical procedures and seemed instantly comfortable with both photography and recording. She said she was looking forward to taking part in my research as she would otherwise never get a chance to talk about her wardrobe. We soon moved upstairs where she keeps most of her clothes. 440 ANABELLE’S WARDROBE Annabelle’s wardrobe is divided into two main parts, stored in two different rooms. Her occasion wear, seasonal clothes and rarely worn items are stored on a rail in a spare room. The clothes that she wears on a regular basis, including most of her work clothes, weekend clothes and some of her less formal evening outfits, are stored in the bedroom. The storage in the bedroom includes a large built in wardrobe, shared between her and her boyfriend, and two chests of drawers for folded clothes. When we came upstairs, Annabelle first explained me the logic of dividing her clothes between the two rooms, also having to do with her concern that some the more formal clothes would get ‘squashed’ in the bedroom wardrobe. Then she chose to start with her evening wear and seasonal clothes in the spare room. Florida clothes Many of Annabelle’s clothes are ten to twenty years old, going back to the time when she was still living in Florida. Although she still likes most of these, she does not get to wear all of them quite as often as she would like. The difference in climate is one reason, but Annabelle also feels that there is quite a difference between the US and the UK workplace dress-code and so some of her US work clothes would just feel out of place where she works now. For example, she has several business suits which used to be her standard everyday wear in her previous jobs, but she feels people in England don’t wear this stuff. A common feature of many of the dresses and skirts that she bought in the US are colours and prints that still remind her of Florida. She wears most of these several times a year to summer parties or during holidays. Out of these, she especially likes her mermaid outfit which she bought many years ago as she found the design striking [Figure A.119]. So, this is a very unusual skirt that I’m very attached to. For no sentimental reason, apart from the fact that I’ve never seen anything like it ever. I’ve never seen anything like it ever [laughs]. It’s like, very under water. I feel like, when I wear it, I feel like I’m a mermaid. Again, it’s gotta kind of, a very tight sort of fit? It has a slit here, in the side of it. And you can see, when I get out of the car - look [it’s torn]. But it’s a tight fit and when I’m wearing it it tails like a mermaid. And it’s hand-printed. I love that! (…) It’s quite difficult to know what to wear 441 with that. I struggle sometimes to find something to wear with it? And I wear like a variety of different tops. I was gonna see if I can find the top that I wear with it. Ah! Here we go! I wear that with it. So, that’s my - that’s my mermaid outfit [laughs]. Figure A.119 Another similar outfit, originally bought for a special occasion, gets worn much more often because she can also wear it to work [Figure A.120]. Annabelle has had it for a long time, but it still looks good and so she wears it quite frequently. I’ve got a really old outfit that I was gonna say - like talk about sentimental value [laughs]. So, this, again, all creased, but hey - what you gonna do? This outfit here, this dress, I bought this for a wedding. It was my brother in law’s wedding I bought it for. And I have a photograph of my daughter, of me holding her and she was really small. She’s now nineteen. So, I would have been carrying her, it would have been like two. So, I’ve had this for about sixteenseventeen years. And although I bought it for a wedding I wear it to work. And people, the colouring of the dress, the kind of the chocolate and the lime, is striking to people. And they say: that’s, oh wow! That’s a striking colour. And then a couple of people have thought that I have spilt something. Reallly! And then, it’s something to do with the chocolate colour and 442 the way it falls down the dress. And they’re like: oh no! That’s the pattern of the dress! So, it’s quite an unusual dress and so I like it very much. I’ve worn it a lot. Figure A.120 Back in the US, Annabelle had two favourite brands that both sold very inexpensive clothing which she says lasted the test of time. She has multiple dresses and skirts from both companies, most of which she still wears when she gets a chance. What she likes is the combination of plain design, low price, and durability, and she comments that she has been finding it hard to find similar clothing in the UK. This, again, is a very old dress that I have, I bought that in Florida [Figure A.121]. And I really like that, I wear it with a ballet top which I think is here [looking through the rail] - oh yeah, here it is! I wear it with that. So, I wear those two together. And that’s a really nice thing to wear like to a garden party in the summer. That kind of thing. So, I don’t know, but I like that a lot. It was very inexpensive. Like this brand in the States - Dress Barn - I probably paid maybe twenty US dollars for it at the most. And it came with this - so it came as a pair. So, very cheap clothing. But it’s stood the test of time. Because it hasn’t yellowed, and I’ve had it for ages! Ages and ages and ages. 443 Figure A.121 There are several pieces from this time which Annabelle no longer wears, or wears very little, one example being a full knee-length skirt with large black and white floral pattern, which Anabelle feels makes combinations with other things difficult [Figure A.122]. Despite this, she would find it hard to part with any of these items, even if they are rarely worn. It reminds me of the tropics and I just don’t want to let go of that part of my life, you know?, she explains holding her black and white skirt at her waist, possibly considering if she could wear it after all. Figure A.122 444 Clothes full of memories For the same reasons, Annabelle found it extremely difficult to discard her lifetime collection of concert T-shirts which she used to buy as souvenirs at every concert she would go to. It was VERY hard for me to get rid of them, she says, but at some point, you’ve got to say: I can’t just keep on taking clothes around with me just because of - I have them - you know. She says she tends to get attached to clothes and has quite a few garments with a lot of sentimental value, such as for example a pleated skirt with a dropped yoke that she bought when her daughter was little and which she then wore almost fifteen years later to the first date with her current boyfriend [Figure A.123]. This one kind of always reminds me, I’ve had this a very long time. This skirt, it’s a Roxy skirt - I bought it in Florida. I bought it when my daughter was really little and she is now, as I said, nineteen. So, I’ve probably had this skirt twenty years. And so, when I was going out for my first date with my boyfriend, I was going on my first date with him and I was with my mother and she said: you’re not going out wearing that, are you? I was like: yeah, yeah, I’m gonna go out wearing this! And I was like: oh! Maybe I’m not wearing the right thing. But her really likes this and when I wear it he’s like: I remember you wore that on our very first date. So, it’s very nice to wear that and remember that memory? And I kind of had that - funny thing that when my mother was saying: oh, you’re not wearing the right thing. Obviously, I wore the right thing. And it was a beautiful summer’s day and, you know, I remember thinking: oh no, it’s exactly the right thing to wear. Figure A.123 445 Another garment that Annabelle strongly associates with fond memories of her loved ones is a dress that she bought on a French holiday with her late father [Figure A.124]. Unfortunately, she does not get to wear it that often because the style is best suited for a truly hot day on a summer holiday and for it to look its best it also requires a tan. Although she only found one opportunity to wear that dress last summer, she says she is very attached to it and would love to wear it more often - weather and occasion permitting. This is one of my favourite things to wear in the summer. I wear this as a dress, and I’ve got a white dress I wear underneath it. But I don’t know where it is? Anyway, it was bought for me in south of France, Saint Tropez. And it’s very, for me, very typically French. Although, I think it has some, you know, obviously has some things maybe from Morocco. I don’t know [smiles]. But I like it because it’s so French. And I wear it, I wear it as a dress. I don’t think it was designed as a dress? But because it’s long, there it is! There’s the dress. So, I wear it with this underneath - like that [showing]. Because otherwise it’s way too see through. So, I wear it like that and then that on top. And then I’ve got some brilliant shoes that I love, that I wear with it. So, these shoes really go well with that outfit. Do you know what I mean? They, they just, it’s just the two go together really well. Figure A.124 446 Second-hand clothes Annabelle does not really browse charity shops on her own, but she has a friend who enjoys charity shopping and so occasionally they may go together. She is also happy to go in by herself if something in the shop window catches her interest. This is how she found another of her favourite holiday outfits that always gets noticed when she wears it [Figure A.125]. Yeah, this is a good one! I really like this! Now, I got this from like a charity stock shop and it looks really good on [laughs]. And it’s really good, kind of, I can tell when I’m wearing this that people stop and look at that - look at it. And I don’t know if it’s the words on it, or, again, it’s figure hugging. But it’s gotta slit down the side and I wear it normally when I’m - it’s beachwear. You know, it’s beachwear. And I don’t know whether it’s just the words on it, or? You see it? There - that’s back to front [the letters]. Figure A.125 Work outfits When it comes to work wear, the everyday outfits in Annabelle’s current job are much less formal than the dress code she was used to in the US. However, despite a more relaxed dress culture, 447 Annabelle still feels that it’s important to dress for your best appearance and to make an effort with one’s work wear. Her outfit on a standard working day consists of a straight cut, over the knee long skirt, a top, a cardigan and boots or low heel shoes. She has quite a collection of work skirts, many of which she bought second-hand, and she usually combines these with light tops [Figures A.126127]. So, most of the stuff here, these kinds of things, that’s what I wear to work. All this stuff here. Like this is my standard work wear [laughs]. All those, all these things, these kinds of skirts that’s just, I wear those kind of on everyday basis. (…) This one is my deliberate attempt to try to break away from beige and black, all right? I really tried to get something that was brighter. (…) So, yeah, when I look at them I’m like - they’re kind of dull in that respect. Again, this is Next, this is Next, I think this is thrift store. In fact, this is thrift store, that’s another thrift store one. So, Next, Next, Next, these are all Next [showing] and then two thrift stores thrown in. And that one I got in Florida [the bright one]. So, when I bought these, when I bought these two I was like - I have to wear, I have to get something brighter. Figure A.126 448 Figure A.127 Clothes from a work colleague She likes the style of one of her colleagues and friends Barbara, who has over time passed to Annabelle several pieces that she felt didn’t work for her. Apart from their colour scheme with subtle hints of brighter colours, much more lively than what Annabelle naturally tends to go for, she also appreciates the versatility of these pieces. Most of them can be combined either with cardigans for daily wear or with jackets if she needs to smarten them up. So, these two skirts I really like very much. These two skirts were given to me by a friend of mine called Barbara, she’s a work colleague [Figure A.128]. She is a very petite, very small, I’m gonna say probably about five foot, about five foot five and she probably would wear a size six clothing. So, very small and she gave these to me because they didn’t work for her anymore. And when I tried them on they were too big for me [laughs]. And believe or not I had to have them taken in. So, I’m gonna guess that she must have bought them and not try them on. Because they were way, way too big for me and they must have been huge for her. So, I had them taken in. I think it cost me about twenty pounds to have each one take in? But I felt like it was worth it because they’re really nice, interesting designs on the skirts. And I really like the black and pink and the black and white. So, I like those two a lot and I wear them quite a lot at work. 449 Figure A.128 What Annabelle also likes about Barbara’s choice of clothes is the fact that they mostly do not crease at all. This makes them perfect for Annabelle’s quite frequent work trips to conferences and other professional events. Ironing and me are not friends, she says laughing, and so she consciously avoids buying clothes that would require a lot of ironing - such as for example linen items. She gave me this dress too, which I really like [Figure A.129]. Really really like this dress. Again, great travel dress! This material? You can scrunch it up, it can be in the corner there on the floor for two days [laughs] and I pick it and wear it and it looks great. It’s a really good material and the way that the dress is designed, with this kind of stained glass effect, with the stained-glass window and the arch, it gives you shape. It gives you shape; you know. And so, it looks really good when I wear it with a jacket. Like I wear it with a jacket - I’ll get the jacket I wear it with [Figure A.130]. So, it can be more formal, or I can just wear it with a cardigan? So, I quite often wear it with this jacket, and this really makes it look smarter. So, it looks really good. 450 Figure A.129 Figure A.130 Travel dresses Recently, Annabelle bought several similar dresses, which also work well across seasons in various work situations, including travelling to conferences. She likes to travel light and not to check-in any bags, so she loves that these dresses are quite compact and can easily be packed in cabin luggage. As they do not crease, she can wear them straight away when she arrives at her destination and combines them with other garments to dress them up or down for different occasions. She bought two of these dresses at once because she knew that this style suits her and looks smart for work [Figure A.131]. I like the V-neck which I know is my kind of like, it gives me shape. And then you can, you can give it some, you can cinch it here at the waist. And it’s got this nice detail, it looks really, I think they look really professional on and I wear them with this jacket if I want to smarten them up. I wear them with this blue jacket. And that works like that quite well. Yeah - I like 451 that. I like it. The material of the jacket works well in summer and winter because in wintertime I just put a - like a blue long sleeve shirt underneath it? So, it’s good. It’s quite versatile and the colour’s quite versatile as well. Figure A.131 Her mother’s clothes As we talk, it turns out that quite a few of Annabelle’s favourite pieces of clothing used to belong to her mother. This seems to come to her as a surprise. I wasn’t really realizing how much of my mother’s clothing I have, she says with a smile. In terms of colour palette, Annabelle tends to prefer subdued tones and in her everyday wear she almost invariably gravitates towards brown, beige and black. Again, this is a pattern she shares with her mother, I think that’s, it’s interesting - if she was here, she would say, yeah, her wardrobe is full of brown and beige as well. There was a phase when Annabelle was given a lot of cashmere her mother no longer wore but she ended up giving most of it away as she found it was simply too much. Also, she feels in two minds about cashmere. I like how it feels against my skin, she says, but honestly? I just guess it’s too hot for me sometimes. She has several expensive evening dresses which her mother couldn’t bear to give away, so Annabelle ended up having them altered to fit her figure. One example is her standard black dress which she wears quite often when she goes out [Figure A.132]. Yet, she also has some more casual pieces from her mother which she wears on a much more regular basis. Her favourite is a top which again does not crease and combines really well with many of Annabelle’s work clothes, so she ends up wearing it quite frequently on weekdays [Figure A.133]. 