Apiculture

segments the crop protection chemicals market with currant trends and forecasting of the revenues for herbicides, fungicides and insecticides. It also identifies the driving and restraining factors for the crop protection chemicals market with analysis of drivers, opportunities and challenges. The market segmented and revenues are forecasted on the basis of major countries such as U.S., Canada and Brazil. Further, the market is segmented and revenues are forecasted on the basis of product types and crop types.

The study was conducted to evaluate the effect of replacing roasted, soaked, and coarsely ground lupin meal (RSCGLM) for soybean meal (SBM) as a protein ingredient on fertility, hatchability, and chick quality of white leghorn layers. A total of 180 (150 layers and 30 cocks) with uniform body weight and age were randomly distributed in to 15 pens and assigned to five treatments. Treatments were SBM replaced by RSCGLM at 0, 25, 50, 75 and 100% levels for T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5, respectively. The crude protein and metabolizable energy content of treatment rations ranged 16.58 - 16.78% and 2879.72 - 2881.82 kcal/ kg DM, respectively. RSCGLM contain 36.5% CP and 3533.8 kcal ME/kg DM. Replacement of SBM with RSCGLM in the diet did not affect fertility, hatchability, embryonic mortality, chick length, chick weight, and chick quality by visual score. It can be concluded that up to 100% (at a rate of 100 g/kg concentrate diet) of RSCGLM as a replacement for SBM in the diet of white leghorn l...

Propolis is a natural substance collected by honey bees from various plants such as, poplar, palm, pine, conifer secretions, gums, resins, mucilage and leaf buds. It is collected and brought very painstakingly by honey bees to be used for sealing cracks and crevices occurring in their hives. Originally, it as an antiseptic meant for preventing bee-hive from microbial infections along with preventing decomposition of intruders. Additionally, propolis has been used in folk medicine for centuries. The biological characteristics of propolis depend upon its chemical composition, plant sources, geographical zone and seasons. More than 300 compounds have been identified in propolis such as, phenolic compounds, aromatic acids, essential oils, waxes and amino acids. Many scientific articles are published every year in different inter- national journals, and several groups of researchers have focused their attention on the chemical com- pounds and biological activity of propolis.

The in vitro rearing of honey bee larvae becomes an important tool for modern studies. Honey bee larvae are very fast in their growth. Thus, it is not easy to control the larvae within the beehives. Therefore, the need for rearing the larvae in the laboratory becomes very high to enable the control of larval food and growth. Here, I present all information that related to the in vitro rearing of honey bee larvae in a simple way and precisely. This book can help and guide those are interested in apiculture to the successful rearing of the larvae. All the chapters talk about the western honey bees (Apis mellifera). Also, all the Chapters contain information for beginners as well as for experts.

Potere allo sciame è il progetto della Scuola Ambulante di Agricoltura Sostenibile per un’apicoltura semplificata, naturale e responsabile, che favorisce il benessere animale. Un metodo alternativo a quello convenzionale che promuove una particolare arnia, la top bar, a sviluppo orizzontale a cassa unica e dalla forma trapezoidale. Trattandosi di un progetto sperimentale le soluzioni proposte sono in continuo miglioramento sulla base delle osservazioni e dell’esperienza via via accumulata.
Il progetto potere allo sciame è un progetto di comunità poiché promuove un’apicoltura che ritorna ad essere un’attività diffusa e sociale (di tutti e praticabile da tutti) e genera un’economia circolare: riduciamo gli input esterni (energetici, di materiali, di lavoro…), produciamo e consumiamo prodotti sani, favoriamo la qualità alla quantità, privilegiamo le relazioni tra uomo, ambiente e territorio. Potere allo sciame si collega alla campagna promossa da Greenpeace “salviamo le api” ed alle tante iniziative tra cui “api per la biodiversità” promossa WBA-project.

A b s t r a c t The aim of this study was to develop an effective method of overwintering reserve honey bee queens in two-storey mini-plus mating nuclei and in 3-comb nuclei (frames 36 x 26 cm, Wielkopolski hive). The assay was performed during three wintering seasons (2005 -2008) parallel at two centers in Poland: the Division of Apiculture at the University of Life Sciences (SGGW) in Warsaw, and the Apiculture Division at the University of Warmia and Mazury (UWM) in Olsztyn. The results showed that 59% of queens overwintered in mini-plus nuclei and 77% in 3-comb nuclei. Among queens in mini-plus nuclei 63% overwintered in bee yard and only 55% in cellar. Within queens in 3-comb nuclei, 62% overwintered in Olsztyn and 91% in Warsaw. The highest survival rate of 93% was observed in Warsaw during the first season. Due to low survival rate, it is not recommended to overwinter the queens in miniplus nuclei.

