Bronze Age Hoards

While stone casting moulds have been widely used to inform the study of prehistoric metalworking
techniques, the fact that many have been deposited in hoards that include only this kind of object has
often been overlooked. Such hoards are an original aspect of Bronze Age ritual that offers interesting
comparisons with the deposition of metalwork assemblages.

A metalwork hoard dated to the Wilburton phase of the later Bronze Age, found at Barway close to the Isle of Ely in the Cambridgeshire Fens, is reported. Consideration of the hoard, in the context of later prehistoric hoarding in the local landscape, reveals that particular sorts of artefacts were associated with particular places in the landscape. In particular a strong association between later Bronze Age hoards and causeways connecting the Isle of Ely to the outside world is identified, and an interpretation suggested. This study demonstrates the potential of a detailed contextual approach for providing a more nuanced understanding of later Bronze Age metalwork deposition that moves away from a simplistic wet-dry dichotomy.

Chronology, distribution and interpretation of Urnfield metal-hilted swords

Subject, regions and period of time covered (chapter 1)

This study was basically concerned with the supra-regional investigation of a sufficiently differentiated group of bronze objects, which will allow for a taxonomic, chronological, chorological and interpretative analysis. In consideration of their advanced state of research, treatment and publication, the metal-hilted swords (‘Vollgriffschwerter’) of the Urnfield period appeared to be an excellent field for further research. First of all, it was an important prerequisite for my study to synchronize the regional chronological systems which have been established for the Urnfield period; the result of this effort is shown in Fig. 1. In order to avoid confusion between the innumerable regional nomenclatures of the relevant archaeological phases, terms such as Reinecke’s ‘Bz D’ or ‘Ha B1’ are used supra-regionally.

Classification systems of swords and their theoretical-methodical background (chapter 2)                                                             

The analysis of the various classification systems used for metal-hilted swords must be preceded by a reconsideration of basic methodical principles of classification.
Every classification – an intrinsically arbitrary construct in itself – can prove its justification by nothing but its heuristic value. In addition to the type-bound study of given combinations of attributes, it appears equally useful and helpful to proceed to a systematic consideration of individual attributes in their localized and chronological perspectives as well.
Within the taxonomic hierarchy which I used for the classification of metal-hilted swords, the highest tier is represented by the so-called ‘basic form’ (‘Grundform’) which is determined by the configuration of the pommel. The next subordinate tier is the ‘species’ (‘Art’) level, which is characterized by the outline of the hilt. This level can again be subdivided into different types, which is done by considering the combination of at least two formal and/or ornamental attributes of the hilt. By additionally taking at least one other formal, ornamental or production-related attribute into consideration, it is possible to break the type level down into different variants of a type, although it is to be noted that the different classes of variants need not contain all representative embodiments of a particular type.

History and state of research of the classification of Urnfield metal-hilted swords (chapter 3)

A critical comparison of the more important classification systems used for metal-hilted swords and an evaluation of their respective methodical validity resulted in the adoption and use of those types and variants of swords that proved to be coherent. On the other hand it was found necessary to also define new taxonomic units. The understanding of representative embodiments of variants to be closely affiliated but not to belong to the class of the corresponding type turned out to be particularly problematic. It was, therefore, a methodological necessity to revise the classification of this kind of ‘variants’.
The result of my analyses is shown in Figs. 5-11, where the diagnostic attributes of all individual taxonomic units are specified in detail. As a consequence, it is to be found that only a sword which possesses all of these attributes can validly be assigned to the respective class of the corresponding taxonomic unit. 

Dating and distribution of Urnfield metal-hilted swords (chapter 4)

