Bioenergy

Two potential biofuel resources, Douglas-fir and Loblolly pine bark, were subjected to extensive chemical and compositional analysis. The barks were initially extracted with dichloromethane, and the resulting extracted compounds were characterized by gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometric analysis. Characterization of the major bark biocomponents indicated that Douglas-fir and Loblolly pine bark contained 22.5 and 13.2 % tannins, 44.2 and 43.5 % lignin, 16.5 and 23.1 % cellulose, and 7.6 and 14.1 % hemicellulose, respectively. Of particular interest is the high content of tannins and lignin, which make these barks excellent potential precursors for bio-oils and/or other value-added chemicals. 13 C nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) was used to characterize the chemical structure of the lignin and tannins. These samples were also analyzed by 31 P NMR after phosphitylation of the hydroxyl groups in lignin and tannins. The NMR spectral data indicated that the lignin in both barks contained p-hydroxyphenyl (h) and guaiacyl (g) of lignin monomers with an h/g ratio of 10:90 and 22:78 for Douglas-fir and Loblolly pine bark, respectively. Gel permeation chromatography was used to analyze the molecular weight distributions of extracted tannins, isolated cellulose, and ball-milled lignin. The pyrolysis of Douglas-fir and pine bark at 500°C in a tubular reactor generated 48.2 and 45.2 % of total oil, of which the light oil contents are 14.1 and 20.7 % and heavy oil are 34.1 and 24.4 %. Similarly, fast pyrolysis at 375°C yielded 56.1 and 49.8 % of total oil for Douglas-fir and pine bark, respectively.

Worldwide significant amounts of food waste are generated daily causing serious environmental issues, occupying land and requiring expenditure of resources for its treatment. A smart method for handling this food waste problem is the development of novel processes targeting the conversion of this waste into value added products. Although valorization of food waste to biofuels, biochemicals and bio-polymers have been widely investigated, the utilization of food waste streams into biofertiliser has not been intensively reviewed. Conversion of food waste, especially agriculture residues into biofertiliser would reduce its environmental impact, improve nutrition levels of the soil, decrease requirements for synthetic chemical fertiliser and have a direct benefit on food production. This paper reviews recent progress in the field regarding the production of biofertiliser from food waste, using anaerobic digestion, aerobic composting, chemical hydrolysis, in situ degradation and direct burning methods. This review also highlights the latest field applications of biofertiliser derived from various food waste streams. It confirms that the technology for the conversion of food waste to biofertilisers is viable, but the production efficiency could be improved with better process control strategies, strict quality controls, development of a smart product distribution system and adoption of advanced technologies. Field tests have indicated that biofertilisers which are obtained in proper managed AD plants are safe and could partially replace the use of chemical fertilisers in field application.

http://www.orgonelab.org/cart/xdemeo.htm#ORACBOOK
In the 1940s, the physician and natural scientist Dr. Wilhelm Reich claimed discovery of a new form of energy which charged up living organisms and also existed in the open atmosphere and in high vacuum. Reich's laboratory and clinical findings indicated this new energy, which he called the orgone, could be photographed and measured, and had powerful life-positive biological effects. Reich trained other scientists and physicians in his findings, and together they set about applying the inexpensive orgone treatment methods - using a device called the orgone energy accumulator - against various illness, including cancer, with remarkably good results. His published findings shocked the scientific world of his day, however, ultimately leading to numerous smear articles in the popular press, and trumped-up charges by a power-drunk Food and Drug Administration. The FDA & "investigation" lead to a court trial of much greater significance than the better-known "Scopes Monkey Trial". Ignoring Reich's evidence and declaring "the orgone energy does not exist", US Courts ordered all books on the orgone subject to be literally banned and burned. Reich was thrown into prison, where he died. His work was nearly forgotten except by a small group of supporters. In this book, former university professor Dr. James DeMeo examines Reich's evidence and reports on his own observations and laboratory experiments, which have repeatedly confirmed the reality of the orgone phenomenon. Dr. DeMeo also recounts the observations and experiments of others, particularly physicians working in private European clinics where open use of Reich's controversial orgone energy accumulator proceeds today. This Handbook gives a warning about low-level atomic and electromagnetic radiations, as from nuclear power plants, power-line fields and cell-phones, along with advice on measurement and protection against such toxic energy. The book also gives a discussion on the subject of healing waters from natural hot springs, a form of energy medicine which once was widely used in North America before the rise of the authoritarian MD-hospital system and the powerful federal bureaucracy of the FDA. Dr. DeMeo also gives detailed construction plans for people to build their own orgone energy blankets and accumulators, which are inexpensive and simple to construct, though requiring specific direction as to their materials and environments. This is the Third Revised and Expanded 2010 Edition of the Orgone Accumulator Handbook, nearly 100 pages larger than prior editions and carrying a Foreword by Dr. Eva Reich (the daughter of Dr. Wilhelm Reich), along with many photos, diagrams and charts. It retains all the original construction plans, updated to address new issues about the best materials for orgone accumulator and blanket construction. Two Appendix documents are also included, one which summarizes a double-blind and controlled clinical experiment proving the physiological effects of the orgone accumulator on volunteer subjects in a German university, and another which details the similarities of Reich's orgone energy to the cosmic ether and "dark matter" of modern physics. This new edition also includes a section providing New Evidence on the Persecution of Reich, along with a bibliography, index and many weblinks for added information. It has many new photos and materials extracted from Dr. DeMeo's publications verifying the reality of the orgone energy, and is a must-have for all those interested in the issue of life-energy, subtle-energy or energy-medicine research. This is an excellent introduction to a major scientific discovery, organized for the educated layperson but with sufficient detail and citations to stimulate the curiosity of the open-minded physician and scientist.