452 This was also my mother’s and I wear that a lot. I wear it with, I wear it to work with a black - this black skirt and it goes very well with this, quite often with a jacket as well. So, this again, I get quite a lot of compliments on this top and get the opportunity to tell that it belonged to my mother. (…) Again, and it looks just a bit like that stained glass one [the dress from her friend Barbara - see Figures 11-12]. Because it’s got that red, it just makes the black - it pops out with the black, you know? Makes the black a little less dull. But I, I like this a lot and it’s really, again, travels well, you can scrunch it up. Figure A.132 Figure A.133 453 Yet, one of her most treasured pieces of clothing is a fur coat inherited from her grandmother which still retains a smell that takes Annabelle back to her childhood memories each time she puts it on [Figures A.134-136]. I got a vintage jacket that you have to see. I’m gonna go get it [leaves downstairs]. (…) Now! This was my grandmother’s, so it’s very old and it was made in Cape Town [smiles and shows me the label]. It’s lambs wool, I believe. I believe, I believe so - I don’t honestly know. But I do know that it’s been handed down to me and I wear it. It’s an evening - and I wear it in the evening. So, when I go out and I’m wearing that black outfit [from her mother - see Figure 14] I’ll wear this in the evenings. But, it smells of my grandmother [laughs]. I should have it I should have it dry-cleaned but I don’t. I haven’t, yeah, it reminds me of her. Yeah, yeah, it’s got a very distinct - distinct smell. And it’s amazing! There’s no way I could ever get rid of this jacket. And when my mother gave it to me, I was absolutely delighted! And I probably, of course I don’t wear it very much, I don’t wanna leave it anywhere. I don’t want it to get really damaged? But when I do wear it, you don’t see very much of this anymore. You know, it’s very very different. I love that! Figure A.134 454 Figure A.135 Figure A.136 Decisiveness Generally, Annabelle has quite plain taste in colour and pattern and she prefers straight cuts and figure hugging styles. She also feels that V-shaped necklines suit her frame and so she defaults to choosing those when clothes shopping. Several garments that she received as gifts do not quite fit in with these preferences and so she either never wears them at all or wears them only occasionally. There are two dresses bought for her by her boyfriend which she likes for that reason, but she is not entirely comfortable with the style: these are unusual dresses, yeah, this neckline is a little different for me and it just about works - I can get away with it, just about. However, Annabelle is adamant that when she buys clothes for herself, she knows what she wants and does not usually have second thoughts. If I’m gonna buy it, I like it and I stick it through, she says decisively. Similarly, apart from some fairly rare exceptions such as her Florida clothes mentioned above [see Figure A.122], Annabelle does, on the whole, discard the clothes that she does not use. 455 Connections through clothes Annabelle’s sense of style and her decisiveness about what she likes and does not like to wear is not necessarily incompatible with her being able to appreciate and wear clothing with primarily sentimental value. For example, she has several jumpers that were passed down to her by her boyfriend’s mother and although she may not normally wear most these, she puts them on when her boyfriend’s mother is around. Her boyfriend’s mother, in turn, wears the jewellery that Annabelle had given to her when she comes to visit, and Annabelle likes that. Also, she keeps a jumper that belonged to her father and sometimes wears it at weekends despite it being far too big for her as it reminds her of her father, with whom she was very close. I have a handkerchief of his I keep in my pocket. So, you know, those kinds of things - clothes hold so many memories. And you, so when I wear this, like sometimes I can’t wear it because it makes me feel sad, you know? But then it’s nice to have them. So, you know, it’s a mixture of the two. Like, would you rather not have any of his belongings and then not be reminded? Or be reminded and feel sad [smiles]. The piece she holds onto most now though is another jumper, one that belongs to her daughter who is now at university in the US [Figure A.137]. She left this jumper behind and Annabelle now wears it when she really misses her. I wear it and I feel like, you know, because it’s nice and cosy and warm, it’s like that feeling of hugging her, like I - almost like I can hug it, you know? - or is it hugging me?, she says stroking the jumper with a gentle smile. Figure A.137 456 EMMA: My eyes must just be tuned into patterns ABOUT EMMA Emma is an arts and heritage education consultant in her mid-forties. She lives with her husband and two sons aged seven and eight in their house in a small town in Kirklees, West Yorkshire. Emma is English and she has lived in Yorkshire for most of her life. She recently left full-time employment to run a freelance consultancy and now mostly works from home. PREPARING FOR THE INTERVIEW I visited Emma on a weekday afternoon, shortly after she started working freelance and was getting used to her new work pattern. She greeted me at the door and because this was the first time we met in person, we took some time over a cup of tea for a mutual introduction and to clarify any details about the research. Emma’s husband was also at home, he was getting ready to start working on a building job in another part of the house, but he briefly joined us to say hello. He seemed curious about my research and so all three of us had a short conversation during which I explained my interest in the topic, my approach to the research and our conversation soon turned to sustainable fashion, disposability and some high street brands. Like ahead of the rest of my interviews, while providing my participants with all the information they needed to make informed decisions about taking part in the research, I also tried to keep the information about the aims of my research to a minimum to avoid pre-framing my interviewee’s expectations and answers (see Chapter 5.1, p. 125). However, the presence of Emma’s husband made disclosing more than I would have otherwise wished to share ahead of the interview practically unavoidable. To reiterate a point made earlier in Chapter 5.1 then, while I believe this did not compromise the results of my conversation with Emma in any significant way, I was aware that Emma’s repeated references to high street shops such as Primark and her descriptions of clothes she had bought there may have been to some extent influenced by our pre-interview discussion. EMMA’S WARDROBE Like Julie, Louise and Kathryn, Emma too was concerned she did not have enough clothes that I could find interesting. Quite a lot of my wardrobe is boring pieces I really like, she told me when I first 457 approached her. Yet, she liked the focus of my research and was curious so agreed to take part. After further reassurance and our introductory discussion in the kitchen, Emma invited me upstairs where our conversation continued smoothly without the need for extra prompts. The main storage for Emma’s clothing is in her bedroom, where she and her husband each have a hanging wardrobe with full width drawers at the bottom. However, Emma’s clothing tends to overflow into her husband’s space. Extra storage is provided by baskets at the top and under each wardrobe and Emma also stores some old dresses, which she keeps for fabrics, under the bed. I seem to hoard things she tells me as she opens her wardrobe and says she keeps wearing many of her clothes even when they’re falling to bits. She points to the bottom edge of a top that we see first as she opens the wardrobe door as has recently worn it [Figure A.138]. Yeah, well, I am getting to a point with that one when I keep finding bits on it and then I always pull them off. [laughs] But then, you know, when you sort of stop - sometimes you stop looking at something objectively. You’re just putting it on because, well, that one I’ve put on recently. I don’t know why I put it on but it’s, I think it’s because couple of people have gone like: ah, I really like your top [laughs]. And I quite like it, but, yeah, it is getting a bit raggedy and old. Figure A.138 458 Second-hand clothes Emma says that she would always prefer to buy second-hand clothes for many reasons and her second-hand garments span twenty-five years since the time she started buying second-hand as a student. When she gets a chance, she likes to alter little details like buttons or darts on her secondhand finds and so she has a pile of future projects by her sewing machine. The most recent secondhad additions to her wardrobe are two vintage shirts with bright patterns that she bought at a festival [Figure A.139]. I got those last year - that one and that one - from a festival that I went to. It was a vintage shop at a festival, but I went to it with my boys and we were trying on shirts for fun. So, they chose these ones for me - this one and this one. But I really like them. [So do you wear those?] Yeah, I wear those ones all the time. Bet they’re - like that’s probably a seventies one? That one’s an old Pringle one. So, I think that’s probably, I don’t know how old that one is. Can’t tell. You can sometimes tell from the label, can’t you? It’s an old one and it’s the fabrics, that kind of, but I really like them. I didn’t know it was Pringle when I bought it. I just tried it on and thought I really like it. Figure A.139 459 Her grandmother’s and mother’s clothes Apart from her second-hand and charity shop finds, Emma also has quite a few clothes that used to belong to her mother and her late grandmother. Many of these are between forty and sixty years old and although Emma is conscious that some of the styles may not necessarily be flattering for her figure, she still likes wearing these clothes. These are sort of my favourites, she says, because I know that nobody else has got these. Probably the oldest is a lambswool top with intricate surface beading that Emma’s grandmother gave her long time ago for a ball at a university [Figure A.140]. The silk lining now seems slightly bigger than it should be, so Emma suspects the top may have been accidentally washed at some point. She has worn it a few times in the past, but she is increasingly conscious that the top is in fact quite fragile. She is afraid that it will start falling to bits and this is one of the main reasons why she does not wear it very often anymore. And again, I’m not - don’t know how flattering, well, I just like it. Although I haven’t worn it recently. I don’t go out anywhere to wear it, so I’ve started wearing things - like nice things just for general wear [laughs] because otherwise I’d never wear them. But I haven’t been out to wear this. (…) I love it so much that it’s kind of irreplaceable that. Figure A.140 460 Some of her “inherited” garments, particularly those from her grandmother, may perhaps be more suitable for special occasions. However, there are also several items that Emma wears on a fairly regular basis. Among these is a jacket and two dresses that her mum gave her some year ago. Then I’ve got things like this, which is my mum’s [Figures A.141-142]. That’s like a real favourite thing of mine because she would have worn that in the sixties? Or seventies maybe? And I really like the shape of it on me and the colour and the fabric. So, I wear that loads and I am always scared of it falling to bits, actually. Figure A.141 Figure A.142 461 The two dresses Emma likes the most are both from the times she was a child and she remembers her mum wearing one of them [Figures A.143-145]. She has done minor repairs on the dresses previously but admits that normally she simply wears them without actually examining them in great detail, and so she is surprised by the number of tiny holes we discovered at a closer inspection. Yeah! And this is mum’s and I wear this fairly often, although it’s a bit weird. But I really like it because it was mum’s again and I really like the buttons because they’re fabric covered buttons. And I wear it with jeans. See? It’s getting - it has got all holes in it and stuff but it’s a Biba one. So it’s, I think that must have attracted me a little bit that it’s like an original Biba [laughs], not the new Biba. Figure A.143 Figure A.144 What she particularly likes about the other dress is the way the fabric hangs and although she again suspects the style may not be ideal for her figure, because of her larger bosom, she still enjoys wearing it. I don’t care, she says laughing, I just like it anyway. Again, the main consideration when it 462 comes to wearing this dress is that it is in fact quite fragile after all the years and so Emma is worried that it is gradually starting to fall apart. For Emma, there is something about the slightly worn. Because someone wore it before, second-hand clothing is not quite so perfect, it doesn’t look like you’ve just stepped out of a shop and it is the feeling of not looking entirely pristine that Emma seems to like about it. Figure A.145 High-street and clothes shopping At the same time, she comments on some paradoxes involved in her wardrobe, as well as in her ideal as opposed to real shopping habits. For example, Emma notices that although what I’m wearing today is like new bought stuff, the clothes that I wear, that I think about myself wearing most often are the second-hand things? probably? A good example of the tension between her ideals and reality is a top that she likes very much because of its pattern and shape, but she also feels: slightly EMBARRASSED that it’s Primark because I HAVE little phases of going - I’m NEVER going shopping in any of those shops - I’m going ONLY buy second-hand and if I buy something new I’ll just buy one thing from somewhere that’s a bit more ethically aware. Her top, by her own admission, is just one proof that Emma does not quite always follow that. Availability and affordability of ethically produced clothing are among some of the reasons. It is practically impossible to buy ethical fashion in the high street and when Emma occasionally sees something interesting in the local fair trade shop or one of the small boutiques in Manchester, she 463 generally feels she cannot afford to shop in these places. She also comments that even if she could, she would probably find it hard to justify spending that much on a piece of clothing. One of Emma’s newest pieces is a skirt that she sort of bought by accident about two months ago. She had seen a similar one on someone in the street and so she was attracted to the look when she spotted it in a shop [Figure A.146]. It’s just a Zara one, you know, basic one. But I just like the colour of it and that it’s not, you know, it’s a faux leather. It’s not real, obviously. So, that’s probably, just thinking…that’s probably the newest thing I’ve bought, and I’ve worn that loads of times already. Figure A.146 Emma says that for ethical reasons she would not have bought the skirt if it was real leather, even if it had been second-hand. On the other hand, however, she is also aware that she wears leather shoes: so I don’t quite know where my boundaries are, she admits with a laugh. Home-sewing and alterations When time allows, Emma likes to do some home sewing, mainly repairs and slight alterations to second-hand and vintage items that she buys in charity shops. She often changes buttons or adds extra darts to make each item a bit different. Her sewing machine is next door where she also keeps her pile of I’m going to do something with these things, but she also admits that due to a lack of time, then I haven’t done anything again. Over the years she also made several new pieces by copying the shape of her existing garments. She says her sewing skills are limited and the quality of her creations is also affected by lack of time, which means she usually makes things