The clear distinction of those types of metal-hilted swords which are dated per definitionem and those which yet need to be dated is of great importance. The present study accepts and adopts the type form character of the Riegsee and Ragály types for Bz D, of the Dreiwulstschwert (‘sword with three bulges’) species for Ha A, of the basic form Schalenknaufschwert (‘sword with disc pommel’) for Ha B1 and of the Mörigen, Auvernier and Tachlovice types for Ha B3. On the other hand, H. Müller-Karpe’s (1959, 156f. 172; 197; 1961, 24; 29; 31; 47) distinction between older and later types of Dreiwulstschwerter, which he considered as being type forms of his Ha A1 and A2 phase definitions and which was based on an assumed formal development, had to be questioned. So had the early dating of some antennae swords into Ha B2 and Ha B1, respectively.
According to the formal attributes seen as chronologically relevant for the Dreiwulstschwerter (shape of the pommel knob, outline of the blade), a conical pommel knob can be regarded as an older, and a willow-leaf-shaped blade as a later attribute for southern Germany and neighbouring regions – although this will go with certain reservations only. Representative embodiments of the Schwaig and Erding types, maybe also of the Gundelsheim type, can be accepted as belonging to the older, those of the Aldrans type as belonging to the later Dreiwulstschwerter in this area. In eastern central Europe such a distinction is, however, not possible, since a great number of swords found in this particular area show a combination of both of those attributes which are considered as being chronologically indicative in western central Europe. Moreover, the definition of the eastern central European hoard phases (‘Depotfundstufen’) corresponding to Ha A1 and Ha A2 respectively, as well as their parallelization with southern Germany, was mainly done in line with Müller-Karpe’s classification of the Dreiwulstschwerter. Mutual confirmations of western and eastern central European sword datings are, therefore, of a circular character.
The heterogeneous dating of the antennae swords was already noticed by E. Sprockhoff (1934, 34; 71) and further extended by Müller-Karpe (1961, 53-55; 57f. 65; 88) with the object of confirming his tripartition of Ha B. The seven antennae swords which are either definitely or with all probability to be dated into Ha B1 do not show any attributes which they have in common, which means to say that no such type can be regarded as characteristic for Ha B1. Those final Urnfield metal-hilted swords not deposited until Ha C cannot be typographically differentiated from those swords which are dated into the Ha B3 phase, either. Dating of the antennae swords into Ha B1 or Ha C, respectively, can therefore only be done as a result of a thorough study of the context of any one find. These dating problems show quite clear that it is out of question to segregate type forms for the one or the other phase of the basic form antennae sword.
The clarification of taxonomic and chronological questions is succeeded by the regionally oriented criticism of sources and the epistemological evaluation of the distribution maps to determine their historical validity. Following H.J. Eggers (1950, 55; 1986, esp. 258), I differentiate between the levels of the ‘living’, the ‘dead’ and the ‘re-discovered’ culture. In order to draw conclusions from the ‘re-discovered culture’ about the ‘dead culture’, it was necessary to analyse the state of research, treatment and publication as well as that of the conditions in which the finds were made. These factors proved to be comparable in the setting of this study. By carrying out a large number of cross-checks, it is possible to get an idea of both the dimension and the distribution of sources, in which metal-hilted swords could have passed on at least theoretically. An aspect which was of particular importance was the question to what extent metal-hilted swords and swords with an organic hilt were considered to be functionally equivalent at least in the context of their deposition and in how far they were thus considered as being of a ‘substitutive character’. This study also shows to what extent the currently known area of distribution of certain classes of swords allows for insights concerning their prehistoric spread.

Interpretation of the distribution of Urnfield metal-hilted swords (chapter 5)

To allow for an interpretation of the Urnfield metal-hilted swords’ distribution, it was necessary to define a number of what are called ‘custom circles’ (‘Sittenkreise’), which enable us to validly grasp the behaviour of prehistoric man.
The so-called ‘workshop circle’ covers the sum of stationary workshops inclusive of possible migrant craftsmen in a certain region at a certain period of time. This is complemented by the ‘demand circle’, i.e. the area in which there was a demand for the products of a certain workshop circle, and also by the ‘costume circle’, i.e. the territory within which the respective swords were part of the costume of the particular ‘community of traditions’ (‘Traditionsgemeinschaft’). The question of the localisation of workshop circles was prevailing in my study.
Factors which are indicative of the production of a certain class of swords within a certain region are (1) a comparatively high relative frequency of finds in the specific area and at the same time a comparatively low relative frequency in the neighbouring regions – although it must be understood that neither high nor low frequency may be derived from the state of available sources –, (2) the deposition of these swords in compliance with the usual customs of this area, (3) the existence of forerunners and successors in the region concerned, (4) a possible connecting link between the swords in terms of their production, (5) a stylistic, especially an ornamental relationship to other material groups of the area, in particular bronzes, and possibly also pottery.
In order to get an impression of the geographic distribution of numerous formal and ornamental attributes, which can be another indicator for workshop circles, if a great number of individual attributes was found to be concentrated in a given region, the distribution area of the Bz D and Ha B1 metal-hilted swords was subdivided into a western and an eastern sector, whereas the spread of the ‘...