This narrative describes the deeper root of bio-viral weaponization and consciousness warfare in distant human history with the negative aliens. It is explicated that this form of nefarious strive to create genetic mutation and consciousness-bioenergetic reversal goes as far back as humanity was first thriving as a 12D crystalline solar organic consciousness being in the Nebadon Universe, which most likely goes back as far back as 550 million years ago, and only 10 million years after its embodiment to experience physical experiential sojourns within the first 9 dimensions of this universe. In fact, the main problem started after the Lyran Wars, when the negative aliens having constructed a black hole system through making rips in the space-time and joining the resulting wormholes to one another, later began to engage in wars culminating in blowing up the 12 th universal stargate that was Lyra. Beyond, this, with the failure of the Metatronic Collective to attempt to put the pieces of the Lyran grid back together after having fallen into the Milky Way Galaxy and in pursuit of repairing the stargate system and the universal 12D grid and its timeline structure, it led to the advent of 'Metatronic Reversal' through a 'Fibonacci form of consciousness progression sequence' and the advent of the 'Yahweh matrix,' and what is referred to as the 'Caduceus Network,' whose symbol our medical industry today ignorantly boasts to display as its plaque representing healthcare and medicine. Thus, as they say, "the rabbit hole is much deeper as it seems," as the parasitic negative aliens have constantly used these technologies to invade our Lightbody and nadial system, not to only consistently siphon our precious divine energies to feed themselves and their nefarious AI machinery, but to inflict 'death seals' upon humanity, culminating in humanity undergoing a series of futile cycles of birth and physical death through repetitive reincarnations, confining us within a timeline loop that has been seemingly endless. And, the advent of this current, purportedly pandemic bio-viral infection referred to as the "Coronavirus," epitomizes yet another one of their ploys in bio-viral weaponization and warfare, with the delusional intent to, once for all, make a fully docile race out of humans as automatons subjecting us to their AI machinery or whims, through what is now to be followed by a transhumanistic-hybridization movement, using electromagnetic energies and radiation poisoning together with the aid of nanotechnology, devising yet another retrovirus against us. However, the time of their atrocities and crimes committed against humanity and its consciousness is now over, with the advent of a group of benevolent extradimensional and transdimensional and much higher frequential consciousness beings helping us to finally collect up our fragmented soul pieces in order to be restored to our original 12D DNA strand crystalline genetics, that we refer to as full Ascension.

Biodiesel is an alternative fuel and fuel extender easily derived from vegetable oil or animal fat. In 2006, the US Environmental Protection Agency mandated that maximum sulfur content of diesel fuels be reduced to 15 ppm to protect catalysts employed in exhaust aftertreatment devices. Processing to produce this ultra-low sulfur petrodiesel (ULSD) alters fuel lubricity, density, cold flow, viscosity, and other properties. Consequently, there is a need to develop a better understanding of the basic fuel properties of biodiesel/ULSD blends. This work evaluates the effects of biodiesel volumetric blend ratio (V BD) on cloud point (CP), kinematic viscosity (m), specific gravity (SG), and refractive index (RI) of blends with petrodiesel. Properties measured for various blends of methyl esters of soybean oil (SME) and used cooking oil (UCOME) in ULSD were compared with those for blends with low sulfur (B500 ppm) petrodiesel fuel (LSD). With respect to increasing V BD , CP and SG increased and RI decreased with each parameter demonstrating a linear correlation. In contrast, m showed a curvilinear relationship with respect to increasing V BD. Calibration curves were derived from regression analyses to determine V BD in biodiesel/ULSD blends from measurements of each individual property. While the models had generally high coefficients of regression (R 2 [ 0.986), SG models were most accurate for predicting V BD to within 1.3 vol%. Keywords Biodiesel Á Blend ratio Á Cloud point Á Refractive index Á Specific gravity Á Kinematic viscosity Mention of trade names or commercial products in this publication is solely for the purpose of providing specific information and does not imply recommendation or endorsement by the US Department of Agriculture. USDA is an equal opportunity provider and employer.

Crop residues are common in rural Ghana due to the predominant role agriculture plays in livelihood activities in these communities. In this paper we investigate the prospects of exploiting agricultural crop residues for rural development in Ghana through bioenergy schemes. A theoretical energy potential of 623.84 PJ per year, which is equivalent to 19,781 MW was estimated using crop production data from the Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations and residue-to-product ratios. Ghana has a total installed generation capacity of 4577 MW which is four times less the energy potential of crop residues in the country. Cocoa pod husks were identified as important biomass resources for energy generation as they are currently wasted. To further assess the energy potential of cocoa pod husks, different cocoa pod husks samples were collected across the six cocoa growing regions in Ghana and thermo-chemically characterised using proximate and ultimate analysis. The low levels of nitrogen and sulphur observed, together with the high heating value, suggest that cocoa pod husks and for that matter crop residues are eco-friendly feedstock that can be used to power rural communities in Ghana.