very quickly. Despite this, she 464 enjoys wearing them and would like to do more sewing in the future. She shows me a skirt that she made from a fabric that was left over from a top she wore for her wedding [Figure A.147]. The thing is that I know that it’s really crappily made and I make things really quickly because I know I don’t have the time to do it. So, it hasn’t got a lining and it’s not - I didn’t use a pattern or anything. It’s really badly made [smiles] but it looks all right on. Anyway, yeah, so I was quite pleased that that happened. (…) It’s not even, you know, all the interfacing is sticking together because I haven’t done a lining even. I really like the fabric, yeah [smiles]. [So, do you wear that skirt now?] Yeah, I wore that. Well, I haven’t worn it recently. I wore it over summer quite a lot. I wear this, I do. And I keep this - this sometimes makes its way onto the pile of things that need something doing to them? Like I really need to, I need to put a lining in it. I mean when I’ve worn that - I don’t wear clothes so that I get comments, obviously. But lots of people have said: I really like the fabric of that. Figure A.147 Wedding outfits It was the striking pattern of the fabric that first attracted Emma to the idea of having it made into a corset for her wedding by someone who was offering corset-making on Etsy [Figure A.148]. To Emma’s great distress, when the corset arrived from the United States, it was far too big because there was a misunderstanding about measurements between inches and centimetres. She therefore 465 had to have it altered at the local repair shop. Since then, Emma has worn the top several times, usually unglamourized with jeans, but perhaps not as often as she would like. I keep wanting to wear this, but I haven’t, she says. Figure A.148 At her wedding five years ago, Emma then wore her corset top with a skirt that she had had for many years as she bought it in a second-hand shop as a student [Figures A.149-150]. I wore this skirt for the wedding. I bought this when I was about eighteen? Just randomly because I really loved the colour of it and it was from a second-hand shop like Oxfam or something like that. And I really like the raw silk. And it fitted me then, and then, I’ve had it in the wardrobe since. So, that’s from eighteen and I’m forty-five now. Whatever that is - it’s like eighteen - twenty-eight? And then when we were gonna get married, I just remembered that it was in the cupboard. But it’s just started to, it’s just falling all to bits now. On the wedding night it all started to fall to bits [laughs]. By the evening - it was all all right during the day except that it’s quite tight, but it all started to come apart. 466 Figure A.149 Figure A.150 She still likes the shape of the skirt, especially the pleated slit at the back and she asked for my advice on whether it could still be repaired. At the same time, she is aware that the fabric is possibly too fragile now and so any repairs in one part are likely to lead to new tears elsewhere. She would, 467 however, like to reuse at least some sections in the future and so the skirt is probably going to find its way to Emma’s repair pile at some point. When the skirt started falling apart during the wedding reception, Emma changed into a velvet jumpsuit that she had brought just in case [Figure A.151]. Like the skirt, the jumpsuit was not bought especially for this occasion, and even though it came from a designer’s outlet, she says it was still probably one of the most expensive pieces of clothing she has ever bought. I really like that, that shape suits me. (…) I wore that at my wedding. I got changed at about eleven o’clock at night when I realized the skirt was breaking [laughs] and I brought this with me to wear in case. I got this from that outlet, you know, the French Connection outlet in York. But I think this does suit me. I think it does, anyway. And I like it because it’s a bit different as well? But that fabric, ‘cause it’s heavy and it drops, that looks okay on me. Figure A.151 Favourite pair of trousers Another piece that goes as far back as her wedding skirt is a pair of trousers that Emma also bought while she was a student [Figure A.152]. She still likes these very much and even after twenty-five years, she says she would buy another pair if it was possible. These are my favourite trousers that I’ve had since I was twenty [smile]. I love them. Yeah, quite often I’ll buy them because they’re the only pair left [smile] and then take them up in a shit fashion [laugh]. 468 [Do you still wear them?] Yeah, yeah, I still wear them. Haven’t worn them last couple of months but they’re not bad condition, actually. ‘Cause they’re quite old. And I can’t find, so I would buy, you know, sometimes I look for another pair like this. I wouldn’t throw these away because I really like them. But I would like another pair. Figure A.152 Work clothes Although Emma’s wardrobe is still loosely divided into work side and not work side, she feels that since she started working for herself the lines have blurred to a certain extent. She thinks this may also partly have to do with her age and her stronger professional confidence. Obviously, some things I wouldn’t wear to a meeting, she admits, but at the same time she no longer feels the necessity for a strong professional look in quite the same way as she did when she started her first bigger job. Then I had the idea of, you know, you supposed to look like this as a professional working woman, she recalls. She still keeps one trouser suit from this time [Figure A.153], mainly because she likes the shape of it, but her work wardrobe is very different now. Among her work staples are several pairs of black trousers which she wears combined with various tops [Figure A.154]. 469 Figure A.153 Those trousers, really boring, but I reckon I’ve had them, I’ve had these ones since I lived in Leeds. So, they’re about seventeen years old? And they’ve been stitched and I fell over and there’s a hole in the knee but I stitched that up. And then with my black trousers, because I wear them, you know I wear them quite a lot, I’ve got various different black trousers, I just thought I’d redye them all the other day? Just because they were all fading? [I was going to say that they look incredibly black considering you’ve had them for quite a while.] No, I’ve just, really recently done them. So, I did loads of them - I did them and I did some shirts and I was like: great! Look! They look new again! [laugh] Yeah, I wear those all the time. Figure A.154 470 Apart from perhaps developing her own take on her professional wardrobe over the years, Emma feels that the way she dresses has not transformed with her age or motherhood in any considerable way, I think I just always did that kind of, quite liked different things; I think maybe I’ve become more confident about wearing some of those things. This is why she was taken aback by her friend’s recent comment on her favourite pair of shorts [see Figure 18], which, the friend said, were now verging on unsuitable for Emma’s age. I hadn’t even, it hadn’t even crossed my mind that I might be getting too old to wear certain things?, Emma says with astonishment, it just had not crossed my mind, I don’t buy things and think: that’s probably my age, or my stage. Striking patterns Emma likes her shorts because they are comfortable, and she also finds their pattern attractive. Striking patterns are in fact what often draws Emma to a piece of clothing. My eyes must just be tuned into patterns, she says, and she is particularly fond of Chinese dragon and animal prints. One example is a black tunic with white cranes that she bought in French Connection, which she normally finds all right but a bit boring [Figure A.155]. On a different occasion a pattern attracted her to a piece she spotted in a shopping centre when she was not even clothes shopping [Figure A.156]. Figure A.155 471 This fits my thing of buying things that have got quite nice pattern on them. But this is old, and I haven’t ever had to repair it or anything and I really like it. But it’s from Primark and there’s something where I go, there’s something, it’s not particularly well made. I mean it’s just all right, but I like it because of the shape of it, actually, and the fabric. But I would never normally buy clothes in Primark. I can’t even remember why I was - I think I was walking through the one in Manchester because you can get out of one of the entrances. (…) And it’s, actually, I realized - not at the time but after - that it’s quite, it’s similar shape to that green velvet one of my mum. Not far of that. So, I’ve had that, I’ve had that probably about ten years maybe. Figure A.156 Despite having a good proportion of newly bought garments, Emma says that one of the reasons why she generally does not like shopping in high street shops is that the clothes sold there are often boring and lifeless, unlike her second-hand clothes and hand-me-downs which she feels have got some life in them somehow. This is also the case with the clothes she made herself, which despite their inferior quality in terms of making, often have interesting history connected to the fabric they were made from and also Emma’s memories of wearing them. 472 I’ve just seen something that I’ve had, that I made but I’ve had a long time [Figure A.157]. I’ll quickly show you. I used to wear this to raves. But I made this and what I like about this is that I made it and I didn’t use a pattern again. I just used another top that I’ve got, that’s like it, but I’ve managed. Well, the fabric, I bought the fabric in Australia when I went travelling and I carried it. I don’t think I even carried it back with me, I think I sent a parcel back to my mum and dad’s house with all these things that I’d bought. And I’d bought this fabric and then when I got back I made it. So, I still wear that now. Figure A.157 Emma says she cannot believe she used to wear the tunic with bare legs and just trainers at one time but she still loves the pattern which, as it turns out, reminds her of many clothes her grandmother had from the times when she with her husband and Emma’s father lived in Singapore. 473 MARY: I just love those colours zinging together ABOUT MARY Mary is a higher education manager in her mid-forties. She lives with her partner on their smallholding on the edge of Sheffield, South Yorkshire. Mary is English, but her mother was American, and Mary still regularly visits her family in the US. PREPARING FOR THE INTERVIEW Mary and I arranged to meet on a Saturday morning when she and her partner were unusually free in the middle of a barn restoration project. I arrived slightly late because of fresh snow but my late arrival seemed to have suited Mary as she felt a little tired after the whole week and a late night with friends. Her partner let me in and asked me to join Mary upstairs, where she had already prepared some clothes for us to look through. Because she was not feeling her best, Mary had some concerns about photography but when I reassured her that she will be able to look through all of the photos and remove anything that she does not feel comfortable with, she was more relaxed and ready to start. As soon as she started showing me some of her favourite clothes, she looked instantly refreshed and focused, obviously enjoying the experience. MARY’S WARDROBE(S) The main storage for Mary’s clothing is in the bedroom, where she has a rail for hanging clothes and an open shelf for folded clothes, shoes, and accessories. Some of her knitwear is stored in protective zip bags under the bed and she recently also started keeping her seasonal cashmere in the freezer. An extra wardrobe in the spare room is for her partner’s clothes and for what she describes as the stuff that I haven’t quite got rid of. She also has another bag of unworn clothes in the attic. Mary admits she is not very good at getting rid of things and tends to hang onto stuff. I think I’d find it difficult to admit that I wasn’t wearing something anymore, that I’d made a mistake, that I’d wasted money, she explains. 474 Skirts Mary was very systematic in the way she decided to show me her wardrobe. She gave me quite a thorough overview by dividing her clothes into categories - skirts, dresses, outerwear, jackets, tops, trousers, and knitwear. When I arrived, she already had a pile of her skirts laid out on the bed, with some of her oldest favourites on the top. So, I suppose I have, I have some favourite items that I wouldn’t necessarily wear very often but I like them because they’re beautiful, she begins showing me a skirt that she has just recovered from the bottom layer of her pile [Figures A.158-159]. You know, I haven’t worn this huge numbers of times, but this is one of my favourite skirts. This is from Whistles, from probably the best part of twenty years ago? Maybe more. Some of their stuff, I don’t know, they’re not quite as exciting as they were. So, you have things that you just hang onto for years because you just love the beautifulness of the fabric and that kind of thing. Figure A.158 Like this skirt, many of Mary’s things are quite dressy. Therefore, what she likes to do is to dress them up and down, enjoying them in different ways and bringing the changes a bit. For example, she shows me how she sometimes combines this skirt with a pin stripe jacket that was once a part of a suit that she used to wear very often. 475 So, for example that skirt - if I was getting dressed up for a summer outfit, I’d probably put a pink top with it and some sandals. But I can also try to wear it to work and sort of, I know it sounds a bit odd, but combining it with like a dark pin stripe. Figure A.159 So that’s, similarly, I don’t know - fifteen years old. So, I do definitely hang onto stuff. And get annoyed if I make a mistake? So, I like to buy things that I really definitely like. That came with a skirt and I wore the skirt to death and it kind of - the slit at the back ripped, so I think I’ll end up getting rid of the skirt. And also, the skirt is now too small? But I’ve managed to hang onto the jacket. Another of Mary’s favourite beautiful and dressy skirts is by the Danish label Birger and Mikkelsen [Figure A.160]. Like with the previous one, she has had this for many years. I just love this. I do quite like of that folk type influence. I haven’t worn this huge numbers of times, but it was just beautiful, and I had to get it. That’s probably about twenty years as well. But, to be honest, worn a lot less than a lot of the other things. 476 Figure A.160 This one I wore to my mum’s cousin’s funeral, actually. We were in America and, you know, it was a summer funeral and I wasn’t quite sure what to wear and I ended up wearing it with these shoes and that top [showing] and then a black, like a black blouse on the top of it. And it was nice to be kind of funerally-ish but also not just kind of all black. So, I’m definitely hanging onto that. On a more practical side then, there is a black skirt that Mary has just recovered from her washing pile to show me [Figure A.161]. It was given to her by her aunt who no longer wore it. Although Mary believes that handing things down does not always work, in this case it seems to have worked exceptionally well. This skirt is not as exciting but it’s a black work skirt and this my aunt gave me as a cast off. And it’s amazing because it just really suits my shape? So, if I wear, you know, a black top and cardigan and some shoes, it just looks instantly smart? And I wash it by hand. It says dry clean, but I don’t dry clean it. So, since she gave that to me two years ago, I’ve probably worn it maybe hundreds of times? And it’s, underneath, the fabric on the slip is starting to kind of bobble and all the rest of it but that’s not terribly noticeable. But the cut, the cut just works. 