A Kárpát­medence területén a rómaiak megjelenése előtt a Krisztus előtti 14. és 10. század között élt késő bronzkori emberek hagyták hátra a legtöbb és legváltozatosabb emlékanyagot. Ők voltak azok is, akik halom­ sírjaikkal és monumentális földváraikkal addig soha nem látott mértékben formálták át a táj arculatát, fel­ töretlen földeket hódítottak meg és új települések tucatjait alapították az erdővel borított hegységek mélyén. Leglátványosabb tárgyi emlékeik azok a különleges bronz­ és aranytárgyakat tartalmazó kincsek, melyek földbe kerülésének és elrejtésének titokzatos okairól több mint egy évszázada folyik a tudományos vita. Mára bizonyossá vált, hogy az értékes fegyvereket, ékszereket és munka eszközöket tartalmazó együtteseket meghatározott szabályok szerint válogatták össze. A kincsek sokféle emléket őriznek: vannak köztük olyan tárgyak, amelyek távoli földekre tett utazásokról, látványos szertartásokról, pazar lakomákról tudósítanak, mások a mindennapok munkáit vagy éppen véres harcokat idéznek. Elrejtésük szokása kizárólag a Krisztus előtti második évezred bronzkori Európá jában előforduló jelenség, hasonlóra nem ismerünk példát a törté­ nelem folyamán sem kontinensünkön, sem azon kívül. A kötet szerzője egy egyetemi kutatási program ke­ retében fémkereső műszeres csapatával másfél évtizede járja Magyarország bronzkori lelőhelyeit azzal a céllal, hogy minél többet felderítsen és megmentsen a még föld alatt rejtőző bronzkori kincsekből. Ebben a könyv­ ben az így felfedezett leletek segítségével mesél a korról, a tárgyak elrejtőiről és a kincsek földbe kerülésének lehetséges történetéről.

Feasting equipment, copper‐alloy cauldrons and flesh‐hooks, are a distinctive feature of the later Atlantic Bronze Age suggesting elements of a shared ideology whose ultimate origin may lie in the eastern Mediterranean. The easterly distribution of the earliest British cauldrons previously identified is further confirmed by the recent discovery of a Type Colchester example at Salle, Norfolk, which brings to three the number of cauldrons of this type found in the region. Similarities between them suggest their origin lies in a single workshop, if not individual craftsman. The appearance of the cauldrons found at Feltwell, Norfolk, and Salle is so close as to suggest a new ‘Feltwell’ Variant. Analysis of the contents of the Feltwell cauldron hint at the function of these intriguing objects as high status cooking vessels, most likely reserved for the chiefly class and deployed in the hosting of feasts which, along with flesh‐hooks, served to build and cement political alliances.

KEYWORDS
CAULDRON, FLESH‐HOOK, FEASTING, LATER BRONZE AGE, IDEOLOGY, BRONZE AGE CHRONOLOGY, METAL DETECTING

This, Part IV: A of the publication of Bronze Age metal and amber finds in the Netherlands, is the second part of a catalogue and evaluation of the bronze hoards and rich graves in the Netherlands. Attention is given to questions of importation and regional production of bracelets in the Late Bronze Age.

The book takes up the question of the relationship between hoards of metal goods (deposits, collective finds) and a settlement network. Applying a novel research approach, the study covers cultural phenomena along the south Baltic coast and lakelands (Pomerania and north part of Greater Poland). This area was selected because of the state of research, cultural situation and special landscape characteristics. The phenomena are associated with the communities that shared similar economic and social systems and represented the Lusatian and Pomeranian Cultures (Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age).

This monograph is made up of an introduction, three chapters and conclusion. The catalogues and illustrations (maps used for research of settlements and figures presenting bronze and iron artefacts) that constitute an integral part of this work can be found in other files.