Hydrogen gas can be produced by electrohydrogenesis in microbial electrolysis cells (MECs) at greater yields than fermentation and at greater energy efficiencies than water electrolysis. It has been assumed that a membrane is needed in an MEC to avoid hydrogen losses due to bacterial consumption of the product gas. However, high cathodic hydrogen recoveries (78 ( 1% to 96 ( 1%) were achieved in an MEC despite the absence of a membrane between the electrodes (applied voltages of 0.3 < E ap < 0.8 V; 7.5 mS/cm solution conductivity). Through the use of a membrane-less system, a graphite fiber brush anode, and close electrode spacing, hydrogen production rates reached a maximum of 3.12 ( 0.02 m 3 H 2 /m 3 reactor per day (292 ( 1 A/m 3 ) at an applied voltage of E ap ) 0.8 V. This production rate is more than double that obtained in previous MEC studies. The energy efficiency relative to the electrical input decreased with applied voltage from 406 ( 6% (E ap ) 0.3 V) to 194 ( 2% (E ap ) 0.8 V). Overall energy efficiency relative to both E ap and energy of the substrate averaged 78 ( 4%, with a maximum of 86 ( 2% (1.02 ( 0.05 m 3 H 2 /m 3 day, E ap ) 0.4 V). At E ap ) 0.2 V, the hydrogen recovery substantially decreased, and methane concentrations increased from an average of 1.9 ( 1.3% (E ap ) 0.3-0.8 V) to 28 ( 0% of the gas, due to the long cycle time of the reactor. Increasing the solution conductivity to 20 mS/ cm increased hydrogen production rates for E ap ) 0.3-0.6 V, but consistent reactor performance could not be obtained in the high conductivity solution at E ap > 0.6 V. These results demonstrate that high hydrogen recovery and production rates are possible in a single chamber MEC without a membrane, potentially reducing the costs of these systems and allowing for new and simpler designs.

The present study deals with the biohydrogen production from starch-containing wastewater collected from the textile industry in Taiwan. The effects of inoculums collected from different sources (sewage sludge, soil and cow dung), substrate concentrations (5–25 g COD/L) and pH (4.0–8.0) on hydrogen production from wastewater were investigated.The cow dung seed had the highest hydrogen production of 101 mL with hydrogen content in biogas of 32.2%. It corresponds to a hydrogen yield (HY) of 1.56 mol H2/mol hexose and hydrogen production rate (HPR) of 0.93 L/L/d. Response surface methodology was used to evaluate the effects of initial cultivation pH (4.0–8.0) and substrate concentration (5–25 g COD/L) on the hydrogen production at 35 °C. At pH 7.0 with a wastewater concentration of 20 g COD/L, a maximum hydrogen production of 66 mL with 31.9% H2 and corresponding to an HY of 0.97 mol H2/mol hexose and an HPR of 1.14 L/L/d were obtained. According to the response surface analysis, the optimal conditions for high HPR were a wastewater concentration of 13 g COD/L at an initial cultivation pH of 7.0. The main soluble metabolic products were acetate and butyrate for hydrogen fermentation from textile wastewater.► The textile wastewater containing starch is a potential energy resource for anaerobic hydrogen fermentation. ► The optimum initial cultivation pH for H2production was 7.0. ► The optimum wastewater concentration for H2 production was 13 g COD/L. ► The main soluble metabolic products were acetate and butyrate.

Ideal bacterial support medium for fixed film denitrification processes/bioreactors must be inexpensive, durable and possess large surface area with sufficient porosity. The present study has been focussed on removing nitrate nitrogen at two different nitrate nitrogen loading rates (60 (NLR I) and 120 (NLR II) mg l-1) from simulated aquaculture wastewater. Coconut coir fibre and a commercially available synthetic reticulated plastic media (Fujino Spirals) were used as packing medium in two independent upflow anaerobic packed bed column reactors. Removal of nitrate nitrogen was studied in correlation with other nutrients (COD, TKN, dissolved orthophosphate). Maximum removal of 97% at NLR-I and 99% at NLR – II of nitrate nitrogen was observed in with either media. Greater consistency in the case of COD removal of upto 81% was observed at NLR II where coconut coir was used as support medium compared to 72% COD removal by Fujino Spirals. The results observed indicate that the organic support medium is just as efficient in nitrate nitrogen removal as conventionally used synthetic support medium. The study is important as it specifically focuses on denitrification of aquaculture wastewater using cheaper organic support medium in anoxic bioreactors for the removal of nitrate nitrogen; which is seldom addressed as a significant problem.

h i g h l i g h t s " A purification step of the methyl acetate is needed to remove contaminants. " Adsorption isotherms of methyl acetate mixtures correlated with a Langmuir model. " Breakthrough curves showed the feasibility of the adsorption on zeolite 5A.