Η καλλιέργεια Αρωματικών Φαρμακευτικών Φυτών (ΑΦΦ) έχει αναπτυχθεί ιδιαίτερα τα τελευταία χρόνια στην Ελλάδα. Έχοντας μία πλούσια βιοποικιλότητα σε έμβιους οργανισμούς αλλά και ποικιλία ενδιαιτημάτων, η Ελλάδα ενδείκνυται για την καλλιέργεια των αυτοφυών φυτών της κάθε περιοχής. Στην παρουσίαση αναλύονται επιλεγμένα ΑΦΦ, τα οποία μπορούν να αποτελέσουν και τροφή για της μέλισσες. Γεννάται αυτομάτως το ερώτημα, μπορούν οι καλλιεργητές να συνεργαστούν με μελισσοκόμους ή/και οι καλλιεργητές να γίνουν και μελισσοκόμοι. Πως κάποιος θα μπορούσε να φτιάξει το δικό του βιώσιμο-στατικό μελισσοκομείο;

The study was conducted to investigate the cost of production, net income and creation of employment in apiculture practices in the Central Province of Zambia. The study aims to find out the type of technology used in honey production, cost of honey production, price of honey, net income and income to investment ratio. Further, it aims to know the employment creation potential, employment to investment ratio and income to employment ratio in apiculture practices. The study revealed that the effect of apiculture practices on net income and employment was positive. The imputed value of family labor was higher in total cost of production and the price of honey sold was the only source of revenue. The income to investment ratio was higher and the cost-output ratio was lower. The employment to investment ratio and the income to employment ratio were higher. The study found several challenges to apiculture practices. These include lack of appropriate beekeeping skills, financial and infrastructure constraints. The study suggested for establishing bee farmers' cooperative associations for access to loan, marketing, training the beekeeping farmers in using modern techniques of honey production and get inputs from the government and non-government organizations. The study also suggested for the establishment of an accredited certifying institute for national honey standard to sell at premium price within the country and to export.

Aims:  Apiculture  is  one  of  the  potential  businesses  in  Bangladesh.  This  study  tries  to  examine,  the profitability  of  apiculture  practice  by  using  financial  analysis  of  investment  costs  and  benefits. Study  Design:  To  evaluate  the  accurate  and  particular  investment  on  beekeeping,  entire  data were  categorized  into  two  major  sections  on  the  basis  of  bee  species  Apis  mellifer  and  Apis  cerana. However,  overall  investment  costs  and  benefits  also  analyzed  to  measure  overall  profitability. Place  and  Duration  of  Study:  Entire  study  data  were  collected  from  secondary  sources  and  field questionnaire  survey  in  Tangail  District,  Bangladesh  in  November  2014. Methodology:  Standard  financial  techniques  were  used  to  evaluate  the  investment  costs  and returns  of  beekeeping  business,  the  sensitivity  analysis  was  made  by  using  net  present  value, internal  rate  of  return,  return  of  investment  and  benefit-costs  ratio.  A  correlation  of  benefit  and  cost factors  were  simulating  the  effects  of  cost  factors  on  beekeeping  outcome.  The  ranking  of beekeeping  limitation  was  made  on  the  basis  of  respondent  opinion. Results:  The  socio-economic  status  of  beekeeper  indicates  that  most  of  the  beekeeper  were young,  lower  educated,  obtain  basic  beekeeping  training  from  NGO  and  considered  beekeeping  as a  part-time  job.  The  sensitivity  analysis  shows  that  Apis  mellifera  bee  species  have  a  higher  IRR than  Apis  cerana  for  a  particular  size  of  a  beehive.  The  larger  beehive  obtains  larger  IRR,  ROI,  and B/C  ratio.  However,  the  average  IRR  is  higher  for  Apis  cerana  (185.60),  the  bigger  number  of  large beehive  of  Apis  cerana  contributing  larger  outcome.  The  correlation  of  beekeeping  benefits  and cost  factors  suggest  that,  overall  profit  is  highly  correlated  with  beehive  colony,  wooden  box,  labor and  transportation  cost. Conclusion:  Proper  beekeeping  training  and  effective  marketing  of  honey  and  other  beekeeping byproducts  is  highly  desired  by  the  beekeepers.  Government  concern  and  NGOs  involvement  is mandatory  to  improve  beekeeper  training,  marketing,  and  overall  beekeeping  business,  which could contribute to the socio-economic development of marginal farmers of Bangladesh.