477 Figure A.161 At the same time, Mary tells me that there is a common issue that she has with several skirts from her collection. Finding tops to combine them with tends to be rather difficult and so she usually ends up wearing the same combination with most - her black draped neck top from Vivienne Westwood’s Anglomania and a silk cashmere cardigan from Jigsaw. However, as a result, the top in particular is starting to look worn, the fabric is starting to kind of sag a little. Mary therefore wishes that she had bought a few of the same because she has not been able to find anything similar since. The cut of the top is very clever, she explains, it’s all sort of tucked in up here and then at the back of the neck, she shows me. Both the cut and the colour make the top very flattering and easy to combine with other things [Figures A.161-162]. Figure A.162 478 Fabrics, colours, and patterns Mary loves fabrics, colours, and patterns as they give her pleasure. She tells me that her recent attempt at a major house clear out made her realize that one of the things she truly cares about and wants to keep is the nice collection of clothes. Buying clothes is a long-term investment for Mary and so she aims to buy only things that she really definitely likes. She finds that age is an advantage in this respect, because a part of getting older is really just knowing what works for your shape and colouring and then you make less mistakes. She likes classic designs and things that are not overtly fashionable because it is disappointing to buy something that’s in fashion and then it looks unfashionable a year later. Dresses Possibly the largest category in Mary’s wardrobe are dresses [Figure A.163]. I have got a lot of dresses, she admits, it’s slightly hard to justify how many I’ve got. Figure A.163 Her collection of dresses includes newly bought pieces, often from many years ago, as well as relatively more recent purchases from e-Bay. Mary often uses e-Bay to look for styles that she liked in past collections and later regretted not having bought them. In quite a few cases then, she found the same dress many years later and bought it for a fraction of the original price. She also tells me that several years back she had gone through a splurge phase when she bought some rather expensive clothes in high end boutiques. Now, however, she is no longer interested and feels more into getting bargains of e-Bay. Because of her busy work-farm lifestyle and also due to 479 the fact that the nearest shops of her favourite labels such as Brora or TOAST are almost two hours’ drive away, in recent years most of Mary’s clothes shopping has taken place on-line. This I got of e-Bay, this is Brora [Figure A.164]. I think it’s from a long time ago because I’ve been kind of looking at their stuff years and this must be early two thousands, at least. And I absolutely love it! The colours just work with my skin tone and I take the belt off that favourite jacket of mine, stick a belt on there. And then I’ve got a cardigan - this is relatively recent. Wear it with that. But lot of these are kind of splotchy things. So, I’ve obviously got a bit of a thing for splotchy patterns [Figure A.165]. Figure A.164 Figure A.165 Another dress Mary likes very much also comes from her favourite label Brora. It too was bought online, not on e-Bay though but in Brora’s seasonal sale [Figures A.166-167]. 480 So, I think all of these dresses are all e-Bay, this I got on sale. Wasn’t sure, wasn’t really sure about it, but then bought it and wondered why on earth I hadn’t bought it before because, I don’t know, it’s just very flattering. There’s a keyhole there, but you don’t feel like you’ve got too much on show. Just feel very kind of pretty and nice in it. Figure A.166 Figure A.167 One of the more recent additions to her wardrobe is a pinafore style dress that fits perfectly and is truly versatile, so Mary has quickly fallen in love with it [Figure A.168]. This one is bought this last winter and I absolutely adore it. The cut of it is just perfect, you know, kind of the way it cinches at the waist. So, I’d wear that with turtleneck. So, I’ve got one of these in, this is kind of like an ivy colour, but I’ve also got one in cream colour. So, sort of wear it to work, you know, underneath there. And then I’ve also, wore it out with Alex [partner], actually. I wore kind of high heels with it? It looked very smart. That was good fun. 481 Figure A.168 Then there is another dress, one she bought during her splurge phase. It also fits her very well and Mary feels good when she wears it [Figure A.169]. However, it got slightly damaged through wear and so the fit is no longer as perfect as it used to be. This dress is a nice kind of cut with the gathering down the sides and I feel very smart in it. But, unfortunately, I think one time when I wore it I kind of just - you know when you’re like hitching yourself - and I heard a couple of threads snap. So, I think it sags slightly lower than it should which is frustrating. That’s the problem with wearing clothes, you see? Figure A.169 Work wardrobe Mary makes very clear distinctions between her work and her weekend wardrobe. She believes that smart self-presentation is an important facet of professional life. I think going in and looking smart is part of it, it’s not a bad thing, she tells me. However, she also notices that women’s office wear 482 has been changing over the past few years. Previously, suits seemed to be the accepted norm and so she used to wear hers so often that most of them have now disintegrated and fallen apart. More recently though, Mary thinks that it’s more of a case that women will wear dresses and look smart that way. Being able to use dresses for work makes them very wearable. There’s something about a dress, I don’t know, it’s hard to put into words, Mary sighs. Jackets For her work wear, she usually combines dresses with jackets. Again, she has a wide selection to fall back on. What is also important in this context, Mary confesses, is her guilty secret which says she would never share with any of her friends. However, because she feels this is significant when looking at her wardrobe and her clothes shopping habits, she thought I should know. Despite her quite neutral attitude to the Royal Family, Mary tells me that over some last few years she found herself copying some of the outfits worn by the Duchess of Cambridge. She explains this by the fact that although in the past she used to enjoy browsing shops, her busy lifestyle now makes it impossible for her to invest the time and the energy anymore. So, although she is still interested in clothes, as her extensive collection proves, Mary does not go physically clothes shopping very often. As a result, you end up gravitating towards things that you know, she says. When the Duchess of Cambridge started appearing in the media, Mary thought she looked quite smart and presentable, she kind of looked elegant and lady-like. So, even if this might be a lazy way of dressing, Mary finds that somehow you just kind of latch onto that. In this way, she bought several dresses and jackets, some of which became staples of her work wardrobe to such an extent that she ended up buying replacements when the original piece was worn out [Figure A.170]. Then the other thing I’ve done, where I’ve copied her, is also this jacket. This is actually the second jacket that I’ve bought, just because the cut is fantastic! Now, the earlier version of this, I’ll bring it through from the other room. They’ve sort of kept selling it because they can keep selling it. 483 Figure A.170 [So, one can still get it?] Yeah. So, this is the one, that’s falling to bits - can you see? How I’ve worn this [laughs]. So, I bought one nearer the time, I’ve worn it heavily to work and it’s just started to look really shabby. I mean, if I took it to the dry cleaners it would probably freshen up a bit now. But the lapels are just, really like disintegrated. So, I think I’m gonna throw it away or give it to a charity shop or something. The style of the jacket is also very versatile and so it allows combinations with many other things in Mary’s wardrobe [Figures A.171-172]. She has therefore been able to wear it both to work and also dressed down in her free time, when travelling with family. And then I wear it with a blue dress. So, she wore it with a Roland Mouret dress, in navy, and it was really beautifully cut. So, just by coincidence, I have had a blue dress in my wardrobe. This wasn’t particularly expensive, just sort of medium, and there’s a kind of slip that goes underneath it and there’s a tie and then there’s this kind of draped neck and little sleeves. So, this I wear, I wear these things almost like a uniform. (…) Yeah, so that black Vivienne Westwood top and that little cardigan is a similar thing of that kind of nice drape [see Figure ]. It’s a similar sort of style. So that, you know, that outfit where it’s combined with the black skirt [see Figure 4], and this navy outfit, are both outfits that I just absolutely hammered. 484 Figure A.171 I’ve also worn this jacket with grey T-shirt, jeans, my mum’s bag that she gave to me and boots. So, it’s that thing of taking something that’s smart and kind of dressing it down? When we went to Rome a few years ago I kind of wore that outfit and it just really worked. It was nice to wear it dressed down as well - always good fun when you can do that. Figure A.172 Another example of taking inspiration from the style of the Duchess of Cambridge is what Mary calls my I’m very very smart outfit, worn to special occasions at work and generally events where she wants to look really smart. When she first tried the jacket on in the shop, she found it quite magical - the way it just kind of flairs out. However, she long deliberated about buying it because she felt that she can’t justify getting something so dressy. She did buy the dress though and later also decided to get the jacket after all. She also found that the dress looks fabulous with an older patterned jacket she had and her brown brushed leather heels [Figure A.173]. This is now one of her most favourite smart outfits. 485 Figure A.173 Old clothes, new clothes Many of Mary’s clothes seem to be well over ten years old. When I ask her what she means when she refers to some of her pieces as relatively more recent, she clarifies that these are five years at the most, I think. She admits to her strong feeling that she might be heading towards peak clothes, a feeling that she might have more than enough now. However, the prospect of not continuing in her passion for collecting beautiful clothes still seems somewhat far-fetched to her. I can’t see myself completely stopping, she admits honestly and continues in showing me more items going back to her splurge phase. Another splurge was this coat [Figure A.174]. So, this, yeah, I just love this kind of camel Max Mara. I mean, they are, they do very classic coats but then because I’m quite petite, actually, having a little mini coat like this probably works. So, again, don’t wear it hugely often but I’m not too worried that I don’t wear it often because it’s just a kind of beautiful thing that one would wear occasionally. The styling, kind of, I don’t know how to put it into words. Would you say this is kind of nineteen fifties almost? The bracelet sleeves, I quite like the bracelet sleeves and that kind of thing. Yeah, I can imagine my grandmother, I think my grandmother was meant to have been quite glamorous. She was quite ill, so I don’t remember her when she was younger, as it were, but I can imagine her wearing things like this. 486 Figure A.174 One of the reasons Mary likes to keep even the clothes that she does not wear, is her experience that although some clothes may not work temporarily, they may get another chance in the future. What is important in this respect, however, is choosing items that truly resonate, because if there’s something about it, you hang onto it and then years later it slots into place. One such example Mary shows me is a skirt that she had bought many years ago and did not wear for a long time - until she found a top that just REALLY works with it [Figure A.175]. Some things just kind of join everything together, she says. Just like one of her favourite cardigans that goes with so many different things, it just kind of pulls lots of things together. Figure A.175 487 Knitwear Mary also has an extensive collection of knitwear, mostly from her favourite brand Brora that she has been following pretty much from the brand’s beginnings nearly twenty-five years ago. To protect it all from moths, she recently bought special zip up bags for cashmere that she keeps under her bed [Figure A.176]. She now also keeps bags of seasonal knitwear in the freezer. Figure A.176 Figure A.177 Mary loves combining patterns and colours and she has her favourite ways of matching each of her knitwear pieces with other garments [Figures A.178-181]. Among all the cardigans she has, there is perhaps only one that she is not entirely sure about and suspects that getting it was like an almost mistake. She bought it at the end of a long winter, as a treat for her birthday: it was really cold and miserable, and the colour just sang of summertime. However now, because of the bright colour, she struggles to pull it off. Luckily, she has found one dress that works well with it [Figure A.180], so she decided to hang onto it for now. 488 Figure A.178 Figure A.179 Figure A.180 489 Figure A.181 Among her absolute favourites in the knitwear collection is a poncho, also from Brora, which she now has in two colour versions [Figure A.182]. I got this poncho-y thing which is really cool, actually. Feel very glamorous in this. It isn’t terribly practical thing to wear if you’re trying to cook wearing that [smiles]. It doesn’t really work with what I’m wearing, but I can stick the necklace on [for a photo] if you want. I wear that [a turtleneck] underneath that poncho-y thing. These really work together. Figure A.182 One other favourite is a Brora hoodie that she combines with light summer tops [Figure A.183]. Mary also often wears it for cycling and there is a woollen waistcoat she puts underneath to keep extra 490 warm. In addition, she has two similar hoodies, all from the same brand, one of these was passed onto Mary by her sister. When it arrived, it had a small moth hole at the front, so Mary sent it to a company that does invisible repairs. Although she says she would probably not have picked the colour herself, she decided to hang onto it because these hoodies are just incredibly wearable. Figure A.183 Everyday clothes Mary appreciates clothes that are versatile in terms of use. She has many clothes that are quite dressy and so what she likes doing is taking these things and then enjoying them in different ways, dressing them up and down. For the same reasons she also likes when an item of clothing can be worn to work, because in that way she can get more use out of it. She feels that shops are often quite heavy weighted towards stuff which is fancy or dressy and it doesn’t really reflect everyday life. Many women, her including, then tend to fall into trap of buying lots of those types of clothes. She too has much more dressy stuff than she can regularly wear. At the same time, the clothes that are worn on an everyday basis often get overlooked. Mary notices that this is also reflected in the way she has talked me through her wardrobe: I’ve just whizzed through all the knitwear, but actually, the knitwear is stuff that you just wear a lot. 491 Tops and trousers For Mary, the beauty of knitwear, and tops in general, is that they can be worn with jeans on an everyday basis and so they get worn much more often than some of the more formal outfits. Practical considerations, like ironing, are especially important when it comes to these everyday items. The following two tops are among Mary’s absolute favourites [Figure A.184-185]. This top I absolutely adore - it probably does need an iron. It’s that thing of, in summer time, the colour really suits me, it looks really good with jeans, and it sort of feels cool, but you don’t - you feel kind of covered up. Figure A.184 Okay, so talking about ironing…This I absolutely adore but really doesn’t work unless it’s ironed. So, it looks a bit kind of creased and messy now. But when it’s ironed it’s kind of perfect. So, I’m not a fan of ironing. [So, is that a concern when you’re buying something?] Definitely! My life revolves around not ironing. 