Biofuels have been considerably developed as a probable alternative resource of fossil fuel. In recent times, the continuously increasingdemand and prices of fossil fuel as well asclimate change, makes biodiesel and bioethanol as the only key target for future energy market especially in transportation sector.A large amount of biodiesel and bioethanol productions cost belongs to feedstock that makes it to be as an essential issue for the future of biofuel. The significance of feedstock will be increased while it derives from food feedstock.The purpose of this paper is to describe various type of biodiesel and bioethanol feedstock. Apart from that, this paper will also attempt to compare the biodiesel and bioethanol respect to feedstock.

Reducing the cost of cellulosic ethanol production, especially the use of expensive exogenous cellulose hydrolytic enzymes such as cellulase and β-glucosidase, is a critical challenge and vital for a sustainable advanced biofuel industry. Here, we report a novel ethanologenic yeast strain Clavispora NRRL Y-50464 that produces sufficient innate β-glucosidase enzyme activity for cellulosic ethanol production by simultaneous saccharification and fermentation (SSF). In a bottled SSF, strain Y-50464 produced 40.44 g/L ethanol from pure cellulose within 72 h at a conversion rate of 0.04 g/ L/h, applying conventional cellulase without supplementary β-glucosidase. Ethanol conversion from delignified corn stover by Y-50464 showed significantly higher titers and rates at various solids loading levels than that from conventional pretreated corn stover with over 40 to 60 % improved efficiency in a bottled SSF. However, the bottled SSF was inefficient for mixing higher levels of cellulose feedstock and should be replaced by a more suitable experimental apparatus. In a 2-L bioreactor SSF using conventional dilute acid pretreated corn stover, strain Y-50464 produced 32 g/L ethanol from 20 % solids loading at 48 h applying cellulase alone without addition of β-glucosidase. This represented a conversion rate of 0.088 g/L/h, the highest rate so far for cellulosic ethanol production from lignocellulosic materials. Elimination of βglucosidase in cellulose-to-ethanol fermentation would be expected to reduce cost of cellulose conversion. The robustness, fast growth rate, and the capability of producing both ethanol and β-glucosidase illustrated the potential of strain Y-50464 as a potential candidate biocatalyst for advanced biofuel production from lignocellulosic biomass.

Batang Ai reservoir has been an inland aquaculture site. However, little is known about the water quality of the reservoir which is important for aquaculture expansion. Therefore, the objective of this study was to determine the level of dissolved oxygen (DO), biochemical oxygen demand (BOD 5 ) and sulfide in the reservoir. Samplings were conducted at 12 stations and at three different depths. Results show that pH and dissolved oxygen decreased as depth increased. Mean DO at 0.5 m, 14 m and 27 m were 6.4 mg/L, 3.9 mg/L and 2.95 mg/L respectively. BOD 5 were 3.9 mg/L, 8.7 mg/L and 8.3 mg/L at 0.5 m, 14 m and 27 m depth respectively. Total sulfide ranged from 0.33 to 32.0 µg/l and the mean at 27 m was significantly higher than 0.5 m depth. Multiple linear regression indicates that BOD 5 was the only significant predictor of total sulfide. This study shows that sulfide was much lower than the lethal level and it would only be unhealthy for the caged fish if there were upwelling or mixing where lower DO water with toxic sulfide at and below 14 m depth were to be brought to the culture zone.

segments the crop protection chemicals market with currant trends and forecasting of the revenues for herbicides, fungicides and insecticides. It also identifies the driving and restraining factors for the crop protection chemicals market with analysis of drivers, opportunities and challenges. The market segmented and revenues are forecasted on the basis of major countries such as U.S., Canada and Brazil. Further, the market is segmented and revenues are forecasted on the basis of product types and crop types.

Integration/co-firing with existing fossil fuel plants could give near term highly efficient and low cost power production from biomass. This paper presents a techno-economical analysis on options for integrating biomass thermal conversion (optimized for local resources w50 MW th) with existing CCGT (combined cycle gas turbine) power plants (800e1400 MW th). Options include hybrid combined cycles (HCC), indirect gasification of biomass and simple cycle biomass steam plants which are simulated using the software Ebsilon Professional and Aspen Plus. Levelized cost of electricity (LCoE) is calculated with cost functions derived from power plant data. Results show that the integrated HCC configurations (fullyfired) show a significantly higher efficiency (40e41%, LHV (lower heating value)) than a stand-alone steam plant (35.5%); roughly half of the efficiency (2.4% points) is due to more efficient fuel drying. Because of higher investment costs, HCC options have cost advantages over stand-alone options at high biomass fuel prices (>25 EUR/MWh) or low discount rates (<5%). Gasification options show even higher efficiency (46e50%), and the lowest LCoE for the options studied for fuel costs exceeding 10 EUR/MWh. It can be concluded that clear efficiency improvements and possible cost reductions can be reached by integration of biomass with CCGT power plants compared to stand-alone plants.