The first discusses theoretical questions that underpin further interpretations. The second analyzes the relationships between the composition of metal goods deposits and the topography of deposit sites, as well as the special nature of their relationships to the settlement network. The analyses make use of settlement geography methods and statistical tools. The third presents a model explaining the functions of collective finds, reasons for their deposition and the principles of selecting deposition sites. It shows that they were intentionally located along the borders of the known (settled) area and emphasizes their significance for the cultural landscape. The relationship between the symbolism of metal and a border is stressed.

A Bronze Age hoard was discovered in the West of Norfolk on the Fen Edge in 1992, and was excavated in subsequent years.  The hoard consists of 13 complete or fragmentary bronze objects, one stone, one complete bun ingot and 41 ingot fragments, and dates from the Late Bronze Age.  It is unusual in that it contains a complete ingot, the first from Norfolk.

In 2015 a hoard consisting of three objects was discovered in the cadastral area of Staré Město u Moravské Třebové (Svitavy District, Pardubice Region, Czech Republic). A Gamów-Práčov type fibula, a knife and a sickle help date the hoard to the Final Bronze Age, to the Boskovice horizon. Analogous to other Final Bronze Age hoards from this region, also this hoard was hidden on a prominent landscape feature.

In this chapter I re-evaluate some of the hoards published by Catling in 1964 in Cypriot Bronzework in the Mycenaean World. The aim is not to offer a different theoretical model of interpretation, as this has been effectively done by others, but to share some information collected from the State Archives which enables the differentiation between actual hoards and modern collections of metal artefacts. Catling was aware that some of the hoards were private collections but he believed that he could work around this problem by eliminating what he believed were 'intrusions'. Thus analyses of Cypriot hoards since undertaken by other scholars are based on Catling's subjective decision of what actually constituted the hoards. This has not been questioned until now. Equally important is the clarification of which artefacts were actually part of the Mathiatis Hoard and the recognition that it deserves a closer look because it includes unique objects which have hitherto been ignored, mainly because of Catling's approach toward these assemblages.

Mobility is one of the hallmarks of the Bronze Age. This was formerly indicated on the basis of distribution of raw materials and artifacts (mainly metal), nowadays research on solid isotopes (e.g. the Egtved girl), which enable us to look at the movement from the perspective of individuals, confirm it dynamics.
Already in the 1930s, routes were marked by connecting dozens of dots (which symbolised hoards of metal objects) on maps covering hundreds of thousands of square kilometers, this approach was practiced for the next decades.
Looking at the hoards of metal objects from a different perspective – by focusing on individual finds, in the context of the natural landscape and other archaeological finds, give us the possibillity to understand how the deposition sites of metal artifacts shaped the Bronze Age landscape.
Finds from Rosko and Karmin, which were deposited in a way indicating that the deposition site was not accidental, could be as good an example. What is more, they were deposited in charachteristc places – near the Ice-marginal valleys (broad glacial valleys), which separate historical regions (Pomerania, Wielkopolska and Silesia). Thanks to this, it will be possible to present the meaning of hoards in the landscape, as well as the way of understanding how the routes functioned in the Bronze Age. Their connection with clearly indicated physical boundaries, especially with places of thier crosssing, highlights the meaning of routes on mapa moundi of the Bronze Age.

A hoard from the Middle Bronze Age or the beginning of the Late Bronze Age was found in Malá Haná near Jevíčko in 2016.
The hoard deposited in a distinctive morphological position consisted of a palstave and three ingots of the raw material; another
ingot was discovered nearby.

The axe presented below was discovered in 2009, during a survey with metal detectors in Cernat (Covasna County, Romania). The object represents a well-known Transylvanian Middle Bronze Age weapon-type. The first part of the paper deals with the close neighborhood of the axe and the landscape, the deposition custom, while the second part with the distribution of different variants on a larger area.