492 Figure A.185 Mary combines these tops with her kind of like jeans of which she has several pairs in different colours [Figure A.186]. Most of these also look good with jackets so they get used quite regularly on workdays. For example, the pair in navy is especially useful for work because you’re wearing jeans, but nobody knows you’re wearing jeans. All these trousers come from J Brand and Mary buys them new from outlets on e-Bay. I kind of know what I want, know the size that fits me, so it’s easy to do that, what is also very important, they’re comfortable as well! Figure A.186 493 Fashion There were times when Mary used to enjoy flicking through magazines and engaging with fashion in a wider sense, but now, she feels, she has narrowed and become a bit boring. She has several favourite brands whose clothes fit and suit her and so that’s where most of her wardrobe comes from now: I’m tending to look at Brora, look at TOAST, I know what I’m looking for. She likes browsing for these brands on e-Bay, but she also follows their websites and seasonal sales. Many of her e-Bay clothes are second-hand, but otherwise Mary does not normally shop in secondhand and charity shops. On one occasion, she joined a colleague to a charity swishing event where she found a jacket that she likes very much, it’s perfect - goes with loads of things [Figure A.187]. However, she feels that she kind of got lucky with that one and doubts that this would always work. Figure A.187 To explain, she tells me about a time when she bumped into an ex-neighbour who was shopping for something to wear for a wedding. As her neighbour is the same size, Mary tried to think of something she had that her neighbour could perhaps borrow. However, she realized that because of their different colouring and hair most of the clothes she has would not successfully translate to her neighbour’s style. This, Mary says, suddenly made her realize how much the clothes that you pick are kind of very much a part of you. Favourite coat This certainly applies when it comes to a coat that Mary bought many years ago and has worn so much that it has now disintegrated in multiple places [Figures A.188-191]. She bought this one new 494 and although it was rather expensive to begin with, considering how much wear she got out of it, Mary feels that the cost per wear will be tiny. She says that despite the price, if she could get another of these coats new, she would snap it up. Figure A.188 So, about eleven years ago, I bought this amazing tweed coat from Brora. And the thing is, it’s now fairly bedraggled and it needs an overhaul. So, lost a button from there, these lapels are curling up, which is a shame, the lining is falling to bits. But this is a coat where I would replacing and repairing a lining can be expensive - this is a coat where I would bother. I would bother. (…) So, now it’s a nice coat for a country walk. But newer, you could put some smart boots on and, you know, tie it quite tightly there and you just would look very smart, but without kind of overly dressy - if that makes sense? So, it’s that thing you can either sit around a bonfire or garden it it or look very smart in it. So, nothing can kind of quite measure up to this coat. And I haven’t seen one since this. They do do nice coats, but I haven’t seen one since that’s really grabbed me in the same way. (…) When we moved, we first moved in here, we had no heating, no hot water. Then we got heating and hot water but there’s no loft insulation. This house is absolutely freezing! And that first winter I DID practically LIVE in that coat. 495 Figure A.189 Figure A.190 Figure A.191 The oldest thing Although the coat is among Mary’s long-standing pieces, probably the very oldest item she owns is a T-shirt that she had bought as a student [Figure A.192]. It has now become rather baggy and is 496 much longer than it used to be. It’s completely just sagged, and I need, I need to throw it away, she says, but she clearly hesitates to do so despite the fact that the shirt now reminds a rather transparent, and a bit shapeless, dress. Figure A.192 However, Mary still loves the colours and it is easy to see that the same colour scheme still resonates in many of her current items. I just love those colours zinging together and there’s a necklace that goes with it, I just love that whole kind of thing, Mary tells me as we finish, obviously enjoying arranging her favourite combination of knitwear pieces on the bed [Figure A.193]. Figure A.193 497 TANYA: I don't remember the dress, but I remember the feeling ABOUT TANYA Tanya is a film producer and director in her late sixties. She lives in her West London apartment and spends a lot of time travelling internationally for work. She is Slovakian by origin, but she has lived in the UK since the summer of 1968, when the news of Soviet occupation of Czechoslovakia caught her during her study trip in London. She was married and has two grown up children who live nearby. PREPARING FOR THE INTERVIEW As I explained in the prologue to this thesis, Tanya is a long-term client of my studio and over the years our relationship has grown into friendship. For the last five years I have taken care of all the repairs and alterations in her wardrobe and I have also made new garments for her for special occasions (about fifty commissions in total). As I am writing this thesis, several of Tanya’s clothes are waiting in a large basket that I allocated for her commissions until I have enough time to repair or alter them. Among these are several pieces of knitwear that need to be darned after moth damage or a silk dress that is no longer repairable, so Tanya asked me to copy it in a similar fabric. There is also a piece of material that she recently brought from her travels in Georgia, and she would like to have it made into a skirt or a dress. Just like in the case of Hanka and Julie, my previous relationship with Tanya proved extremely valuable for my research because of the rapport and trust required for this kind of study. In addition, it also enabled me access to a person who would otherwise be highly unlikely to answer requests for participation in similar studies, due to demanding work commitments and preoccupation with own diverse interests. Considering that I aimed to interview women with active lifestyles to learn about their relationship with clothing in their everyday lives, having access to someone with the rich professional experience of Tanya was an invaluable opportunity. We scheduled our interview to fit in a short gap between Tanya’s international journeys. Because early Saturday morning was the only time when we could talk without the interruption of phone calls and urgent e-mails, I arrived a day earlier and stayed overnight at Tanya’s place. On the day of the interview we had breakfast together. I used this time to reiterate the purpose of my research and 498 also to reassure Tanya that the full transcript and all the photos from the interview will be given to her for approval before any dissemination. As a producer of documentaries, Tanya was familiar with this process and she appeared entirely comfortable as I turned the dictaphone on and started taking photos of the items she was taking out of her wardrobe. Interestingly, in contrast to my experience with my other interviewees, most of my conversation with Tanya took place in her kitchen rather than in front of her wardrobe. This was partly due to low light levels in Tanya’s bedroom, which would make it extremely difficult to photograph as well as examine garments in more detail. In addition to this, Tanya is a passionate cook and she strongly feels that the heart of every home is the kitchen. Therefore, when she is not travelling, she prefers to spend most of her time there. Kitchen is important in this case, said she, inviting me to help her move all the clothes that she wanted to talk about into her open plan kitchen area: as that’s life - there’s no doubt about that. TANYA’S WARDROBE(S) Tanya moved to her current place four years ago from a family home in the same area. Even though the space in this new apartment is relatively generous, the move meant a considerable downsizing from Tanya’s previous living arrangements. As a result of new space restrictions, combined with her busy work schedule, some of Tanya’s things and family possessions remain in storage. Among these are clothes from her youth connected with fond memories as well as some clothes she no longer wears. Tanya referred to several of these items during our interview. The rest of Tanya’s extensive clothes collection is kept in several built-in wardrobes and chests of drawers around the flat. The storage is loosely divided into clothes Tanya still wears on a more-orless regular basis – in the built-in wardrobes and a chest of drawers in the bedroom; clothes that she no longer wears – in the built-in wardrobes in the guest bedroom; outerwear – in the wardrobe in the entrance area; and an extra space for accessories in the chest of drawers in the open plan living area. 499 Mis-matched comfort As we start talking, Tanya suddenly decides to put on a jumper that I have just repaired for her. She puts it over a top that she likes very much but she also tells me that she finds it difficult to combine with other things. She decided to wear it this morning to ask for my opinion. Although the patterned top is hardly the best match for the skirt with the large pattern that she is wearing, the repaired jumper seems to tie some of the colours together. Despite this, the whole combination looks slightly eccentric by many people’s standards. Undeterred by this, because she suddenly feels cold, Tanya completes the look with her favourite slippers. As she catches her reflection in a full-length mirror, her new look makes her smile. The slippers really make the outfit, she says with a self-assured pleasure. It seems that right now, this bright mismatch combined with her old Slovakian slippers, makes Tanya feel truly comfortable [Figure A.194]. Figure A.194 Hand-me-downs Tanya is well known among her friends for her love of old clothes and the fact that many of her wardrobe staples go back twenty to twenty-five years. She still also wears several much older items, 500 some of which used to belong to her mother. But Tanya’s habit of wearing clothing that belonged to family does not stop at her mother’s clothes. For example, she regularly wears jeans that her son no longer wanted. Because they are far too long for her, Tanya turns them up several times. She has worn these so often that the denim is now wearing rather thin on the inside of both legs. Therefore, as we talk about these, Tanya asks me to take them with me for repair before the damage gets any worse. At the time when Tanya’s and her daughter’s figures were not dissimilar, Tanya also used to wear her daughter’s unwanted clothes. For example, in the Prologue to this thesis (p. 13), I mentioned a jacket that was originally her daughter’s and that later became such a favourite for Tanya that she would now like to have it copied in another colour. Quality and craftsmanship What Tanya values in clothing is quality and authenticity of material, well thought-out design, good cut, and craftsmanship. One of the first things she decides to show me are two kimonos that she bought long time ago in an antique shop in Japan [Figure A.195]. She used to wear these to go out but because her figure has now changed, she no longer likes the way they make her look. To demonstrate, she offers to put one on for me. She briefly observes herself in the mirror and comments with a sigh: well, I should wear it, but somehow, I’m not in love with purple right now. However, what Tanya still likes about both, is the beautiful material and the handmade quality. She also remembers a hand-stitched cord that came with one of them, but, unfortunately, she cannot find it anymore. Figure A.195 501 Wear and tear The fact that Tanya used to wear traditional Japanese kimonos and even had a long ceremonial kimono shortened for her evening wear, confirms that she is quite adventurous in her style. She is also not afraid to combine high-end designer clothing with second-hand and street market finds that she sometimes gets altered. Tanya also proudly wears clothes that have been repeatedly repaired. While unpacking one of her favourite cardigans from a bag that she now uses to protect it during her travels, she tells me [Figures A.196-197]: You’ve done this beautifully, so many people have always admired this… I take it with me everywhere, I travel the world with it. That’s why it has its own ‘piece of luggage’ so that it does not get accidentally caught on something. That’s why it has its own [bag]. Figure A.196 Figure A.197 502 Another similar example is Tanya’s favourite jumper from the beginnings of the Scottish label Brora, which too was destroyed by moths many years back [Figure A.198]. Tanya did not throw it away because she liked the jumper very much, but she could not really wear it because of the large holes on the cuffs. A while after we first met, she asked me if I would be able to save it. I repaired it using a piece of double wool crepe to replace the missing material and since then Tanya has worn it many times again [Figure A.199]. Figure A.198 Figure A.199 However, sometimes repair is no longer possible. One example is the beautiful vintage night dress that is also falling apart now [Figure A.200]. It has worn so thin in places that there is simply not enough material strong enough to support any repaired parts. Moreover, unlike for example an occasion wear item, a night dress needs to withstand a relatively heavy use. Therefore, it is very likely that the fabric will let go at another place soon after one section has been repaired. Tanya is aware of this and as she examines the torn parts once again, she concludes: 503 Well, no, there’s no point. So, I’ll have to wear it like this some time and then say good bye to it. Say good bye. Figure A.200 Tanya feels sad when some of her well-loved pieces reach a state beyond repair. The number of repairs I have done for her over the years prove that she does not easily part with her clothes. Although she occasionally passes on items that she thinks she will never wear again to her friends, on the whole, she rarely ever disposes of clothing. Stories of use Tanya’s love of clothes that show a long history of wear is also clear from her description of one of her favourite dresses. The original colour of the dress has faded considerably over the years of wear and washing, she proudly shows me. The passage of time is well visible when the inside of the folds and the pocket are compared with the right side of the dress [Figures A.201-203]: You know, here you can see that the dress used to be dark blue. And it’s not anymore - you must completely open the folds, or you can see it on the inside of the pocket a bit - that it used to be - Here it shows! So, look at the difference - what it used to look like originally. 504 Figure A.201 Figure A.202 Figure A.203 505 One of the reasons why Tanya relies on this dress [Figure A.204] so much is that it barely creases and so it can be worn straight away when she takes it out of her suitcase. She tells me she has countless photos from all around the world in which she wears this dress at very IMPORTANT places. As an example, she says she wore it when she was awarded a medal in the US. Figure A.204 What is also interesting is that at the same time when Tanya bought this dress, she bought another one of the same style in brown velvet. However, it turns out that she has never worn the velvet version which is now kept in the storage. When I ask her why she thinks she has not worn the other dress, she is finding it difficult to pin the reasons down. I don’t know, somehow, I couldn’t wear that one quite in the same way as this, she says with hesitation. Travel wardrobe The fact that her nomadic lifestyle strongly underpins Tanya’s decisions on clothing comes through very clearly in her comment on another dress that now also shows obvious signs of wear and tear. This is now completely transparent, she says, as it’s another thing that one can throw in the suitcase - throw in the suitcase principle is very important [Figure A.205]. 