A survey study was conducted to study the benefit-cost analysis of apiculture enterprise in Jutpani VDC, Chitwan district. Data were collected by interviewing randomly selected 18 beekeepers for sample survey. Benefit : Cost (BC) ratio of apiculture was computed by including and excluding the revenue obtained from colony selling. Only 61.11% of beekeepers sold bee colonies for earning income. The study revealed that BC ratios of apiculture were 2.41 and 1.58 in the case of inclusion and exclusion of the income received from the colony selling, respectively. It showed that apiculture industry was running in profit in both cases. In the former case, the BC ratio ranged from 0.97 to 6.22 and about 88.88% beekeepers were in profit. The BC ratio in the later case ranged from 0.43 to 3.41 and about 77.77% beekeepers were in profit. The number of colonies ranged from 2 to 54 with an average of 21.33 colonies per bee farm. In the former case, average annual income was Rs. 70758.33

Regarding traditional beekeeping in Crete, based on the beekeeping methods and hives that have been recorded in recent centuries, we can distinguish two areas: central-western Crete, where vertical hives with movable combs were in use, and the eastern part of the island, where a horizontal hive with fixed combs was used. Hives with movable combs (or top-bar hives) were constructed from various materials such as clay, woven wicker branches or more rarely from wooden boards. The clay ones were the most widely used and were usually constructed by travelling potters, who organized artisanal groups (guilds) and travelled around the island selling their wares. The wicker top-bar hives, which usually did not have a base, were used in western Crete, mostly for migratory beekeeping, while the rectangular wooden top-bar hives were used only rarely in certain areas such as Sphakia. In eastern Crete a horizontal, ceramic beehive open at both ends with a truncated-cone shape was in use, usually placed in rows. All the hives in Crete were covered with various materials for protection from the elements and were often placed inside bee enclosures. The knowledge of traditional Cretan beekeepers regarding bees was limited. Despite this fact, however, the users of hives with movable combs practiced beekeeping in the most rational and effective way that has been recorded prior to the invention of the modern hive. In doing so, they executed a series of beekeeping tasks that were not possible for users of other types of hive. But even the beekeepers in the eastern part of the island, where a horizontal hive with fixed combs was used, applied certain unique methods, which are a testament to the advanced level of beekeeping knowledge they possessed.

Information on the long-term consequences of Nosema ceranae to honey bee lifespan and effectiveness of Nosema control with fumagillin is scarce and not always consistent. Our objective in this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of the antibiotic fumagillin to control N. ceranae in hives in East-Central Argentina. Honey bee hives were assigned to 3 experimental treatments, a control group with untreated hives, a preventive strategy group with hives treated monthly, and a monitoring strategy group with hives treated according to a N. ceranae threshold level. Apiaries were monitored monthly during Fall-Winter 2009 and 2010 and N. ceranae spore intensity and honey bee colony strength measures were estimated. Fumagillin-treated colonies had reduced N. ceranae spores load in 2010 compared to control colonies. However, there was no significant difference between treated and control groups for colony strength measures including adult bee population, bee brood availability, honey, or pollen. Fumagillin treatment reduced N. ceranae intensities but had little effect on colonies. The bee population during Winter was reduced in treated as well as in control colonies. Our results clarify that fumagillin treatment should be at least reviewed and that further research should be conducted to acquire a more complete perspective of Nosemosis disease.

Varroa mite (Varroa destructor) is the major challenge for beekeeping worldwide. Therefore, various methods and
materials for Varroa control have been suggested and tested including; plant extracts, essential oils, biological agents, mechanical methods and some chemicals. This paper aims to present the available options for Varroa control and to survey the performed comparative studies among these options. This paper can be considered as a good guide for researchers during their studies on Varroa control. The presented review highlights that still more comparative studies among Varroa control options under different ecological conditions are strongly required. Basically the performed researches have been concentrated on testing chemical materials and essential oils while relatively few studies have been done on the other control options. It is concluded that the Varroa mite should be continuously (monthly) managed within honey bee colonies using mechanical methods or treatment with essential oils (mainly thymol). In severe cases, and especially during the fall and not during honey seasons, the use of chemical materials
can be done with preference to oxalic or formic acid.