Hoards of metal objects from the Bronze and Early Iron Ages (over a 1 000 known in Poland) are distinguished as one of the most enigmatic categories of archaeological finds. Systematic investigations conducted on these assemblages in recent decades present a good reference point for broadening the field of their analysis.
This affords the opportunity to apply a new methodology and consequently focus on a broader range of research issues such as the relationship between hoard deposit loci and local settlement networks, invasive and non-invasive investigations in their deposit locus, archaeometallurgical analysis, microscopic analysis of use-wear of goods constituting these assemblages.
Research therefore of this nature can broaden our knowledge on the specificity of hoard deposit loci in the cultural landscape of various regions, microhistory of such finds, specific means of utilising metal objects, their biography, nature of the phenomenon of metal object fragmentation and many other related issues. All of the aforesaid ought to lead to a better understanding of this phenomenon and consequently the culture of communities in prehistory when the deposition of metal objects in the ground and water was commonplace.
The research potential of such a methodology is illustrated by archaeological investigations conducted in recent years, among others, in Kozow/Witaszkowo, Nętno, Gdynia-Karwiny or Rosko as well as projects realised in other parts of Europe. Coming to such an understanding would appear to be very important on account of the dramatic rise in the numbers of finds, which as a rule do not bring a greater range of information than that known from the turn of the 20th century.

A Magyarországon eddig megismert késő bronzkori fémedények egyik legszebb darabja került nemrég a hajdúböszörményi múzeum gyűjteményébe. A ritka szépségű edény sorsa szomorú látlelete a magyar örökségvédelem jelenlegi állapotának és a fémkeresős rablás elleni küzdelem egyre parttalanabbá váló gyakorlatának. Az előkerülési körülmények negatív volta ellenére a bronzedény új perspektívába helyezi az 1858-ban megismert, kiemelkedő minőségű és mennyiségű bronztárgyat tartalmazó hajdúböszörményi kincset és a késő bronzkori bronzdeponálás gyakorlatát.

Ely, Cambridgeshire, is known to tourists as an incredible city steeped in myth and legend and dominated by the Norman Cathedral, a masterpiece of medieval architecture. There have been many popular books written about the Isle, but in 'Ely: A Hidden History' the approach is to look at the longue duree of life on the isle focusing on continuity and change in cultural practices.  The work combines the latest archaeological discoveries to tell the story of the settlement of the Isle from its earliest beginnings through to the seventeenth century. With vivid illustrations, the authors trace the origins of life in Ely, and bring the most recent archaeological excavations alive.

Topics covered include: the geological origins of the Isle of Ely, the first prehistoric settlement, including important archaeological sites at Haddenham, Wilburton and Barway. The foundation of the monastic centre by St Etheldreda, and the archaeological evidence for the Anglo Saxon foundations of the city, together with current thoughts on the site of St Etheldreda's first settlement. The story of Hereward the Wake, and his resistance against the Norman invaders. The Norman foundation of the cathedral and castle.

Key features of the book are discussion and synthesis of the latest research on the nationally important later Bronze Age hoard from Wilburton, and the Iron Age bog body from Soham, which highlight the importance of the Isle of Ely to British archaeology. The findings from Channel 4’s Time Team excavation of the medieval Broad Street are included, with illustrations, as are the stories of Hereward the Wake. Richly illustrated and extensively researched, this is a fascinating look at the early history of an amazing city.

Bywa, że miejsca zyskują znaczenie dzięki przypadkowym wydarzeniom, jednak częściej ich postrzeganie wynika z celowego
działania. Ta refleksja wysnuta z obserwacji społeczności z różnych części globu jest także ważna w badaniach nad pradziejami.
Analizy mające na celu poznanie zachowań przestrzennych człowieka koncentrują się na różnych kategoriach znalezisk, w ostatnich
latach również na skarbach przedmiotów metalowych. Ich enigmatyczność prowokuje do wykorzystania do interpretacji możliwie
szerokiej gamy przesłanek, choć specyficzne okoliczności okrycia większości z nich uniemożliwiają wyjście poza formalny opis artefaktów.
Odkryty na początku XX wieku i datowany na HaB1 skarb z Kowalewka pozwala lepiej zrozumieć charakter miejsc wybieranych,
aby złożyć przedmioty metalowe, a intensywne osadnictwo w rejonie zlewni dolnego biegu Samicy Kierskiej umożliwia
przedstawienie aktu jego depozycji na tle dynamicznie zarysowanych procesów osadniczych.

