Early Turkic History

This is a published as article the monoraph to be complete historiography of the social history of the Türkic Qaganates. A full-fledged version – given in briefly and succinctly – for the general reader. They have been corrected all mistakes and blunders made due to my youth and inexperience in the dissertation defended in 2015 on this topic.

Göktürklerin mitolojisi daha önce bazı araştırmalarda incelenmiş ve bu mitolojiye ait anlatıların yer aldığı Çince metinlerin çevirilerinin çoğu yayımlanmıştır. Ancak bazı metinlerin Türkçeye yalnızca özetlenerek çevrildiği görülmüştür. Tibetçe bir belgede yer alan Göktürk mitleri ise bu bağlamda pek fazla incelenmemiştir. Bu çalışmada Göktürklere ait Çin ve Tibet kaynaklarında aktarılmış olan mitler incelenmiş, metinler arasında karşılaştırmalar yapılmış ve Türkçeye tam çevirisi yapılmamış bazı metinler üzerinde ayrıntılı bir şekilde çalışılmıştır. Göktürk mitlerini aktaran Çince ve Tibetçe metinler, çalışmanın sonunda ek olarak okuyuculara sunulmuştur.

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The mythology of the Türks (Tujue 突厥, Gokturks) has been previously studied in some publications and translations of most of the Chinese texts containing narratives from this mythology have also been published. However, some of these texts have been translated to Turkish only as summaries. Türk myths recorded in a Tibetan document have not also been studied in detail within this context. In this study, myths of the Türks given in Chinese and Tibetan sources have been studied, comparisons between different texts have been made and some texts that have not been fully translated to Turkish have been studied in detail. Chinese and Tibetan texts containing the narratives of Türk myths have been added to the end of this study.

Türklerin İslâmiyete geçişleri ve bunun nedenleri konusunda farklı görüşler bulunmaktadır. Bu konuda öne sürülen görüşlerden birine göre, eski Türk inançları ile İslâmiyet arasında, özellikle de Teŋri ve Allah kavramlarında benzerlikler bulunması bu süreci hızlandırmıştır. Türklerin bu dönemdeki Teŋri algısı incelendiğinde, İslâm'daki Allah kavramıyla aralarında bazı benzerlikler olduğu görülmektedir. Ancak İslâm'daki katı Allah inancının tersine, Türklerin Teŋri algıları daha esnek olmuştur. Nitekim eski Türk inançları, İslâm'dan ve onun Allah kavramından benzerliklerin yanı sıra epey farklılıklar da göstermektedir. İki inanç arasındaki benzerlikler Türklerin İslâm'a geçişlerini belki kolaylaştırmış olsa da bu olayı zorlaştıran inançlar da var olmuştur. Türklerin Müslüman olmalarının pek çok farklı nedeninin bulunduğu da unutulmamalıdır. Çalışmamızda, dönemin kaynakları kullanılarak Türklerin İslâmiyete geçiş sürecindeki Teŋri algıları ile İslâm'daki Allah kavramı karşılaştırılmış, benzerlikler ve farklılıklar ortaya konulmuştur.

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Different views exist on the conversion of Turks to Islam and its reasons. According to one of these views, the existence of similarities between ancient Turkic beliefs and Islam, especially in the concepts of Täŋri (Tengri) and Allah, speeded up this process. When the perception of Täŋri among the Turks during this period is examined, it can be observed that it possessed some similarities with the concept of Allah in Islam. However, contrary to the strict belief of Allah in Islam, the perception of Täŋri among Turks was more flexible. Indeed, ancient Turkic beliefs show quite many differences from Islam and its concept of Allah as well as they show some similarities. Even if the similarities between the two faiths may have made it easier for the conversion of Turks to Islam, beliefs that made this event more difficult also existed. It should also not be forgotten that the conversion of Turks to Islam had many different reasons. In our study, the perceptions of Täŋri among Turks during their process of Islamization and the concept of Allah in Islam have been compared using the sources of the period, while similarities and differences between the two have been demonstrated.

В эпоху раннего средневековья на территории Центральной Азии существовали микрооазисы, жители которых образовали самобытные культуры, поддерживая тесные связи с населением сопредельных регионов, и окружающими кочевыми племенами. В этот период своего блестящего развития достигла культура, созданная жителями долины Зарафшана -согдийцами. Неотъемлемым компонентом согдийской культуры стали инновации, внесенные прямо или косвенно тюркскими племенами. Изучение этого процесса и его содержания наталкивается на несколько препятствий, связанных с такими проблемами как историко-географические границы Согда, согдийской культуры и широта распространенности самоназвания «согдийцы», содержание термина «тюрк» в зависимости от контекста применения.