506 The hand-shortened straps she points out to me are another testimony to Tanya’s active approach to her wardrobe [Figure A.206]. When she first bought the dress, the straps made it far too long for her figure. Tanya therefore decided to shorten them quickly and wear the dress much higher up than it was originally designed for. By her own admission, her sewing skills are not great, but this DIY solution seemed to have served its purpose. Thanks to the shortened straps, Tanya has now been wearing this dress for over fifteen years. Figure A.205 Figure A.206 Apart from the non-crease material, another advantage of this dress is the colour. Tanya finds that you can wear one red over another which makes the dress easy to combine with many other red items she owns. Tanya’s first reaction to a skirt I pick up from her ample collection of second-hand skirts that she proudly carries to show me [Figures A.207-208], is just another proof that many of her favourite 507 pieces are appreciated specifically for their suitability for Tanya’s nomadic lifestyle. This one is great as it doesn’t weigh anything, says she with a certainty of an expert on travel wardrobe [Figure A.209]. Figure A.207 Figure A.208 Figure A.209 508 Clothes shopping Despite her obvious passion for interesting pieces and the extensive number of clothes that she has accumulated during her lifetime, Tanya is adamant that she is not interested in clothes shopping per se. This especially applies to shopping for new, as opposed to second-hand, clothes. If something catches her eye during her travels or on her random visits to second-hand and charity shops, Tanya will find that exciting and will gladly buy the piece: I see it and then I want it, she says. However, reminiscing about the one occasion when she had to go out shopping and buy an entirely new outfit as a part of a deal with her friends who organized her fiftieth birthday party, she tells me this was a true SUFFERING. Because I would have bought something new in a second-hand shop, well, new for me, anyway. But I didn’t see anything, anywhere, I couldn’t find anything ANYWHERE at all. Nothing that I would think: this I must have for my fiftieth birthday, you know? In the end, Tanya’s search for a dress for her fiftieth birthday resulted in a last-minute purchase of a paper dress that she spotted in a shop window. I saw that paper dress and I decided as we were passing by in the car that this was THE dress, I wanted for my fiftieth birthday. Tanya has fond memories of this unconventional decision because she ended up standing on a table at her birthday party while everyone present signed the dress with coloured markers. Some weeks after the party Tanya then also bought a fabric version of the same dress [Figures A.210-211]. The shop assistants kindly put it aside for her during the sales because they liked her birthday story. This dress has since become one of the staples in Tanya’s wardrobe. This dress, the green one, it’s now been nineteen years. I’ve had this dress for nineteen years - I’ve worn it for nineteen years. And it’s still simply perfect. But nineteen years ago, this dress cost something like, I don’t know - one thousand pounds, you know? And I got it, I bought it for two hundred or something like that, you know, when they put it aside for me. 509 Figure A.210 Figure A.211 Some years later, while she was travelling in Thailand, Tanya had the green original copied in a slightly different, red material [Figure A.212]. At the same time, she also commissioned her own variation on the style, a stripy silk dress with an asymmetric bias cut skirt [Figures A.213-214]. Figure A.212 510 Both the green original and the red copy of the dress travel very well so Tanya often takes them with her to wear for special occasions. However, the third, stripy version, was not made very well and so for many years Tanya was not able to wear it. The fabric for the bias panel was not cut out and inserted correctly and so the skirt looked mis-balanced, with too much material on one side and a considerable puckering along the seams. After we met, Tanya asked me to try and correct this. Since I made all the possible corrections, she has worn it several times. Figure A.213 Figure A.214 511 Childhood memories As we speak, Tanya also remembers about several garments from her youth and childhood that she used to love. She still has some of these clothes, but they are now kept in the storage. The first one is a dress that Tanya’s mother had made for her from a thick vintage hessian, which, Tanya remembers, came with several stains. The style was quite simple, and the hessian was combined with a traditional Slovakian embroidery panel. Tanya received the dress in one of the weekly parcels that her mother was allowed to send to her from Slovakia while Tanya was a student. And I toured all around Hong-Kong in the dress. Here, it had two spaghetti straps [showing on her shoulders] and I toured all around China in it. That was my beloved dress. I loved it. Tanya also has strong memories of her prom dress that was also custom-made for her by her mother’s friend. It was made from a three-metre piece of hand-woven white cotton that Tanya’s mother had received as a gift from Indonesia. It was quite a bold dress, that was sleeveless, A-style, with quite a low-cut neckline and I had a kind of collar here [showing around the neck – Figure A.215] that ended with a big white ‘bow-tie’ at the back [smiles]. That was my prom dress, absolutely beautiful. And I brought it to England and it’s still in a box somewhere, but it surely has yellowed by now. It would never fit me now, but the best thing was that, I don’t think there are any photographs from the prom, but I DANCED through my first night IN THIS DRESS [smiles]. Figure A.215 512 Another dress she remembers was a light blue dress that she says she hated because of the colour, but her mother believed that her skin tone was far too dark for Tanya to wear bright colours. The reason why I love red, she explains, is that my mother wouldn’t allow me to wear it, so when I first arrived in England, I switched to wearing only red and black [laughs], no pastel colours at all. Quite a few of the garments she shows me are indeed a clear proof that Tanya is not afraid of bold colours or patterns. Red and yellow are her favourite colours and she enjoys wearing distinctive clothes that set her apart from the crowd: I never wanted to wear what everyone else was wearing. However, it is only after our conversation progresses further and develops into a mutual exchange of early memories related to clothes, that the true significance of Tanya’s love for bright colours and unique styles surfaces. As Tanya shares the following stories with me, it suddenly becomes clear that there is much more to this than just personal aesthetic preference. Wardrobe stories I have one more story that relates to clothing, but it is very political, Tanya suddenly tells me. Several longer pauses and a slight detour follow, which suggests that this is still an uneasy memory for Tanya. She then tells me a story of a yellow pinafore with two large gold buttons that her mother had made for her when Tanya was about ten. Although this is quite sensitive, Tanya kindly gave me her permission to use this story in my thesis if I chose to. Despite this, I still long contemplated whether including this experience was the right thing to do, because of the personal responsibility I feel toward Tanya as both my friend and my interviewee. In the end, because Tanya’s story reveals some critical clues about the significance of childhood memories for our future decisions about the clothes we wear, I decided for inclusion. Tanya grew up in the communist Czechoslovakia. When she was about two years old, her father was taken political prisoner and spent nine years away from his wife and daughter. Naturally, these were extremely difficult circumstances for both Tanya and her mother, particularly after Tanya started school and was confronted with the fact that within the pro-regime education system, she would 513 always be seen as a child of a man who dared to oppose it. This culminated in an incident that involved her new yellow pinafore dress. Apparently, the Principal of Tanya’s school found the colour of the dress so unusual in comparison to the much more sober colour palette available at shops at the time, that she used the regular morning gathering of the whole school to shame Tanya for wearing what she called the capitalist colours. This incident had such a significant impact on Tanya, that from that point on she insisted on wearing only track suit bottoms and a T-shirt for the rest of her school education. She explains: I think that one of the reasons why I have such a curious relationship with clothes is that she, well, traumatized me - I don’t know how else to call it (…) I think that my love of wearing absolutely anything in quite an eccentric way stems from the fact that I spent ten years as a child of “an enemy of the country”. That I always was that…and that’s how, eventually, I perhaps learned to get on with these things in a very comfortable way. As Tanya herself confirms, despite this difficult experience, or perhaps because of it, she now truly enjoys wearing interesting, unusual clothes. Whereas many of her friends, especially those in her age group, now generally opt for more conservative clothing in subtle muted colours, Tanya seems to derive a lot of pleasure from bold distinctive pieces. Her wardrobe is therefore a rare fusion of relatively expensive items from high end designers with often inexpensive finds from her travels. Tanya appreciates quality and craftsmanship and she is prepared to pay adequately for both. However, like most women, she also loves a bargain. Collecting memories With her lifelong experience of buying clothes in street markets and charity shops, Tanya says that thirty pounds is normally the top end of what she is prepared to pay for a second-hand piece of clothing. There is, however, one exception – her silk jacket with a cherry pattern [Figures A.216-217]. Tanya says she bought this in a charity shop for a price that was well over her usual charity shop maximum. I couldn’t resist this, she says, while the cut isn’t good at all, it was just because of the cherries. 514 To clarify, she tells me about a bib dress with a circular skirt and straps that crossed over at the back that she had as a little girl. She remembers that her father brought this dress for her from Budapest shortly before he went to prison, so she must have been about two at the time. She recalls that her mother kept this dress for years afterwards, probably as a reminder of the times when she still had a family, and everything was all right. I don’t remember the dress, but I remember the FEELING, Tanya tells me. As it soon turns out, this bib dress had a cherry pattern on it. Figure A.216 Figure A.217 515 Figure A.218 As we dig in deeper into Tanya’s wardrobe, we find a substantial number of other clothes accumulated through her lifetime, that like her charity shop jacket have a cherry pattern on them. One of the first skirts in her charity shop skirts collections, she points out to me, is just one example of many [Figure A.218]. All these clothes therefore seem to be much more than just something else to wear for Tanya. They seem to be a tangible testimony to a feeling, an experience of wearing a piece of clothing, that is as strong now as it was nearly seventy years ago now. 516 B. THEME TABLES Sensory Experiences Enablers Longing and Belonging Layering 517 SENSORY EXPERIENCES SENSORY EXPERIENCES COMFORT* 1 a. b. c. d. e. f. DIS-COMFORT KNITWEAR REVEALING SIMPLE SOFT SOFTENING THROUGH WEAR MATERIALS a. b. c. d. e. f. g. CASHMERE COTTON ELASTIC LINEN SILK SYNTHETICS WOOL SHAPE/STYLE* 2 FIT* 3 a. TOO BIG b. TOO TIGHT DETAILS a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i. 1 2 3 ELASTIC/DRAWSTRING BUTTONS COLLAR/NECKLINE DROPPED YOKE LINING POCKETS SLEEVES SLIT ZIP See also Longing and belonging See also Longing and belonging See also Longing and belonging 518 COLOURS a. BRIGHT b. MATCHING c. MUTED PATTERNS AND PRINTS ASSOCIATIONS* 4 a. b. c. d. 4 FEEL HOLIDAY CLOTHES INVISIBLE GARMENTS SOUVENIRS See also Longing and belonging 519 ENABLERS ENABLERS APPROPRIATENESS a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i. j. k. l. m. n. o. CLIMATE CONFIDENCE EVERYDAY CLOTHES EARLY MOTHERHOOD MATERNITY WEAR OCCASION WEAR OCCASIONS FOR WEAR PROFESSIONAL SELF-PRESENTATION SPORTSWEAR SUITS ME/FLATTERING SEASONAL CLOTHES TRAVEL WORK OUTFITS WORK/WEEKEND WARDROBE IT WORKS VERSATILITY UTILITY/PRACTICALITY COMBINATIONS CARE a. b. c. d. IRONING ISSUES MOTHS WASHING SATISFACTION a. b. c. d. e. f. g. FAVOURITE CLOTHES HATED CLOTHES LONGEVITY MULTIPLE EXAMPLES OF THE SAME OFTEN WORN QUALITY RARELY WORN 520 h. RE-INCARNATIONS/REPLICAS COMFORT* 5 a. b. c. d. e. f. DIS-COMFORT KNITWEAR REVEALING SIMPLE SOFT SOFTENING THROUGH WEAR FIT* 6 a. TOO BIG b. TOO TIGHT SECOND THOUGHTS a. SHOPPING MISTAKES b. UNCERTAINTY/DOUBTS SHAPE/STYLE* 7 5 6 7 See also Sensory experiences See also Sensory experiences See also Sensory experiences 521 LONGING AND BELONGING LONGING AND BELONGING CONNECTIONS a. CHILDHOOD MEMORIES b. COMMENTS c. FAMILY INFLUENCES i. FATHER ii. GRANDMOTHER iii. MOTHER iv. SISTER d. FRIENDS e. CLOTHES FROM OTHER PEOPLE i. FRIENDS ii. GRANDMOTHER iii. MOTHER iv. MOTHER IN LAW f. GIFTS g. JUSTIFY h. MEMORIES OF WEAR WARDROBE PATTERNS/HABITS a. DIFFERENT b. SAME WARDROBE STORIES* 8 CLOTHES SHOPPING a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i. 8 BRANDS CHALLENGES/ISSUES CHARITY SHOPS E-BAY ETHICAL PARADOXES FRIENDS MEMORIES ON-LINE SHOPPING PROVENANCE i. CUSTOM-MADE CLOTHES ii. HOME-MADE CLOTHES/SEWING See also Layering 522 iii. MASS PRODUCTION iv. SMALL PRODUCTION j. SALES/BARGAINS k. SWAPPING l. TREATS INSPIRATIONS a. b. c. d. e. IDEALS/WISHLIST FASHION FASHION MAGAZINES INSTAGRAM/BLOGS SARTORIAL/STREET WEAR SECOND-HAND CLOTHES a. CHANGES OVER TIME b. ISSUES PRICE a. b. c. d. AFFORDABLE GOOD VALUE/COST PER WEAR HIGH/EXPENSIVE LOW/INEXPENSIVE ASSOCIATIONS* 9 a. b. c. d. 9 FEEL HOLIDAY CLOTHES INVISIBLE GARMENTS SOUVENIRS See also Sensory experiences 523 LAYERING LAYERING AGE a. BODY IMAGE b. WARDROBE QUANTITIES LENGTH OF OWNERSHIP a. NEW CLOTHES b. OLD CLOTHES c. STUDENT CLOTHES LETTING GO a. b. c. d. GETTING RID OF THINGS GIVING TO CHARITY KEEPING CLOTHES/HANGING ONTO THINGS MOVING ON SPACE/STORAGE ISSUES a. CLOTHES STORED AWAY b. MOVING c. QUANTITY TIME a. b. c. d. CHANGING PATTERNS OF WEAR CHANGING PREFERENCES FIGURE CHANGES FUTURE POSSIBILITIES WARDROBE STORIES* 10 WEAR&TEAR a. FALLING APART/FALLING TO BITS b. REPAIRABILITY c. REPAIRS/ALTERATIONS 10 See also Longing and belonging 524 C. INTERVIEW SCHEDULES Interview schedule per participant Interview schedule per garment 525 Interview schedule per participant 1. Can you show me the newest piece of clothing in your wardrobe? • [Follow sheet 1] 2. Can you show me some of the oldest pieces in your wardrobe? • [Follow sheet 1] 3. Do you own any handmade pieces of clothing? • • Yes: Can you tell me more about it? o Who made it? o How long have you had it? o [Follow sheet 1 as appropriate] o Would you like to own more handmade clothes? No: Have you owned any handmade clothes in the past? o Would you like to own some handmade clothes? 4. Do you repair/have your clothes repaired? • Can you please tell me more about it? 5. How do you choose new clothes? • Do you have a favourite shop/brand? • Do you shop on your own or do you prefer shopping with your friend(s)/partner/family member? • Do you buy clothes on-line? 6. Do you ever buy second-hand clothes? • Yes: Can you tell me more about your experiences with second-hand clothing? • No: Why not? Can you explain? 7. Do you own any clothes that used to belong to a member of your family or your friends? • Yes: [Follow sheet 1 as appropriate] o • If you no longer wear them, why do you keep them? No: Have you had any in the past? o Can you tell me what you remember about them? 8. Is there a piece of clothing that you dream about but don’t have?/ Was there in the past? Could you describe it? 526 9. When you no longer wear a piece of clothing, what do you do with it? 10. Is there anything you would like to add? [Possibly offer the option to use the Graffiti Wall method to record ideas remembered after the interview.] Optional: Your ideal/dream piece of clothing? 