It happens that places gains importance due to contingent events. However, the way they are perceived is predominantly a consequence
of an intentional activity. This conclusion, which has been drawn from the observations of communities coming from different
parts of the globe, is also essential as far as the studies of prehistory are concerned. The analyses aimed at comprehending of
the human behaviour in his surrounding are focused on various categories of findings, and within the last few years they have been
concentrated on hoards. They are so enigmatic that one can implement many premises to interpret their usage. Nevertheless, the
specific circumstances of finding of the majority of them preclude more than only a standard description of the artefacts. Kowalewko
hoard which was found at the beginning of the 20th century and dated back to HaB1 allows to comprehend better the character
of places which were chosen in order to deposit metal objects. The intense settlement in the catchment area of lower reaches of the
Samica Kierska river enables to introduce this deposit against the background of dynamic settlement processes.

Telkibánya-Cser-hegy is one of the four known Late Bronze-Iron Age
fortified settlement of the Zemplén Mountains, Northeast-Hungary. We
managed to uncover 5 bronze hoards and 160 stray finds on the site during
our bronze hoard research programme. All of the hoards found here
can be dated to the HaA1 period.
The 2. hoard contained seven large hooks with forked tip and suspension
loop at the end. The hoard of hooks was laid to rest in an approx. 200 metres
circle in the south-eastern quadrant, a frequently inhabited section of
the prehistoric settlement along with hoards 3., 4., 5. A well recognisable
small pit in 25 cm depth was made for the bundle of hooks. There was no
sign of use or wear from tying on the hooks.
The 1. hoard that was found further away contained hooks as well: in this
hoard there were four large hook, socketed axes, fragments of a spear, a
bracelet and bronze pieces.
In the Hungarian ethnographic material, the hooks of similar size and
form were used for fishing larger catfishes (Silurus glanis). In the archaeological
material, this large hook type appears mostly in the Carpathian
Basin. The datable samples of this hook type can be put in the HaA1
period.
Hoards containing similar hooks are probably part of a certain hoarding
pattern, where the number and type of the artefacts along with the location
of the hoard had an exact meaning to the community participating
in the process.
The Telkibánya site could be the settlement of central importance in the
Northern region of the Zemplén Mountains in the HaA period according
to the bronze finds.
The hoarding of the special hooks used for fishing large predatory fishes
here can mean, that the local community’s territory, or their area of resources
ranged to rivers where the fishing of such large fishes were possible,
like the Hernád or more likely the Bodrog.
On rivers further away from the settlement, we can count on seasonal
fishing of the larger catfishes that were valuable protein source.
Another possible interpretation can be, that the hooks were deposited
not by the locals but by representatives of a community or group, living
farther, that only came to the hillfort on the occasion of a celebration or
ritual.
If we accept either version, than the appearance of the bronze hooks
here means that the hill settlement of Telkibánya-Cser-hegy was a meeting
place or ritual, maybe political, economic centre for a community or
communities using different ecological regions.

Tomando como referência espacial a região da Alta Estremadura, mas não se circunscrevendo a ela no seu limite setentrional, i.e. com incursões no sul da Beira Litoral, analisa-se neste texto o fenómeno das deposições metálicas (cobre/bronze e ouro) da Idade do Bronze na óptica da sua articulação com o espaço e, simultaneamente, de criação de lugares com significado. São diversos os testemunhos conhecidos, resultantes maioritariamente de achados antigos, mas parcos os estudos de síntese. Aquele potencial informativo é, pelas condições em que nos chegou (efectuados de forma casuística, com desconhecimento dos respectivos contextos e sem controlo de registo de índole científica), bastante redutor, desde logo na própria identificação. Ainda assim, é possível explorá-lo, seja na caracterização intrínseca das diversas materialidades conhecidas, seja na percepção do potencial metafórico que evocam (pela forma, pela função, pela condição física, pela cor, etc.), seja ainda na sua conecção, física e simbólica, com os sítios, os lugares e os territórios envolventes, numa abordagem que se pretende globalizante, mas que se sabe não poder ser totalitária.