İstanbul-2021 Kitabın bütün yayın hakları Ötüken Neşriyat A.Ş.'ye aittir. Yayınevinden yazılı izin alınmadan, kaynağın açıkça belirtildiği akademik çalışmalar ve tanıtım faaliyetleri haricinde, kısmen veya tamamen alıntı yapılamaz; hiçbir matbu ve dijital ortamda kopya edilemez, çoğaltılamaz ve yayımlanamaz.

Tölöslerin en güçlülerinden olan Tongralar çoğu zaman Kök Türklere tabi olmakla birlikte, savaşçılıkları ve askeri güçleriyle Tokuz Oguzlar arasında da öne çıkan önemli bir Türk boyudur. Çin tarih kaynaklarında dikbaşlılıkları ve zor itaat altına alınmalarıyla ünlü sınır komşuları P'u-kular da siyasi olarak hemen her zaman Tongralar ile birlikte hareket etmiş, bu iki boy pek çok isyanın ateşleyicisi olmuştur. Türk asıllı T'ang generali An Lu-shan'ın isyanına destek veren boylar arasında da özellikle Tongraların öne çıktığı görülmektedir. Bu çalışmada Çin yıllıklarında parçalar halinde bulunan veriler ele alınarak Kök Türkler, Hsüeh Yen-t'olar ve Uygurların iktidar dönemlerinde Tongra boyunun faaliyetleri değerlendirilmektedir.

Two previously published antler tools, so-called disentangling hooks, are commented on in this paper. The finds come from Nosa and Manđelos, located in the southern area of the Avar Khaganate, i.e. in present-day northern Serbian province of Vojvodina. What is special about these tools is that they bear carved representations of – presumably – Avars
and their horses. To this author’s knowledge, these are the only detailed representations of the Avars on antler objects. The conducted archaeological (and art-historical) analyses lead us to the conclusion that the finds come from the second half of the seventh century. In the case of the stray find from Nosa, such a date could be proposed on the basis of the depicted shape of the saddle, while the find from Manđelos comes from a horseman’s grave which can be dated to the middle of the
seventh century. Various details point to a Central Asian (Altai) origin of the representations.

Gök Türk çalışmalarında az değinilen konulardan biri, Türk kültürünü besleyen kaynakların alt yapısıdır. Bozkır sınırlarının tarım uygarlıkları ile kesiştiği yerler, iki tarafın da kültüründe bazı sentezlenmelere yol açmaktadır ki, bu konu sadece arkeolojik verilerden değil, savaş malzemeleri ve taktikleri, bürokrasi dili, kılıkkıyafet vs. konulardan da takip edilebilir.

The author of the paper proposes to look at the issues of burial practices among the nomadic population of Inner Asia of the Old Turkic period, basing directly to the material of written sources, taking into account the general patterns for burial practices presented by the ethnographic data. It is proposed to move away from the desire to categorically correlate the data of written sources with archaeological materials, the interpretation of which is carried out on the basis of the obligatory binding of specific groups of population related to burial objects with a certain ethnic community. The paper attempts to show that there is every reason to consider the nomadic communities recorded in the written sources under various ethnonyms as groups that might to have internal differences in funeral rituals. The same applies to the Türks. A careful examination of the lexicon used in the sources allows one to establish in the opinion that there is no reason to deny the existence of the cremation practice among the Türks, was also recorded as practiced among the elites of neighboring tribes. It is possible the material traces of such practices would never be found. However, written sources make it possible not to correlate the places in which the remains of the cremation were buried with those objects that are erected as a sign of one’s death. In addition, the article shows the opportunities to find a balance between between the information provided by written sources about the burial practices of the Türks proper, and the recent archaeological data.

İstanbul-2021 Kitabın bütün yayın hakları Ötüken Neşriyat A.Ş.'ye aittir. Yayınevinden yazılı izin alınmadan, kaynağın açıkça belirtildiği akademik çalışmalar ve tanıtım faaliyetleri haricinde, kısmen veya tamamen alıntı yapılamaz; hiçbir matbu ve dijital ortamda kopya edilemez, çoğaltılamaz ve yayımlanamaz.

2015 season excavations' results were published for two main halls in the palace of the Early Turkic (Turgesh Qaghanate) rulers of the early 8th c. CE in medieval Kulan town of Jetysu/Semirechie region in the SE Kazakhstan. S. Yatsenko part was the analysis of wall paintings and graffiti in the probable Throne Hall (room 2) (pp. 54-63, figs. 15-17), their composition and the personages' costume and other items. Among them, they included the images of Turgesh king (qaghan) and his wife (figs. 15/2, 17/1-2).