HIGHLIGHTS  The performance of different carbon-based cathodes was compared in a dual-chambered microbial fuel cell.  A novel CNT/Pt-coated carbon paper was fabricated.  The maximum current and power generated were 82.38 mA/m 2 and 16.26 mW/m 2 , respectively. Aeration in the cathode compartment was found effective on power generation in MFCs.

Information on the growth and development of warm-season grasses in response to management is required to use them successfully as a biomass crop. Our objectives were to determine optimum harvest periods and effect of N fertilization rates on the biomass production of four warm-season grasses, and to investigate if traits of canopy structure can explain observed yields with varying harvest dates and N rates. A field study was conducted at Sorenson Research Farm near Ames, IA, during 2006 and 2007. The experimental design was split-split plot arranged in a randomized complete block with four replications. Big bluestem (Andropogon gerardii Vitman), eastern gamagrass (Tripsacum dactyloides L.), indiangrass (Sorghastrum nutrans L. Nash), and switchgrass (Panicum virgatum L.) were main plots. Three N application rates (0, 65, and 140 kg ha−1) were subplots, and 10 harvest dates were sub-sub plots. Biomass of warm-season grasses increased with advanced maturity, but differently among species. The maximum yield of eastern gamagrass occurred at the highest MSC (1.6 and 2.2) when the largest seed ripening tillers were present. Big bluestem, switchgrass, and indiangrass obtained the maximum yields at MSC 3.5, 3.9, and 2.9, respectively when the largest reproductive tillers were present. In terms of a biomass supply strategy, eastern gamagrass may be used during early summer, while big bluestem and switchgrass may be best used between mid-and late-summer, and indiangrass in early fall. Nitrogen fertilization increased yield by increasing tiller development. Optimum biomass yields were obtained later in the season when they were fertilized with 140 kg ha−1.

In Europe, the establishment of short rotation coppice (SRC) systems for biomass production has been expanding in the last decades. Several studies have considered the impacts of SRC on soil properties; many have focused on studying its effect on biochemical properties while only a few have addressed physical and hydraulic properties. This study reports the assessment of soil physical and hydraulic properties on two SRC sites on sandy soils planted with 3-year-old poplar trees and an adjacent conventional agricultural field in Western Slovakia. All sites contain a comparable sandy loam soil texture and both SRC fields differed only in the groundwater accessibility. Water infiltration experiments were conducted in the field with subsequent sampling of the upper topsoil (0–5 cm depth). The samples were further processed in the laboratory to obtain the water retention and hydraulic conductivity functions of the soil covering a wide range of soil pore saturation. These hydraulic functio...

Biomass from palm empty fruit bunch (EFB) is considered as potential renewable energy sources to be developed in Indonesia. Palm EFB can be efficiently converted into valuable and useful methanol products through gasification. Research about methanol synthesis from various biomass has been done. However, Little research about methanol production based on palm empty fruit bunch gasification has been found, and no research yet on technoeconomic analysis of methanol plant construction based on palm empty fruit bunch gasification. The purpose of this research is to find early-stage feasibility of small-scale methanol plant model based on gasification of palm EFB. Method methanol plant design, investment cost estimation, operating cost estimation, and calculation to estimate profitability in terms of economic feasibility parameters. Economic analysis calculated that the total investment to build a methanol plant in this study was USD 87 508 479 with manufacturing cost per annum USD 6 127 014. Net Present Value (NPV) calculated was USD-51 721 064 and IRR at 1.1 %. Based on NPV and Internal Rate of Return (IRR) value, the construction of methanol plant is not feasible. Feasibility predicted to be obtained when the capacity of the plant increased fivefold.

The process of bioethanol production from non-edible of plant biomass (bagasse, corn stover and switchgrass) has been studied. This process included pretreatment of the initial biomass (IB) with dilute acid, enzymatic saccharification, conversion of fermentable sugar into ethanol and distillation of the hydrated alcohol. It was shown that about 20% of IB only are spent for production of bioethanol, while about of 55% of IB remained as solid residues. The calorimetric measurements and calculations revealed that the residues have energetic potential of 20 MJ/kg. Thus, burning of all amounts of the accumulated residues yields about 3.2 MWh of energy for $320. As it follows from economic calculations, the income from utilization of solid residues for energy generation covers the main part of total expenses, which reduces the final production price of bioethanol to $1.2 per gal. As a result, the production of fuel ethanol from non-food plant biomass can be competitive. Furthermore, utilization of the solid waste decreases expenses of their transportation and landfilling.

An important criterion for bioenergy systems evaluation is their greenhouse gas mitigation potential. Sugarcane bioenergy systems are able to produce grid-bound surplus electricity but also have net CO2 emissions associated with the upstream fossil-fuel consumption for plantation management, transportation and processing of the ÿbrous biomass. However, when compared to coal-based power generation systems, sugarcane bioenergy systems are able to avoid CO2 emissions at rates that range between 1.081 and 1:137 kg CO 2 =k Wh depending on the cane-residue utilisation strategy adopted. As a consequence, sugarcane bioenergy systems stand out as promising energy projects for funding under the Kyoto Protocol's proposed clean development mechanism and joint implementation.