Mangrove eco-systems of Sundarbans maintain a very rich biodiversity. The Royal Bengal Tiger (Panthera tigris) in the forest of Sundari (Heritiera minor), Hental (Phoenix paludosa), Jelegaran (Ceriops decandra), Golpata (Nipa fruticans) etc. and Crocodile (Crocodilus porosus) in the tidal brakish water of the rivers, creeks and channels are the world famous fauna. Chak moumachhi (Apis dorsata) makes hive in the mangrove forest. The pure honey of Sundarbans has a great demand throughout India and even outside india. But collection of this honey is a risky job. Moule, the poor honey collector-folk of Sundarbans, collects honey even from the core area of the forest taking the risk of life. They are mostly living in the Gosaba, Hingalgangue and Basanti blocks of Sundarbans. They have traditional wisdom, experience and practices regarding collection of honey and wax from the deep forest. In this treatise the authors try to explore the folk life and folklore of moule community of Sundarbans in the perspective of apiculture.

Diseases are known to be one of the major contributors to colony losses. Within a Europe-wide experiment on genotype -environment interactions, an initial 621 colonies were set up and maintained from 2009 to 2012. The colonies were monitored to investigate the occurrence and levels of key pathogens. These included the mite Varroa destructor (mites per 10 g bees), Nosema spp. (spore loads and species determination), and viruses (presence/absence of acute bee paralysis virus (ABPV) and deformed wing virus (DWV)). Data from 2010 to the spring of 2011 are analysed in relation to the parameters: genotype, environment, and origin (local vs. non-local) of the colonies in the experiment. The relative importance of different pathogens as indicators of colony death within the experiment is compared. In addition, pathogen occurrence rates across the geographic locations are described.

The study investigated the return on investment committed to apiculture (beekeeping) for
honey and bee wax production in the Mampong Ashanti Municipality of Ghana. In pursuit
of the investigation, twelve apiculturists (beekeepers) were identified and interviewed with
the  aid  of  well-structured  questionnaire.  The  study  examined  their  socioeconomic
characteristics, constraints militating against the venture, determination of how production
inputs were acquired, the cost structure of honey and wax production and the return they
obtain  on  their  investment.  Descriptive  statistics  as  well  as  total  cost  and  return  on
investment models were used to analyse the data collected. Descriptive analyses revealed
that majority (75%) of the respondents had received tertiary education and 75% were new
to the venture with experience of 5 years and below. All the respondents managed only top
bar hives and operated on part-time basis. Personal savings was the main source of capital
for  61.1%  of  the  respondents  and  majority  (45%)  of  the  respondents  acquired  locally
improvised equipment for their apiary operations. Respondents were faced with problems
such as, inadequate equipment, lack of technical assistance, absconding of bees, lack of
capital  among  others.  The  cost  analyses  revealed  that,  variable  costs  made  up  the  bulk
(79.58%) of the total cost. An average capital investment of GH¢870.18 generated a gross
revenue of GH¢3,316.00 per harvest, giving a return on investment of 2.81 (281.10%).
Based on the findings, apiculture is economically profitable in the study area and should
therefore  be  considered  by  government  as  a  tool  for  employment  creation  and  poverty
reduction.  Financial  institutions  must  be  enlightened  to  consider  apiculturists  for  loans.
Establishment of apiculture research centers and input shops would also encourage more
apiarists.

The first part of the book presents archaeological evidence from the Prehistoric Aegean and onward, which demonstrates the existence of an enduring, highly valued and advanced prehistoric Aegean apiculture. Some well known ceramic vessels from Knossos "palace" are identified here for the first time with beekeeping paraphernalia thus proving the existence of a systematic Minoan apiculture. In the second part, an alternative view is proposed for some of the most important scenes on Minoan and Mycenaean gold rings, seals, and clay sealings that have led Evans, Nilsson, and many others over the past century to various speculations regarding the nature of the Prehistoric Aegean religion. By applying a naturalistic context of interpretation on the depicted scenes, apiculture paraphernalia and practices are recognized, instead of the religious symbols of the "sacred tree", "flying gods", "baetyls and birds epiphany of deities", "great goddess", "horns of consecration", "altars", "temenos" and "double axes".
The authors conclude that established ideas about the prehistoric Aegean religion should be reconsidered, thus creating significant challenges for future research."