Metal by weight was the worldwide expression of payment, in varied forms from standardized oxhide ingots transported in big cargoes, to small scraps of metal stored in bags or jars. The use of ingots and scrap metal, as forms of “payment,” is documented in the Amarna Period (14th century B.C.E.) according to four different sources: tomb inscriptions, the Amarna Letters, a “hoard” found at Amarna, and the cargo of the Uluburun shipwreck. Throughout the 15th–14th centuries B.C.E. in Egypt, ingots are generally listed as “tribute” from foreign countries; however, they may have been commodities in “trade” or “gift-exchange” networks. Textual and archaeological evidence indicates that the changes undergone by the systems and means of exchange extended to all of the eastern Mediterranean at the end of the Late Bronze Age, while evidence provided by maritime archaeology suggests the coexistence of royal imports of metals and prestige goods from palaces and small enterprises by independent merchants. Royal merchants, who exchanged metals in talent-sized bulk, were slowly displaced by independent merchants, who traded small scraps of metal. Ingot fragments were used as “small change” in metal-weighing transactions. The expansion of the circulation of scrap metal, which was a natural consequence of the widening range of sub-elite consumers, had dangerous consequences for palace monopolies. Scrap metal became a commodity for independent merchants from at least ca. 1350–1300 B.C.E.

The article presents a previously unpublished bronze hoard discovered by chance in 2007 in Ampoiţa‑Piatra Boului. The finding context of the items is unknown, as they were found on the margin of a pit, at the feet of a rock massif. The deposition consists of a bronze arrowhead and two fragmentarily preserved copper lumps. Their reduced chronological value only allows for their dating to the end of the Bronze Age (Br. D‑Ha. A). In the context of the discovery the author also discusses the issue of the so‑called “Zlatna II” hoard, found in 1907 and attributed to the Jupalnic‑Turia series (Ha. A2) that, in the author’s opinion, was discovered in Gura Ampoiţei (Ampoiţa). Therefore, the author suggests that the “Zlatna II” hoard should be called “Ampoiţa I” and thus the items found in Piatra Boului should be henceforth called “Ampoiţa II”.

In 2016, a bronze deposit wasdiscovered in the Aghireş area, located southeast of Zalău, Sălaj county. According to the discoverer, bronze sickles were placed in a circle, and in themiddle were fragments of raw material (bronze). Field research showed thatthe deposit was buried in the area of a group of three tumuli located right onthe forested ridge of a hill. The deposit of metal pieces was possibly meant toemphasize the special character of that place. The deposit consisted of four
sickles of the hooked type and several pieces of bronze lumps. The finishedpieces (sickles) amount to 577 g, and the remaining pieces of raw materialweigh 2767.6 g. Associations like the Aghireş deposit (sickles + raw material)are extremely rare in the eastern part of the Carpathian Basin. In the Transylvanian area, hooked sickles appear mainly in deposits situated in the southern and central areas, often in combination with the Transylvanian type celts(Ruginoasa-Cara hoards-type considered contemporary with Uriu-Ópályihoards-type and dated in Transylvania Late Bronze Age 2 – early Late Bronze3 = Br D – early HaA). These deposits are linked to Noua culture communities.The Aghireş deposit can be classified as Ruginoasa-Cara, but it is located in
an area inhabited by Cehăluţ-Hajdúbagos communities. To the west of theTransylvanian space, the frequency of hooked sickles decreases significantly.

In 1966 a collection of twelve silver and five gold vessels was confiscated by government officials near the town of Fullol, Northeastern Afghanistan. Even though the exact circumstances of their discovery will never be known there are strong indications that it is a modern hoard, an accumulation of precious vessels from illegal excavations in the vicinity of Fullol. The lack of additional artifacts can be attributed to the early date of the find: it was only after 1972, when proper archaeological research in the area was initiated, that the local population became aware of the fact that all artifacts could be sold, not just the precious metals.

The absence of reliable archaeological information and the various inconsistencies and contradictions in the published information means that all vessels have to be dated individually and not by dating some and assuming that the rest is from the same period.

Two fragmented vessels from the hoard differ from the other specimens, both in style and iconography. Based on a well-established sequence of Middle Assyrian glyptics these vessels can be dated to the 13th century BC, a period in which Assyria re-established itself as one of the major powers of the Near East. Numerous wars were conducted against nomadic tribes to the north and east of Assyria with the objective to force them to meet Assyrian needs for items such as lapis lazuli and horses.

It is suggested that the two vessels from Fullol are most likely evidence of a land route linking Northern Afghanistan indirectly with Assyria during the 13th century BC.