Background Pretreatment is a critical step in the conversion of lignocellulose to fermentable sugars. Although many pretreatment processes are currently under investigation, none of them are entirely satisfactory in regard to effectiveness, cost, or environmental impact. The use of hydrogen peroxide at pH 11.5 (alkaline hydrogen peroxide (AHP)) was shown by Gould and coworkers to be an effective pretreatment of grass stovers and other plant materials in the context of animal nutrition and ethanol production. Our earlier experiments indicated that AHP performed well when compared against two other alkaline pretreatments. Here, we explored several key parameters to test the potential of AHP for further improvement relevant to lignocellulosic ethanol production. Results The effects of biomass loading, hydrogen peroxide loading, residence time, and pH control were tested in combination with subsequent digestion with a commercial enzyme preparation, optimized mixtures of four commercial ...

Overview of biodiversity in wastewaters Biodiversity is complex in wastewaters, involving micro/macro flora and fauna, and viruses. Interactions among the biota range from mutualism to predation. Community and trophic level cascades dominate the processes. Algal diversity in wastewaters Algae, include both micro and macrophytes. Crucial for the proper functioning of food webs. Cyanophyceae, Chlorophyceae and Bacillariophyceae predominate in most types of wastewaters. Fungi, bacteria and viruses also present with algae, but less investigated. Nutrient removal Chlorella spp.-most investigated alga in wastewaters, especially for N/P sequestration. Consortial approach more effective in nutrient recycling and bioremediation. Algal polycultures, algae-bacteria/algae-fungi consortia mostly utilized. Applications of harvested biomass Feasibility dependent upon type of wastewater, environmental/cultural conditions and end users. Untreated, primary and secondary treated wastewaters evaluated. 18-33% lipid content reported using Chlorella or mixed cultures. Potential for up-scaling and commercialization, but comparison of published work difficult due to heterogeneity in experimentation. Algae cultivation techniques Cultivation of algae in open ponds pose significant challenges. Microalgal communities more robust and productive. High rate algal ponds most advantageous and effective. Advanced Integrated Wastewater Pond Systems and Algal scrubbers gaining significance. Future perspective Algae based wastewater treatment gaining importance globally, especially in developing countries. Environment friendly option, which can reduce CO 2 emissions, generate valuable biomass using domestic, agricultural or industrial wastewaters. Biomass generated can meet energy needs as biocrude/biogas. Biofilms/algal mats ideal for treating low strength wastewaters. Life cycle assessments essential for enhancing economic and environmental sustainability. Cost-effective technologies need to be developed with reduced footprint area for algae cultivation to treat wastewater and produce biomass for biofuel applications.

Particulate matter, CO and NO as well as 16 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in both gaseous and particulate phases were measured in the stack of a woodchip-fired 50 kW boiler used for domestic heating. The concentrations of SPAHs in both gas and particle phases varied from 1.3 to 1631.7 mg m À3. Mean CO and NO concentrations varied from 96 to 6002 ppm and from 28 to 359 ppm, respectively. The effects of fuel parameters (moisture content (MC) and tree species) and boiler operating conditions on pollutant concentrations were investigated. A relationship was established between SPAHs in gaseous and particulate phases and CO concentrations. The species of tree used for woodchip was less important than MC and boiler operating conditions in affecting pollutant concentrations. It is recommended that in order to minimise PAH release woodchip fuel should have a low MC, and the boiler should be operated with a load demand (high/moderate heat requirement). Slumber modes when the boiler has no load demand and is effectively a smouldering flame should be avoided. This can be achieved by increasing automatic operation capability of wood-fired boilers, for example, by automatically varying fire rates and having auto-start capabilities. The PAH data obtained from this study is particularly useful in contributing to emissions inventories, modelling, and predictions of ambient air quality.

Xylanase is an enzyme in high demand for various industrial applications, such as those in the biofuel and pulp and paper Welds. In this study, xylanase-producing microbes were isolated from the gut of the wood-feeding termite at 50°C. The isolated microbe produced thermostable xylanase that was active over a broad range of temperatures (40-90°C) and pH (3.5-9.5), with optimum activity (4,170 § 23.5 U mg ¡1 ) at 60°C and pH 4.5. The enzyme was puriWed using a strong cation exchanger and gel Wltration chromatography, revealing that the protein has a molecular mass of 205 kDa and calculated pI of 5.38. The half-life of xylanase was 6 h at 60°C and 2 h at 90°C. The isolated thermostable xylanase diVered from other xylanases reported to date in terms of size, structure, and mode of action. The novelty of this enzyme lies in its high speciWc activity and stability at broad ranges of temperature and pH. These properties suggest that this enzyme could be utilized in bioethanol production as well as in the paper and pulp industry.