The article discusses the widespread point of view about the existence among the Early Turkic peoples of a system of titles, characterized by a clear structural hierarchy. However, the opinion which has become a priori deserves a more cautious attitude, since in reality it is difficult to reliably establish the existence of a single scale of titles from sources. Those titles known from the written sources characterize, in their abundance, a certain set of names assigned to persons based on various criteria. To identify the fact of the existence of some system requires a detailed examination of the specific historical material relating to particular political formations in a short period of time.

This paper examines the term ā-rè recorded in mediaeval Chinese historical sources as the title of the ruler of the Yenisei Kirghiz state. The author aims to discover which Old Turkic title this Chi-nese phonetic transcription corresponds to. By reconstructing the sounds in ā-rè according to Middle Chinese the author argues that the most likely pronunciation of the term was änäl, which he suggests is a phonetic variant of the Old Turkic title inäl. The author also argues that this was a temporary title of the ruler of the Yenisei Kirghiz during their vassalage under the Uyghurs.

This paper examines the term ā-rè recorded in mediaeval Chinese historical sources as the title of the ruler of the Yenisei Kirghiz state. The author aims to discover which Old Turkic title this Chinese phonetic transcription corresponds to. By reconstructing the sounds in ā-rè according to Middle Chinese the author argues that the most likely pronunciation of the term was änäl, which he suggests is a phonetic variant of the Old Turkic title inäl. The author also argues that this was a temporary title of the ruler of the Yenisei Kirghiz during their vassalage under the Uyghurs.

Eski Türk ve Moğol devletlerinin teşkilatı üzerine çalışan uzmanlar arasında, Kağan (Ḳaġan) ve Han (Ḳan, Ḫan) unvanlarının maiyeti ile birbirleriyle olan ilişkileri konusunda bir fikir birliğine varılamamıştır. Bu mesele, Türk (Göktürk, Tujue 突厥) Kağanlığı’ndaki  Küçük Kağan (Kiçik Ḳaġan) unvanı eklendiğinde daha da zor bir duruma girmektedir. Konu üzerinde çalışan uzmanların bir kısmı, Kağan ve Han unvanlarının esasında aynı olduğunu savunurlarken bir kısmı ise bu iki unvanın derece olarak farklı olduğunu ileri sürmüşlerdir.  Çalışmamda, Kağan (Ḳaġan) ve Han (Ḳan) unvanlarıyla ilgili Türk, Uygur, Kırgız ve Hazar Kağanlıkları’ndan örnekleri inceleyerek bu unvanların kullanımlarının söz konusu devletlerde aynı telakki edilip edilmediğini ortaya koyacağım.

Published in: Восточная Европа в древности и средневековье. Чтения памяти члена-корреспондента АН СССР Владимира Терентьевича Пашуто. М.: ИВИ РАН, 2021. Вып. XXХIII. Роль религии в формировании социокультурных практик и представлений / отв. ред. Е.А. Мельникова. С. 281–286.

The paper deals with the etymology of the personal names Qunï Säŋün and Toŋra Simä appearing in the ninth line of the Old Turkic Tonyukuk inscription (ca. 716). These names are borne by the envoys sent by the kagan of the Tokuz Oghuz to the Chinese and Khitan, respectively, to conclude a military alliance against the Turks. Both names have the same structure, a combination of an ethnonym (qun(ï) vs. toŋra), referring to a tribal unit within the Tiele 鐵勒 confederation, and a title of Chinese origin (säŋün vs. simä). Based on a thorough analysis of historical and philological data, the authors try to establish possible ethnolinguistic grounds for the Tokuz Oghuz mission, which have so far eluded researchers of the inscription and can be fully restored only in the light of the latest discoveries in the history and philology of Inner Asia of the Old Turkic period, e.g., the decipherment of the famous Khüis Tolgoi inscription from Mongolia.

The paper deals with the etymology of the personal names Qunï Säŋün and Toŋra Simä appearing in the ninth line of the Old Turkic Tonyukuk inscription (ca. 716). These names are borne by the envoys sent by the kagan of the Tokuz Oghuz to the Chinese and Khitan, respectively, to conclude a military alliance against the Turks. Both names have the same structure, a combination of an ethnonym (qun(ï) vs. toŋra), referring to a tribal unit within the Tiele 鐵勒 confederation, and a title of Chinese origin (säŋün vs. simä). Based on a thorough analysis of historical and philological data, the authors try to establish possible ethnolinguistic grounds for the Tokuz Oghuz mission, which have so far eluded researchers of the inscription and can be fully restored only in the light of the latest discoveries in the history and philology of Inner Asia of the Old Turkic period, e.g., the decipherment of the famous Khüis Tolgoi inscription from Mongolia.