527 Interview schedule per garment GARMENT OWNED FOR HOW LONG NOW AGE OF THE GARMENT PHOTO FREQUENCY OF WEAR ACQUIRED HOW + ANY DETAILS ACQUIRED WHY? – WHAT MADE YOU BUY REMEMBERED IT? FAVOURITE FEATURES LEAST FAVOURITE FEATURES HOW/WHEN DO YOU LIKE WEARING IT MOST? 528 WOULD YOU WASHING AND IRONING REPLACE/REPAIR WHEN WORN OUT? PHOTOS OF DETAILS – as appropriate OTHER COMMENTS – is there anything you per conversation would like to add? QUESTIONS INSPIRED BY THE CONVERSATION e.g. Do you have a photo of yourself wearing this? 529 D. INTERVIEW TRANSCRIPT EXAMPLES Louise (lines 273 – 328) Mary (lines 1400 – 1453) 530 LOUISE (LINES 273 - 328) A: tararam!...sooo...yeah...this one was a treat...so...I was with a friend in hmmm....what is it called that...House of Frasers...where I never go...because it's just...too expensive...and they had some sales on...and I LOVE yellow! - it's my favourite colour (laugh)... Q: yeah A: (still laughing)...and I don't know - I spotted that one and...it looked...you know...like good quality for once...because you know - at least it will last longer and hmmm...I don't know - I like the colour...and since then...I wear it all the time... Q: yeah A: and it's still not broken anywhere...so...that's good (smile) Q: yeah - it's really nice A: yeah - I LOVE IT! - I love it...obviously - it needs ironing - but - you know...that's Q: yeah...so do you know how long ago that would have been? A: aaah...probably a good five years ago...yeah...and I wear it a lot! (laugh) Q: yeah, it's really pretty - I can just see you wearing it A: it's cute!...yeah!...and it's just so nice...and soft you know...and...I like the design - so - yeah that's probably my favourite clothes...but I'm trying not to wear it too often (laugh)...because sometimes when I go through my pictures...you know...and I'm like - and with my sister the other day - oh! you've got that top again (laugh)...but - I was like - oh! that's true - you know when I travel - I usually wear that top (laugh)...I'm a bit boring but - you know Q: yeah yeah A: so yeah - THAT one is one of my favourites...and then...(made and undecisive sound)...no...not really - I mean - (looking through the wardrobe) I've got a few like...that's from my mother in law as well...okay - THAT I never wear... Q: oooh A: it's just - again - it's not me...you know it's a bit like - uuuuh (making faces)...(laugh)...I don't like it - you know...it's just material...I just... Q: is it leather?... A: NO - I don't think [can't get this bit - she'd give me leather]... 531 Q: or is it leatherette? A: I think it's a fake...it's Promod...you know Promod? Q: oh yeah - yeah... A: yeah...so it's quite - you know...but it's still...no - I don't think it's leather... Q: yeah...but you can see...hmmm...that there's some kind of French aesthetics to it...that can I can quite imagine a French woman really getting away with it very well A: yeah!...I mean what I LIKE...in a way...you don't find here very often - that it's simple - so it's straight - you know...so I like straight skirts...I don't like when they go like (showing + making a sound [15:58])...you know so that's hard to find nowadays...so I suppose...it's got THAT quality - but it's just - you know the material... Q: hmmm A: that I'm not comfortable in it...but I DO wear it sometimes...if I'm in the mood Q: outside? A: yeah [16:10]... oh yeah...(smile) Q: ohhhh (laugh) A: yeah - and the one I wear all the time - she also gave me that...in a way it's good - you know - she finds treasures for me - but... Q: oh, that looks very nice! A: that's NAF NAF...you know NAF NAF? Q: yeah A: and that I wear ALL the time as well Q: I had a few things from NAF NAF A: yeah - it's nice - because...it's simple! Q: yeah A: straight, simple - so yeah...that's what you want...so THAT I wear a lot - and she gave me that...[can't get this bit]...and I've lost a button here...brilliant...it's probably here somewhere... Q: can I take a photo of the lost button thing? - that's interesting - you know... A: I would still wear it - I don't care...(laugh)...but it's... 532 MARY (LINES 1400 – 1453) A: hmmm...it looks like some kind of - it's a bit creased because it's...been in the freezer...and...so that's the one that...I combine with...hmmm...where's it gone - where's it gone - where's it gone (whispering)...(looking for it)...so that - that just kind of works...and that pink belt Q: hmmm A: it all - kind of...goes together...hmmm...then...that - so this - this was kind of - like an almost mistake...I bought this in February - it was really cold and miserable...it was my birthday...and...and it just - the colour...just...sang of...summer time...so Q: (laugh) A: of the cardigans that I've got there...quite a few of them go with several different things...but because that's such...a bright colour...I struggle to...pull it off Q: hmmm A: but it does...kind of work with that - so... Q: yeah - it does - definitely...yeah - it looks great A: so I hang onto it Q: and also the buttons look really good A: yeah...hmmm...okay...and that's just - it's not very exciting but it's...just a nice colour Q: hmmm hmmm A: and it - I've got some polka dot shorts it works with...this is a...hmmm...wrap around...so I wanted a wraparound...from them...for ages Q: hmmm A: but you know when you don't - never see one that's quite the right colour Q: yeah A: hmmm...so...this looks really fabulous with jeans...hmmm...it's such a gorgeous colour Q: yeah A: I'm in love with that colour...hmmm...and...oh yes! and...it kind of...works with that Q: yeah A: so that's - that's quite good fun 533 Q: so do you have to think of defrosting your jumpers...in the evening - to wear them in the morning (laugh)? A: no...so what I've just dragged out is all the stuff that I'd wear in...summer time Q: oh - okay - so those are summer jumpers for...yeah A: yeah - so I've only - only just started this freezing thing - since I had a couple of nibbles... Q: hmmm hmmm A: early this year...I think that's what I'm gonna do - certainly with things that are definitely summer or...winter...try to protect it that way Q: hmmm A: but - you know - on the subject - so Alex just - when I went downstairs he teased me and said...does Mila think you've got too many clothes or something? Q: (laugh) A: hmmm Q: and the question really was: he thinks you have too many clothes? A: hmmm...but in a sense...I kind of do...because...there comes a point where you're having to look...after all this stuff...you're having to keep it all clean, mended Q: hmmm hmmm A: and...safe from moths...so I'm probably - I am at that point where...I need to...stop - getting things - or - get rid of things Q: hmmm hmmm A: I would say...so... Q: and which one you fear most - or more? getting rid of things or stopping getting things? A: hmmm...there ARE a few things I'd get rid off...hmmm...I think just slowing down and only getting things if they're really amazing Q: hmmm - but you seem to be getting quite amazing things...so...or don't you think so? A: yeah...hmmm...some of it is about...not - not getting too many fancy things that you don't...end up wearing...so it's stuff that you really do wear 534 E. CODE BOOK EXAMPLES Code books 5&6 (of 7) Final code book Themes and categories 2 (of 3) 535 CODE BOOKS 5&6 (OF 7) Categories and codes – CODEBOOK 5 (of 7) 1. AGE a. BODY IMAGE b. WARDROBE QUANTITIES 2. APPROPRIATENESS a. CLIMATE b. CONFIDENCE c. EVERYDAY CLOTHES d. KIDS vs CLOTHES e. MATERNITY WEAR f. NEVER WORN? (see also SATISFACTION) g. OCCASION WEAR h. OCCASIONS (FOR WEAR) i. PROFESSIONAL SELF-PRESENTATION j. SPORTSWEAR k. SUITS ME/FLATTERING l. SUMMER-WINTER CLOTHES/SEASONAL CLOTHES m. TRAVEL n. WORK CLOTHES/OUTFITS o. WORK/WEEKEND WARDROBE p. WORKS 3. ASSOCIATIONS a. FEEL b. HOLIDAY CLOTHES c. INVISIBLE GARMENTS d. SOUVENIRS 4. CONNECTIONS a. CHILDHOOD MEMORIES b. COMMENTS c. FAMILY i. GRANDMOTHER ii. MOTHER d. FRIENDS e. FROM OTHER PEOPLE i. FRIENDS ii. GRANDMOTHER iii. MOTHER iv. MOTHER IN LAW f. GIFTS g. JUSTIFY h. MEMORIES OF WEAR 5. CARE a. IRONING Notes - THEMES TIME ENABLERS LONGING AND BELONGING SENSORY EXPERIENCES LONGING AND BELONGING ENABLERS 536 b. ISSUES c. MOTHS d. WASHING 6. CLOTHES SHOPPING a. BRANDS b. CHALLENGES/ISSUES c. CHARITY SHOPS d. E-BAY e. ETHICS/PARADOXES f. FRIENDS g. MEMORIES h. ON-LINE SHOPPING i. PROVENANCE i. CUSTOM-MADE CLOTHES ii. HOME-MADE CLOTHES/SEWING iii. MASS PRODUCTION iv. SMALL PRODUCTION j. SALES/BARGAINS k. SWAPPING l. TREATS 7. COLOURS a. BRIGHT b. MATCHING c. MUTED LONGING AND BELONGING SENSORY EXPERIENCES WARDROBE IN CONTEXT 8. COMBINATIONS 9. COMFORT a. DIS-COMFORT b. KNITWEAR c. REVEALING d. SIMPLE e. SOFT f. SOFTENING THROUGH WEAR 10. DETAILS a. ADAPTABILITY/ELASTIC/DRAWSTRING b. BUTTONS c. COLLAR/NECKLINE d. DROPPED YOKE e. LINING f. POCKETS g. SLEEVES h. SLIT i. ZIP 11. FIT a. TOO BIG b. TOO TIGHT 12. INSPIRATIONS a. DESIGN IDEAS ENABLERS SENSORY EXPERIENCES SENSORY EXPERIENCES SENSORY EXPERIENCES ENABLERS LONGING AND BELONGING 537 b. FASHION c. FASHION MAGAZINES d. INFLUENCES e. INSTAGRAM/BLOGS f. SARTORIAL 13. LENGTH OF OWNERSHIP a. NEW CLOTHES b. OLD CLOTHES c. STUDENT CLOTHES 14. MATERIALS a. CASHMERE b. COTTON c. ELASTIC d. LINEN e. SILK f. SYNTHETICS g. WOOL 15. PARTING WITH THINGS/LETTING GO a. GETTING RID OF THINGS b. GIVING TO CHARITY c. KEEPING CLOTHES/HANGING ONTO THINGS d. MOVING ON 16. PATTERNS AND PRINTS 17. PRICE a. BARGAIN AFFORDABLE b. GOOD VALUE/COST PER WEAR c. HIGH/EXPENSIVE d. LOW/INEXPENSIVE 18. SATISFACTION a. FAVOURITE CLOTHES b. HATED CLOTHES c. LONGEVITY d. MULTIPLE EXAMPLES OF THE SAME e. NEVER WORN? (see also APPROPRIATENESS) f. OFTEN WORN g. QUALITY h. RARELY WORN i. RE-INCARNATIONS/REPLICAS 19. SECOND THOUGHTS a. SHOPPIING MISTAKES b. UNCERTAINTY/DOUBTS 20. SECOND-HAND CLOTHES a. CHANGES OVER TIME b. ISSUES TIME SENSORY EXPERIENCES TIME SENSORY EXPERIENCES ENABLERS ENABLERS LONGING AND BELONGING ENABLERS LONGING AND BELONGING LONGING AND BELONGING SENSORY EXPERIENCES 21. SHAPE/STYLE ENABLERS 538 22. SPACE/STORAGE ISSUES a. CLOTHES STORED AWAY b. MOVING c. QUANTITY 23. TIME a. CHANGING PATTERNS OF WEAR b. CHANGING PREFERENCES c. FIGURE CHANGES d. FUTURE POSSIBILITIES 24. UTILITY/PRACTICALITY ENABLERS TIME ENABLERS ENABLERS 25. VERSATILITY WARDROBE IN CONTEXT 26. WARDROBE PATTERNS/PATTERNS OF WEAR/WARDROBE HABITS a. DIFFERENT b. SAME LONGING AND BELONGING 27. WARDROBE STORIES LONGING AND BELONGING 28. WEAR&TEAR a. FALLING APART/FALLING TO BITS b. REPAIRABILITY c. REPAIRS/ALTERATIONS TIME 539 Notes Definitions from: Oxford Categories and codes – CODEBOOK 6 (of 7) Learner’s Dictionary of THEMES Academic English. Oxford: OUP, 2014 1. AGE a. BODY IMAGE b. WARDROBE QUANTITIES/QUANTITY 2. APPROPRIATENESS a. CLIMATE b. CONFIDENCE c. EVERYDAY CLOTHES d. KIDS vs CLOTHES/CHILDREN?/EARLY MOTHERHOOD e. MATERNITY WEAR f. OCCASION WEAR g. OCCASIONS FOR WEAR h. PROFESSIONAL SELF-PRESENTATION i. SPORTSWEAR j. SUITS ME/FLATTERING k. SEASONAL CLOTHES l. TRAVEL m. WORK OUTFITS n. WORK/WEEKEND WARDROBE o. IT WORKS AGE = the number of years that a person has lived, or a thing has existed TIME = a period of time, either long or short, during which sth happens or when sb does sth APPROPRIATENESS = the degree ENABLERS – ENABLE = 1. to make it possible for to which sth is suitable, sb to do sth; 2. to make it possible for sth to acceptable or correct for the happen or exist by creating the necessary particular circumstances conditions 540 LONGING AND BELONGING – LONG = missing from dictionary in this sense; BELONG = 1. to be in the right or suitable place; 2. to be connected with or come from sth; 3. to feel comfortable and happy in a particular situation or with a particular group of people 3. ASSOCIATIONS a. FEEL b. HOLIDAY CLOTHES c. INVISIBLE GARMENTS d. SOUVENIRS ASSOCIATION = an idea or a memory that is suggested by sb/sth; a mental connection between ideas SENSORY EXPERIENCES SENSE = A - 2. a feeling about sth important; 4. one of the five powers (sight, hearing, ,smell, taste and touch) that your body uses to get information about the world around you; B – 1. to become aware of sth even though you cannot clearly see it, hear it, etc.; 2. to become aware of sth by seeing it, hearing it, etc.; 3. to discover and record or react to sth; SENSORY = connected with the physical senses; 541 EXPERIENCE = A - 1. the knowledge and skill that you have gained through doing sth for a period of time; the process of gaining this; 2. the things that have happened to you that affect the way you think and behave; 3. an event or activity that affects you in some way; B = 1. to have a particular situation affect you or happen to you; 2. to have a particular emotion or physical feeling 542 4. CONNECTIONS a. CHILDHOOD MEMORIES b. COMMENTS c. FAMILY/STYLE ARCHETYPES?/FAMILY INFLUENCES (move here from INSPIRATIONS?) i. FATHER ii. GRANDMOTHER iii. MOTHER iv. SISTER d. FRIENDS e. FROM OTHER PEOPLE i. FRIENDS ii. GRANDMOTHER iii. MOTHER CONNECTION = 1. something that connects two facts or ideas; 2. relationship between people or groups of people, often for a particular purpose LONGING AND BELONGING iv. MOTHER IN LAW f. GIFTS g. JUSTIFY h. MEMORIES OF WEAR CARE = attention or thought that you give to sth that you are 5. CARE a. b. c. d. doing so that you will do it well IRONING ISSUES MOTHS WASHING and avoid mistakes or damage ENABLERS ISSUE = an important topic that people are discussing or arguing about 543 6. CLOTHES SHOPPING a. BRANDS b. CHALLENGES/ISSUES/ISSUES c. CHARITY SHOPS d. E-BAY e. ETHICS/PARADOXES/ETHICAL PARADOXES f. FRIENDS g. MEMORIES h. ON-LINE SHOPPING i. PROVENANCE i. CUSTOM-MADE CLOTHES ii. HOME-MADE CLOTHES/SEWING iii. MASS PRODUCTION CLOTHES = the things that you wear SHOPPING = the activity of buying things from shops or the Internet LONGING AND BELONGING iv. SMALL PRODUCTION j. SALES/BARGAINS k. SWAPPING l. TREATS CHALLENGE = a new or difficult task or situation that tests sb’s ability and skill ISSUE = an important topic that people are discussing or arguing about ETHICAL = connected with beliefs and principles about what is right and wrong PARADOX = 1. a thing, situation or person that has two opposite features and therefore seems strange; 2. a statement containing two opposite ideas that make it seem impossible or 544 not likely, although it is probably true; the use of this in writing 7. COLOURS a. BRIGHT b. MATCHING c. MUTED COLOUR = the appearance that things have that results from the SENSORY EXPERIENCES way in which they reflect light WARDROBE IN CONTEXT WARDROBE = missing from dictionary COMBINATION = two or more 8. COMBINATIONS things joined or mixed together CONTEXT = the situation or set of circumstances to form a single unit in which sth happens and that helps you to understand it ENABLERS 545 9. COMFORT a. DIS-COMFORT b. KNITWEAR c. REVEALING d. SIMPLE e. SOFT f. SOFTENING THROUGH WEAR COMFORT = 1. the state of being physically relaxed and free from pain; 2. the state of having a pleasant life, with everything that you need; 3. a feeling of not SENSORY EXPERIENCES suffering or worrying so much; a feeling of being less unhappy; 4. a person or thing that helps you when you are suffering, worried or unhappy; 5. a thing that makes your life easier or more comfortable 10. DETAILS a. ADAPTABILITY/ELASTIC/DRAWSTRING b. BUTTONS c. COLLAR/NECKLINE d. DROPPED YOKE e. LINING f. POCKETS g. SLEEVES h. SLIT i. ZIP DETAIL = a small part of something that can be looked at; one or more of these taken together DETAILS DETAIL = a small part of something that can be looked at; one or more of these taken together SENSORY EXPERIENCES FIT = 1. to be of the right size or 11. FIT a. TOO BIG b. TOO TIGHT shape for sb/sth, or to go SENSORY EXPERIENCES somewhere; 5. to make sb/sth ENABLERS suitable for a particular job 546 INSPIRATION = 1. the experience of being made to feel confident and excited about doing sth; 2. a person or thing that makes 12. INSPIRATIONS a. DESIGN IDEAS/IDEALS/WISHLIST b. FASHION c. FASHION MAGAZINES d. INFLUENCES this moved up to CONNECTIONS e. INSTAGRAM/BLOGS f. SARTORIAL/STREET WEAR you feel confident and excited about doing sth; 3. the idea of doing sth or the reason for doing sth; the person or thing LONGING AND BELONGING that provides this IDEAL = 1. perfect; most suitable; 2. the best that can be imagined, but not likely to become real 547 13. LENGTH OF OWNERSHIP a. NEW CLOTHES b. OLD CLOTHES c. STUDENT CLOTHES 14. MATERIALS a. CASHMERE b. COTTON c. ELASTIC OWNERSHIP = the fact of owning something MATERIAL = 1. a substance from which a thing is or can be made; TIME SENSORY EXPERIENCES d. e. f. g. LINEN SILK SYNTHETICS WOOL 15. LETTING GO a. GETTING RID OF THINGS b. GIVING TO CHARITY c. KEEPING CLOTHES/HANGING ONTO THINGS d. MOVING ON a substance with a particular quality; 4. cloth used for making clothes LET GO = to give up an idea or an attitude; to give up control of TIME sth PATTERN = a regular arrangement of lines, shapes, 16. PATTERNS AND PRINTS colours, etc. found in similar SENSORY EXPERIENCES objects or as a design material PRICE = the amount of money that you have to pay for 17. PRICE a. b. c. d. AFFORDABLE GOOD VALUE/COST PER WEAR HIGH/EXPENSIVE LOW/INEXPENSIVE something ENABLERS AFFORD = to have