In this work, feasibility of using chemical pretreatment to improve the anaerobic biological degradation of industrial effluents containing high concentrations of phenolic compounds was investigated. For this purpose, chemical pretreatment of the wastewater generated from olive oil production process, namely olive mill effluent (OME), was conducted by means of acid cracking followed by coagulation-flocculation process using one of the coagulating agents such as Al 2 SO 4 , FeSO 4 and FeCl 3, respectively. Biochemical methane potential (BMP) assay was carried out for both crude OME and chemically pretreated OME samples in order to monitor and comparatively evaluate any increase in biogas production as the indicator of improvement in anaerobic biological degradation after chemical pretreatment. The experimental results obtained in this work suggest that pretreatment significantly enhances the biodegradability of OME which was much lower if it was digested alone (without pretreatment). Over 80% increase in biogas production was obtained when digesting OME after chemical pretreatment. It was concluded that among the alternative chemicals, Al 2 SO 4 resulted in highest biogas production from OME, thereby the best results for the enhancement of anaerobic biodegradability of OME were also achieved. It was demonstrated that the biodegradability of OME could be significantly enhanced by chemical pretreatment and therefore anaerobic degradation after a suitable pretreatment could be considered as a safe disposal method for OME.

Conventional microbiology methods used to monitor microbial biofuels production are based on off-line analyses. The analyses are, unfortunately, insufficient for bioprocess optimization. Real time process control strategies, such as flow cytometry (FC), can be used to monitor bioprocess development (at-line) by providing single cell information that improves process model formulation and validation. This paper reviews the current uses and potential applications of FC in biodiesel, bioethanol, biomethane, biohydrogen and fuel cell processes. By highlighting the inherent accuracy and robustness of the technique for a range of biofuel processing parameters, more robust monitoring and control may be implemented to enhance process efficiency.

This paper addresses the agroenergy as a response to the self-confrontation with development and modernity side effects, in a risk society context. Brazil stands out in this scenario with a consolidated production of ethanol, and a recent program that encourages the biodiesel production. We argue, however, that such forms of production do not generate, necessarily, positive effects on rural development, neither socio-economically, neither environmentally. Nevertheless, agrofuel production experiences arise, headed by family farmers, which can be considered as a self-confrontation to side effects of the traditional Brazilian agroenergy model, based on large and modern monocultures. Through two initiatives in Rio Grande do Sul, we demonstrate how the family farmers make agrofuels in an integrated way with food, strengthening their agency capacity in promoting and driving rural development processes more sustainable. Thus, agroenergy arises as an alternative to diversify the family far...

The energetic and environmental performance of production and distribution of the Brassica carinata biomass crop in Soria (Spain) is analysed using life cycle assessment (LCA) methodology in order to demonstrate the major potential that the crop has in southern Europe as a lignocellulosic fuel for use as a renewable energy source. The Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA) including midpoint impact analysis that was performed shows that the use of fertilizers is the action with the highest impact in six of the 10 environmental categories considered, representing between 51% and 68% of the impact in these categories. The second most important impact is produced when the diesel is used in tractors and transport vehicles which represents between 48% and 77%. The contribution of the B. carinata cropping system to the global warming category is 12.7 g CO 2 eq. MJ À1 biomass produced. Assuming a preliminary estimation of the B. carinata capacity of translocated CO 2 (631 kg CO 2 ha À1) from below-ground biomass into the soil, the emissions are reduced by up to 5.2 g CO 2 eq. MJ À1. The production and transport are as far as a thermoelectric plant of the B. carinata biomass used as a solid fuel consumes 0.12 MJ of primary energy per 1 MJ of biomass energy stored. In comparison with other fossil fuels such as natural gas, it reduces primary energy consumption by 33.2% and greenhouse gas emission from 33.1% to 71.2% depending on whether the capacity of translocated CO 2 is considered or not. The results of the analysis support the assertion that B. carinata crops are viable from an energy balance and environmental perspective for producing lignocellulosic solid fuel destined for the production of energy in southern Europe. Furthermore, the performance of the crop could be improved, thus increasing the energy and environmental benefits.

Biomass gasification is being considered as one of the most promising technologies for converting biomass into gaseous fuel. Here we present results of gasification, using an adiabatic bed gasifier with air as gasification medium, of mesquite (Prosopis glandulosa) and redberry juniper (Juniperus pinchotii), two woody species that dominate uncultivated lands in the Southern Great Plains, U.S.A., that may have potential for bioenergy utilization. The effects of equivalence ratio (ER), particle size, and moisture content on the temperature profile, gas composition (CO, CO 2 , H 2 , N 2 , CH 4 , and C 2 H 6), and higher heating value (HHV) were investigated. As ER decreased from 4.2 to 2.7, the mole composition of the end product gas for mesquite contained: 13e21% CO, 1.6e3% H 2 , 1e1.5% CH 4 , 0.4e0.6% C 2 H 6, 60e64% N 2 , 11e25% CO 2 , and 1e2% O 2. The mole composition of the end product gas for juniper consisted of 21e25% CO, 2.5e3.5% H 2 , 1.5e1.8% CH 4 , 0.3e0.5% C 2 H 6 , 58e61% N 2 , 9e12% CO 2 , and 1e2% O 2. The H 2 and CO mole percentages decreased with increasing ER while the CO 2 and N 2 mole percentage increased. After removing N 2 , the HHV of the end-product gas for mesquite and juniper reached 26 and 27.5% of natural gas HHV, respectively, when ER z 2.7.