Beekeeping activity is one of the interesting activity that only takes small fraction of time of the beekeeper. The economic return of beekeeping is such a huge, i.e., Less input but high output.  The other important thing is, its activity has a symbiotic relationship with the surrounding ecology. Honeybees also boosts the pollination efficiency thereby increase local farmers’ crop yield.

In post-colonial Malta, Apis Mellifera, or the Western honeybee, exists as multiple subspecies. Recent attention on foreign honeybee importation has concerned Maltese beekeepers  as the archipelago suffers from climate change. The Maltese honeybee, Apis mellifera ruttneri, serves as a national symbol of local identity and environmental conservation. At the same time, the endemic features of this subspecies are contested, caught in a cross-fire of taxonomical efforts and cultural debate. The voices of beekeepers on this issue lend perspective to Malta’s post-colonial experience in eco-national terms. A language of conservation reveals the identity of people and animals as made intelligible through a cultural shape. For honeybees, a hegemonic conception of this organism characterizes global interests because Eurocentric powers physiologically shaped and epistemologically produced how honeybees are imagined within an overshadowing discourse. Analyzing the human-animal entanglement between beekeepers and honeybees in Malta sheds light on what I call universal apiculture: a Western construction of honeybee ontology and the domus which it depends upon. Deconstructing universal apiculture requires readers to blur lines between dichotomies that often attempt to separate nature and culture. My thesis provides perspective on beekeepers and honeybees existing within shared and imposed concerns.

The evaluation of the beekeeping activity from the perspective of social sciences needs the integration of specialist information from various knowledge fields. Biology, economy, agricultural sciences, as well as some border line disciplines, such as climatology or environmental sciences, contribute to the process of presenting and explaining nature and the changes which are associated with the activity of beekeeping. Although the importance of apis mellifera is emphasized in natural sciences, the potential impact of their extinction, and the analyses which include the social dimension generated by the production and the economic exploitation of beekeeping products, are limited. In this article we shall proceed towards the critical evaluations of the approaches to beekeeping, trying to identify the limitations and the internal consistency, and evaluating the level of empirical support sustaining the theory, in order to draft a holistic approach. This procedure is necessary in order to understand the way this activity, which has a long tradition in Romania, can adapt and develop in the context of modernity and its challenges, of climate changes, and of the standards imposed by national and international organizations.