enough money or time to be able to buy or to do something 548 18. SATISFACTION a. FAVOURITE CLOTHES b. HATED CLOTHES c. LONGEVITY d. MULTIPLE EXAMPLES OF THE SAME e. OFTEN WORN f. QUALITY g. RARELY WORN h. RE-INCARNATIONS/REPLICAS 19. SECOND THOUGHTS a. SHOPPIING MISTAKES b. UNCERTAINTY/DOUBTS SATISFACTION = 1. the good feeling that you have when you have achieved sth or when sth that you wanted to happen does happen; something that gives ENABLERS LONGING AND BELONGING you this feeling; 2. the act of satisfying a need or desire (to have) SECOND THOUGHTS = to change your opinion after thinking about sth again ENABLERS LONGING AND BELONGING CHALLENGE = a new or difficult task or situation that tests sb’s ability and skill 20. SECOND-HAND CLOTHES a. CHANGES OVER TIME b. ISSUES ISSUE = an important topic that people are discussing or arguing about LONGING AND BELONGING 549 SHAPE = the form of the outer edges or surfaces of sth; an example of sth that has a 21. SHAPE/STYLE particular form SENSORY EXPERIENCES ENABLERS STYLE = a particular design of sth, for example clothes SPACE = 3. an amount of an area or of a place that is empty or that is available for use; 5. an area that is used for a particular 22. SPACE/STORAGE ISSUES a. CLOTHES STORED AWAY b. MOVING c. QUANTITY purpose STORAGE = the process of keeping sth in a particular place or form until it is needed; the place or form that sth can be kept in ENABLERS 550 CHALLENGE = a new or difficult task or situation that tests sb’s ability and skill ISSUE = an important topic that people are discussing or arguing about Change 22. C to WARDROBE QUANTITIES to align with 1.b? – actually, I don’t think this is necessary 23. TIME a. b. c. d. TIME = a period of time, either CHANGING PATTERNS OF WEAR CHANGING PREFERENCES FIGURE CHANGES FUTURE POSSIBILITIES long or short, during which sth happens or when sb does sth TIME 551 PATTERN = the regular way in which sth happens or is done PREFERENCE = 1. greater interest in or desire for sb/sth than sb/sth else; 2. a thing that is liked better or best POSSIBILITY = 1. the fact that sth might exist, happen, or be true, but is not certain; 2. one of the different things that you can do in a particular situation UTILITY = the quality of being useful 24. UTILITY/PRACTICALITY PRACTICALITY (ies) = 1. the real facts and circumstances rather than ideas or theories; 2. the ENABLERS 552 quality of being suitable, or likely to be successful 25. VERSATILITY VERSATILITY = missing from ENABLERS dictionary WARDROBE IN CONTEXT WARDROBE = missing from dictionary PATTERN = the regular way in which sth happens or is done HABIT = 1. something that you 26. WARDROBE PATTERNS/HABITS a. DIFFERENT b. SAME do often and almost without thinking about it, especially sth that is difficult to change or stop; a person’s usual behaviour; 2. a typical way of behaving that sth has; the fact that sth tends to happen in a particular way LONGING AND BELONGING 553 WARDROBE = missing from dictionary STORY = 1. a description, often spoken, of what happened to sb or of how sth happened; 27. WARDROBE STORIES 2. a situation considered in LONGING AND BELONGING terms of the information that is known about it; 3. a description of events and people that the writer or speaker has invented in order to entertain people WEAR = the damage or loss of quality that is caused when sth 28. WEAR&TEAR a. FALLING APART/FALLING TO BITS b. REPAIRABILITY c. REPAIRS/ALTERATIONS has been used a lot TIME TEAR = 1. to damage sth by pulling it apart or into pieces or by cutting it on sth sharp; to 554 become damaged in this way; 3. very badly affected or damaged by sth WEAR AND TEAR = the damage to objects, furniture, property, etc. that is the result of normal use 555 FINAL CODE BOOK Categories and codes - FINAL 1. AGE a. BODY IMAGE b. WARDROBE QUANTITIES 2. APPROPRIATENESS a. CLIMATE b. CONFIDENCE c. EVERYDAY CLOTHES d. EARLY MOTHERHOOD e. MATERNITY WEAR f. OCCASION WEAR g. OCCASIONS FOR WEAR h. PROFESSIONAL SELF-PRESENTATION i. SPORTSWEAR j. SUITS ME/FLATTERING k. SEASONAL CLOTHES l. TRAVEL m. WORK OUTFITS n. WORK/WEEKEND WARDROBE o. IT WORKS 3. ASSOCIATIONS a. FEEL b. HOLIDAY CLOTHES c. INVISIBLE GARMENTS d. SOUVENIRS 4. CARE a. b. c. d. IRONING ISSUES MOTHS WASHING 5. CLOTHES SHOPPING a. BRANDS b. CHALLENGES/ISSUES c. CHARITY SHOPS d. E-BAY e. ETHICAL PARADOXES f. FRIENDS g. MEMORIES h. ON-LINE SHOPPING 556 i. PROVENANCE i. CUSTOM-MADE CLOTHES ii. HOME-MADE CLOTHES/SEWING iii. MASS PRODUCTION iv. SMALL PRODUCTION j. SALES/BARGAINS k. SWAPPING l. TREATS 6. COLOURS a. BRIGHT b. MATCHING c. MUTED 7. COMBINATIONS 8. COMFORT a. DIS-COMFORT b. KNITWEAR c. REVEALING d. SIMPLE e. SOFT f. SOFTENING THROUGH WEAR 9. CONNECTIONS a. CHILDHOOD MEMORIES b. COMMENTS c. FAMILY INFLUENCES i. FATHER ii. GRANDMOTHER iii. MOTHER iv. SISTER d. FRIENDS e. FROM OTHER PEOPLE i. FRIENDS ii. GRANDMOTHER iii. MOTHER iv. MOTHER IN LAW f. GIFTS g. JUSTIFY h. MEMORIES OF WEAR 10. DETAILS a. ELASTIC/DRAWSTRING b. BUTTONS c. COLLAR/NECKLINE d. DROPPED YOKE e. LINING f. POCKETS g. SLEEVES h. SLIT 557 i. ZIP 11. FIT a. TOO BIG b. TOO TIGHT 12. INSPIRATIONS a. IDEALS/WISHLIST b. FASHION c. FASHION MAGAZINES d. INSTAGRAM/BLOGS e. SARTORIAL/STREET WEAR 13. LENGTH OF OWNERSHIP a. NEW CLOTHES b. OLD CLOTHES c. STUDENT CLOTHES 14. LETTING GO a. GETTING RID OF THINGS b. GIVING TO CHARITY c. KEEPING CLOTHES/HANGING ONTO THINGS d. MOVING ON 15. MATERIALS a. CASHMERE b. COTTON c. ELASTIC d. LINEN e. SILK f. SYNTHETICS g. WOOL 16. PATTERNS AND PRINTS 17. PRICE a. b. c. d. AFFORDABLE GOOD VALUE/COST PER WEAR HIGH/EXPENSIVE LOW/INEXPENSIVE 18. SATISFACTION a. FAVOURITE CLOTHES b. HATED CLOTHES c. LONGEVITY d. MULTIPLE EXAMPLES OF THE SAME e. OFTEN WORN f. QUALITY g. RARELY WORN h. RE-INCARNATIONS/REPLICAS 558 19. SECOND-HAND CLOTHES a. CHANGES OVER TIME b. ISSUES 20. SECOND THOUGHTS a. SHOPPING MISTAKES b. UNCERTAINTY/DOUBTS 21. SHAPE/STYLE 22. SPACE/STORAGE ISSUES a. CLOTHES STORED AWAY b. MOVING c. QUANTITY 23. TIME a. b. c. d. CHANGING PATTERNS OF WEAR CHANGING PREFERENCES FIGURE CHANGES FUTURE POSSIBILITIES 24. UTILITY/PRACTICALITY 25. VERSATILITY 26. WARDROBE PATTERNS/HABITS a. DIFFERENT b. SAME 27. WARDROBE STORIES 28. WEAR&TEAR a. FALLING APART/FALLING TO BITS b. REPAIRABILITY c. REPAIRS/ALTERATIONS 559 THEMES AND CATEGORIES 2 (OF 3) WARDROBE IN LONGING AND CONTEXT BELONGING COMBINATIONS ENABLERS DETAILS SENSORY EXPERIENCES TIME ASSOCIATIONS APPROPRIATENESS DETAILS ASSOCIATIONS AGE VERSATILITY CONNECTIONS CARE COLOURS FIGURE CHANGES CONNECTIONS CLOTHES SHOPPING COMBINATIONS COMFORT DIFFERENT FIT DETAILS LETTING GO FROM OTHER PEOPLE PRICE FIT TIME INSPIRATIONS SATISFACTION MATERIALS WEAR&TEAR PROVENANCE SECOND THOUGHTS PATTERNS SATISFACTION SHAPE/STYLE SHAPE/STYLE SECOND THOUGHTS SPACE/STORAGE ISSUES SUITS ME LENGTH OF OWNERSHIP 560 SECOND-HAND CLOTHES SUITS ME SUITS ME UTILITY/PRACTICALITY WARDROBE PATTERNS VERSATILITY WARDROBE STORIES WORK/WEEKEND WARDROBE 561 F. CONSENT DOCUMENTS Information for participants Informed consent form Permission to use transcripts and photographs 562 INFORMATION FOR PARTICIPANTS 563 INFORMATION FOR PARTICIPANTS Note: You are welcome to keep this for future reference. TITLE OF RESEARCH CLOTHES THAT STAND THE TEST OF TIME: The value of emotional durability in fashion design and making RESEARCHER Mila Burcikova Centre for Fashion Thinking School of Art, Design and Architecture University of Huddersfield RESEARCHER CONTACT DETAILS E-mail: M.Burcikova@hud.ac.uk Mobile: 07552 320 039 Web: misensefashion.co.uk INTRODUCTION Dear [name of participant], thank you very much for considering taking part in this research. My name is Mila Burcikova, I am a fashion designer-maker, running my own independent slow fashion studio MISENSE by Mila B. I am currently also working on a postgraduate research project at the Centre for Fashion Thinking, University of Huddersfield. I am interested in clothes that people keep and wear for a long time. The purpose of my research project is to help designers to better understand how people experience the clothes they have in their wardrobes. I believe that this can help designers to design clothes that bring more satisfaction to people who wear them. DO I HAVE TO TAKE PART? Your participation is entirely voluntary and you can decide to withdraw from the research at any point during your interview without giving any reason. 564 WHAT IS INVOLVED? I would like to interview you about the clothes in your wardrobe. The interview will take place in your own home at a time to suit you and will take between 2-3 hours. Our discussion will be focused on your experiences of buying and wearing the clothes you own, particularly the pieces you have had for a long time. The interview does not have a formal structure, you can choose the clothes you would like to talk about and run the interview at your own pace. The interview will be audio recorded and transcribed and you will be given a copy of this transcription for approval. During the interview, I would also like to take photos of the clothes we will be talking about and photos of you handling these clothes during the interview. All the photos will also be given to you for approval. HOW WILL THE RESULTS BE USED? The information I collect during your interview will support my research and will be used in my PhD thesis and other research outputs such as conference presentations, journal publications or exhibitions. CONFIDENTIALITY and ANONYMITY Several types of data will be collected during this project: • Your contact details • Some personal details (such as age, occupation, family situation, geographical area) • Audio recordings of interviews • Transcripts of interviews • Photographs of clothes in your wardrobe that we will talk about • Photographs of you taken during the interviews Each type of data will be used and shared in different ways: • Your contact details, such as phone number, address or e-mail address will be strictly confidential and will not be disclosed to anyone. • Some personal details, such as your age, occupation or family situation, will be used in the research outputs – including my PhD thesis, journal publications, conference presentations and exhibitions. Your surname will not be used and your first name will be replaced by a pseudonym. 565 • Audio recordings will only be shared (when necessary) with the project supervisors who agree to preserve the confidentiality of all the information. Audio recordings will not, at any point of the research, be shared beyond the supervisory team. • Selected parts of your interview transcript will be used in my research outputs – including my PhD thesis, journal publications, conference presentations and exhibitions. You will be given a copy of your transcribed interview for approval prior to any publication or dissemination. • Photographs of you taken during the interviews and photographs of the clothes we will talk about will be used in the research outputs – including my PhD thesis, journal publications, conference presentations and exhibitions. You will be given an opportunity to withdraw any images that you do not wish to be included. All the data obtained during the research will be stored securely, in compliance with the UK Data Protection Act (1998) and ethical research guidelines and principles. Secure storage in password protected files will be maintained for five years after the completion of the project to enable the use of the data generated during this research in any subsequent research. If secure storage is no longer possible, the data will be destroyed. Any hard copies including data obtained during interviews (such as field notes, audio recordings, prints of photographs) will be kept in a locked cabinet that can only be accessed by myself. No hard copies of your contact details will be used in this research. THANK YOU VERY MUCH FOR TAKING THE TIME TO READ THROUGH THIS INFORMATION. PLEASE FEEL FREE TO ASK ANY QUESTIONS. Mila Burcikova CONTACT UNIVERSITY: STUDIO: Centre for Fashion Thinking School of Art, Design and Architecture University of Huddersfield MISENSE by Mila B slow/fashion/studio E-mail: M.Burcikova@hud.ac.uk Mobile: 07552 320 039 E-mail: mila@misensefashion.co.uk Mobile: 07552 320 039 Web: misensefashion.co.uk 566 INFORMED CONSENT FORM 567 INFORMED CONSENT FORM TITLE OF RESEARCH CLOTHES THAT STAND THE TEST OF TIME The value of emotional durability in fashion design and making RESEARCHER Mila Burcikova Centre for Fashion Thinking School of Art, Design and Architecture University of Huddersfield RESEARCHER CONTACT DETAILS E-mail: M.Burcikova@hud.ac.uk Mobile: 07552 320 039 Web: misensefashion.co.uk Dear [name of participant], Thank you very much for considering taking part in my research. I will explain the purpose of my project and any details related to the research process to you before you agree to take part. If you have any questions arising from the Information for Participants or explanation already given to you, please ask me before you decide whether to join in. You will be given a copy of the Information for Participants and this Consent Form to keep and refer to at any time. Mila 568 Please complete this form AFTER YOU HAVE READ the INFORMATION FOR PARTICIPANTS and/or listened to an explanation about my research. I confirm that I understand that by ticking/initialling each box I am consenting to this element of the study. 1. I confirm that I have read and understood the Information for Participants dated [insert date and version number] for the above study. I have had the opportunity to consider the information and asked questions which have been answered satisfactorily. 2. I understand that my participation in this project is entirely voluntary and I am free to withdraw at any time during the interview without giving any reason. 3. I understand that I will be able to withdraw my data up to [insert text defining the limit – e.g. 4 weeks after my interview]. 4. I consent to the processing of my personal information for the purposes explained to me in the Information for Participants. I understand that such information will be handled in accordance with the terms of the UK Data Protection Act 1998. 5. I understand that confidentiality will be maintained as specified in the Information for Participants. 6. I understand that my first name will be replaced by a pseudonym. 569 7. I agree to be contacted in the future by Mila who may like to invite me to participate in possible follow up studies to this project. 8. I consent to my interview being audio recorded. 9. I consent to photography during the interview. 10. I understand that my interview will be used in the research outcomes (as specified in the Information for Participants) and I will receive a copy of transcripts and photographs for approval prior to any publication and dissemination. 11. I agree to take part in this project. THANK YOU VERY MUCH FOR TAKING THE TIME TO COMPLETE THIS FORM. X Name of participant: Date: X Name of researcher: Date: 570 PERMISSION TO USE TRANSCRIPTS AND PHOTOGRAPHS 571 APPROVAL OF TRANSCRIPTS AND PHOTOGRAPHS TITLE OF RESEARCH CLOTHES THAT STAND THE TEST OF TIME The value of emotional durability in fashion design and making RESEARCHER Mila Burcikova Centre for Fashion Thinking School of Art, Design and Architecture University of Huddersfield RESEARCHER CONTACT DETAILS E-mail: M.Burcikova@hud.ac.uk Mobile: 07552 320 039 Web: misensefashion.co.uk Dear [name of participant], thank you very much for taking part in my project. The information I collected during your interview will support my research and will be used in my PhD thesis and other research outputs such as conference presentations, journal publications or exhibitions. Mila 572 1. I confirm that any parts that I wish to be omitted from my interview transcript have been highlighted in the COPY OF TRANSCRIPT attached to this document. 2. I confirm that any images that I do not want to be used in the research outputs have been included in the LIST OF IMAGES TO BE REMOVED attached to this document. OPTIONAL: 3. I give permission to use photographs from my personal archive for the purposes specified above. Hard copies are attached to this document and I understand that any digital copies of these photographs given to the researcher will be stored securely in password protected files as specified in the Information for Participants. THANK YOU VERY MUCH FOR TAKING THE TIME TO COMPLETE THIS FORM. X Name of participant: Date: X Name of researcher: Date: 573