Silage on dairy farms has been identified as a major source of volatile organic compound (VOC) emissions. However, rates of VOC emission from silage are not accurately known. In this work, we measured ethanol (a dominant silage VOC) emission from loose corn silage and exposed corn silage particles using wind tunnel systems. Flux of ethanol was highest immediately after exposing loose silage samples to moving air (as high as 220 g m À2 h À1 ) and declined by as much as 76-fold over 12 h as ethanol was depleted from samples. Emission rate and cumulative 12 h emission increased with temperature, silage permeability, exposed surface area, and air velocity over silage samples. These responses suggest that VOC emission from silage on farms is sensitive to climate and management practices. Ethanol emission rates from loose silage were generally higher than previous estimates of total VOC emission rates from silage and mixed feed. For 15 cm deep loose samples, mean cumulative emission was as high as 170 g m À2 (80% of initial ethanol mass) after 12 h of exposure to an air velocity of 5 m s À1 . Emission rates measured with an emission isolation flux chamber were lower than rates measured in a wind tunnel and in an open setting. Results show that the US EPA emission isolation flux chamber method is not appropriate for estimating VOC emission rates from silage in the field.

Worldwide states are implementing renewable energy plans, where bioenergy play a substantial role. All EU-member states have bioenergy targets in order to fulfil the EU target for renewable energy. Bioenergy is predicted to cover more than half of the target. The plans for bioenergy use in the EU countries cannot fully be met with national resources. Therefore biomass for bioenergy has become part of the global commodity trade, and there is a link between current land investments in the Global South and the energy plans of Northern countries. This implies a conflict between the need for sufficient biomass supply and the ability to ensure that these resources are sustainably produced. This conflict is connected to the scale of the bioenergy target.

The use of macroalgae (seaweed) as a potential source of biofuels has attracted considerable worldwide interest. Since brown algae, especially the giant kelp, grow very rapidly and contain considerable amounts of polysaccharides, coupled with low lignin content, they represent attractive candidates for bioconversion to ethanol through yeast fermentation processes. In the current study, powdered dried seaweeds (Ascophylum nodosum and Laminaria digitata) were pre-treated with dilute sulphuric acid and hydrolysed with commercially available enzymes to liberate fermentable sugars. Higher sugar concentrations were obtained from L. digitata compared with A. nodosum with glucose and rhamnose being the predominant sugars, respectively, liberated from these seaweeds. Fermentation of the resultant seaweed sugars was performed using two non-conventional yeast strains: Scheffersomyces (Pichia) stipitis and Kluyveromyces marxianus based on their abilities to utilise a wide range of sugars. Altho...

Abstract: Worldwide increasing bioenergy production is on the political agenda. It is well known that bioenergy production comes at a cost – several trade-offs with food production, water quality and quantity issues, biodiversity and ecosystem services are known but a quantification of these trade-offs is missing. Hence, we show in this study an analysis of trade-offs between bioenergy production, food production, water quality and water quantity aspects in the Parthe catchment in Central Germany. The analysis is based on using SWAT and a multi-objective genetic algorithm (NSGA II). The genetic algorithm is used to find Pareto-optimal configurations of crop rotation schemes. The Pareto-optimality describes solutions in which an objective cannot be improved without decreasing other objectives. This allows us to quantify the costs at which several levels of increase in bioenergy production come and to derive recommendations for policy makers.

This paper assesses the increase in demand and supply for forest biomass for heating in Norway in 2020. By then there is a political aim to double the national production of bioenergy from the level in 2008. The competitiveness of woody biomass in central and district heating is analyzed in a model selecting the least-cost heating technology and scale in municipalities given a set of constraints and under different fuels price scenarios. The supply of forest biomass from roundwood is estimated based on data of forest inventories combined with elasticities regarding price and standing volumes. The supply of biomass from harvesting residues is estimated in an engineering approach based on data from the national forest inventories and roundwood harvest. The results show how the production of bioenergy is affected by changes in energy prices and support schemes for bioenergy. One conclusion from the analyses is that the government target of 14 TWh more bioenergy by 2020 is not likely to be met by current technologies and policy incentives. The contribution of the analysis is the detailed presentation of the heat market potentials and technology choices combined with supply functions for both roundwood and harvesting residues.

Wood-based biochars were used as microbial fuel cell electrodes to significantly reduce cost and carbon
footprint. The biochar was made using forestry residue (BCc) and compressed milling residue (BCp). Sideby-
side comparison show the specific area of BCp (469.9 m2 g1) and BCc (428.6 cm2 g1) is lower than
granular activated carbon (GAC) (1247.8 m2 g1) but higher than graphite granule (GG) (0.44 m2 g1).
Both biochars showed power outputs of 532 ± 18 mWm2 (BCp) and 457 ± 20 mWm2 (BCc), comparable
with GAC (674 ± 10 mWm2) and GG (566 ± 5mW m2). However, lower material expenses made
their power output cost 17–35 US$W1, 90% cheaper than GAC (402 US$W1) or GG (392 US$W1).
Biochar from waste also reduced the energy and carbon footprint associated with electrode manufacturing
and the disposal of which could have additional agronomic benefits.