L’abeille et son élevage sont soumis, depuis plus de vingt ans, à un ensemble de perturbations (pesticides, maladies, changements climatiques, pratiques agricoles) qui se combinent et interfèrent, plaçant les apiculteurs devant un horizon fait d’incertitudes croissantes et généralisées. Si la cause est entendue, le battage médiatique qui y est associé a cependant tendance à invisibiliser les pratiques des apiculteurs et leur diversité. Ce travail poursuit donc deux objectifs. Le premier consiste à (re)donner sa place à l’apiculture dans les recherches agraires et rurales en tant qu’activité agricole aux formes variées. Le second est d’apporter des éléments de débat, et pourquoi pas de réponse, aux incertitudes rencontrées par les apiculteurs. La perspective générale de cette thèse est donc de rendre compte de la diversité en recentrant l’analyse des apicultures sur les savoir-faire apicoles, leur inscription spatiale, sociale et culturelle afin de comprendre les rapports dynamiques entre cette activité et les milieux qu’elle prend pour ressource. Pour cela nous nous appuyons sur deux cas d’études complémentaires, le sud-ouest du Maroc et la Corse. Une première partie de ce travail s’attache à décrire, selon une perspective diachronique, ce qui fonde les apicultures des terrains étudiés. Deux monographies proposent ainsi une relecture des dynamiques agraires par le prisme de l’apiculture, systématiquement oubliée dans les études rurales jusqu’à présent. Par des descriptions fines des pratiques apicoles puis de la place de l’apiculture dans l’espace ainsi que dans les projets individuels et collectifs, nous montrons l’articulation de l’activité apicole aux dynamiques paysagères et territoriales des cas étudiés. Nous proposons ensuite trois points de comparaison issus de ces monographies. Un premier revient sur les changements techniques qui ont bouleversé les apicultures depuis les années cinquante selon un même paradigme occidental de modernité reposant sur un contrôle accru de la Nature. Nous démontrons, en mobilisant une approche par les transitions sociotechniques, que l’application d’un tel paradigme, présenté comme horizon technique unique, connait malgré tout de multiples formes de réappropriations. Nous interrogeons de cette façon les velléités politiques et sociales de poursuivre dans cette voie alors même que les incertitudes s’amoncellent. Un second point se focalise sur les réponses apportées à ces incertitudes et sur l’importance et l’efficacité, au cours du temps, des réponses collectives et territorialisées mises en place par les apiculteurs. Il s’agit de faire suite aux critiques adressées au paradigme dominant de rapport à la Nature qui promeut une technicisation toujours plus poussée et des pratiques individualisées. Nous montrons que l’apiculture, du fait d’un insecte particulièrement mobile et de ressources majoritairement non appropriées et peu contrôlées, nécessite des actions concertées dépassant l’échelle individuelle de l’exploitation. Pour finir, nous prolongeons ce constat à travers l’étude des coexistences des manières de faire de l’apiculture en termes de durabilité à la fois des filières et des territoires. Ainsi, nous en venons à étendre le débat à la coexistence apiculture/agriculture qui cristallise aujourd’hui la prise de conscience sociétale d’une crise environnementale globale. Au travers de ces trois points de comparaison, l’apiculture apparait comme une activité à même de questionner, de manière complexe, les rapports changeants que les sociétés entretiennent avec leurs milieux. Cette thèse, pionnière en sciences sociales concernant l’apiculture, a une portée exploratoire non négligeable. Elle se veut être une première pierre à de nouvelles mises en débat des apicultures conjointement à celles qui animent aujourd’hui l’agriculture dans son ensemble.

Un articolo estratto dalla mia tesi di Laurea. Un introduzione alla simbologia dell’ape e del miele in Età Classica nel mondo Greco, simbolo di vita e di morte, ma anche di rinascita, il miele e le api hanno da sempre accompagnato l’uomo nel suo lavorare in gruppo come fanno appunto le api nell’arnia.

An article taken from my degree thesis. An introduction to the symbolism of bees and honey in the Classical Age in the Greek world, a symbol of life and death, but also of rebirth, honey and bees have always accompanied man in his work in a group as they do precisely bees in the apiary.

Noţiuni generale despre propolis :Propolisul şi rolul său Propolisul este o răşină pe care albinele o recoltează de pe mugurii unor arbori. O depozitează pe picioarele din spate, o aduc în stup, unde este descărcată de către alte albine. Uneori procesul durează şi două zile. Rolul major al propolisului este de a fi principalul medicament cu care se menţine sănătatea coloniei. Cu el se lipesc ramele între ele, se astupă crăpăturile stupului dar îl folosesc si pentru a micşora dimensiunile urdinişului . Substanţele volatile care se evaporă din propolis menţin sănătatea coloniei.

By dispensing with the need for ink while simultaneously providing a writing surface that retains plasticity over time, wax boards represent the precursors of modern tablets and one of the most relevant media in human history. Their origin can be traced back to the Ancient Near East, where they were used along with clay tablets in a variety of contexts, from administration to literary collections. Originating from the interdisciplinary research project “Cuneiform on Wax” at the University of Würzburg, the study combines the analysis of the available archaeological, philological and iconographical evidence with experimental results. Following a discussion of the phenomenology of wax boards and of the presence of honeybees and related products in the Ancient Near East, we first assess the role and diffusion of this medium in the various areas and periods under consideration, then examine the extant material evidence, and finally focus on the composition of the wax paste and the related writing techniques. The results presented include a reassessment of the terminology for wax boards in Bronze Age Anatolia, the reconstruction of an ivory diptych from Assur, and a new interpretation of the motif of the so-called “grooved stylus”.

Co-authored with Katja Weirauch, Feline Maruhn, Gert Jendritzki, Patrick Kohl.

Keywords: Writing technology; beeswax; wax boards; cuneiform; ancient Near East; apiculture.
ancient Near East; apiculture.