Ancient Turks

Кулешов Вяч. С. Северная окраина тюркского мира в отражении персидского географического трактата X в. «Худуд ал-‘алам» // Древние и средневековые культуры Центральной Азии (становление, развитие и взаимодействие урбанизированных и скотоводческих обществ) : Материалы Международной конференции, посвящённой 100-летию со дня рождения д. и. н. А. М. Мандельштама и 90-летию со дня рождения д. и. н. И. Н. Хлопина, 10–12 ноября 2020 г., Санкт-Петербург / Редакционная коллегия: В. П. Никоноров, Л. Б. Кирчо, Е. О. Стоянов (ответственные редакторы) и др. СПб.: б. и. [ООО «Невская Типография»], 2020. — В надзаглавии: Институт истории материальной культуры РАН; Государственный Эрмитаж; Музей антропологии и этнографии имени Петра Великого (Кунсткамера) РАН; Институт восточных рукописей РАН. — С. 276–278.

The Stele commemorated Idiquts of Qocho, dating to 1334 and found in 1933 in Gansu, bears Chinese and Uyghur inscriptions including a legend on the origin of the Uyghur ruling dynasty. According to the text, its founder was Udan Boquq Qan born from a tumour on a tree. It seems that in Inner Asia such legends are testified only by the sources of the late 13th and 14th centuries, the manuscript Z of “The Travels of Marco Polo”, “Yuan wen lei” and “Yuan shi” among them, and always referring to Turpan. So, the “origin of a powerful man from a tumour on a tree” motif looks like an innovative and unique dialect trait of the Turpan tradition. But when one expands geography of comparative data, it becomes clear that it is not the case. The crucial parallel is found in East Siberian folklore. A record made in 1925 among the Yakuts tells about a miraculous tree with tumours from which shamans and other persons acquainted with magic are born. The fact of the parallel agrees with data on the origins of the Yakuts and data of comparative mythology. The ancestors of this Turkic-speaking group inhabited an area between the Ordos and the Sayan Mountains before 200 CE, and the vicinities of the Baikal (ca. 800–1200 CE) before their migration in northern parts of Eastern Siberia. That is why there is the set of specific Southern (probably, of Inner Asian origin) motifs in Yakut folklore tradition. In Eurasia the “origin of a powerful man from a tumour on a tree” motif is found rarely and its presence in Inner and North Asia only in such Turkic-speaking groups as the Uyghurs and the Yakuts has most likely a historical explanation. The Yakut parallel indirectly testifies to the idea that the motif was known to some ethnic groups of South Siberia by the 12th–13th century.

Turks who, were living under the rule of the Rourans had been serving as a blacksmith. However, Turks who increasingly were getting strong by means of growing population during Bumin's reign, had been waiting for an appropriate time to proclaim their independence. The onward events together with a progressive process had given them an opportunity what they were looking for. The Rourans have been defeated by Turkic army led by Bumin and then Bumin and his tribe have founded on their own settlement. When Bumin died in 552 AD, his son, Mukan,  has ascended the throne instead of his father, and there by the might of the state had growed with heavy increase and then had become a supreme power in all Central Asia.
Keywords: Bumın, Istemi, Muqan, The Rourans, Ch’ou, Ch’i

Специальность 07.00.02 -Отечественная история АВТОРЕФЕРАТ диссертации на соискание ученой степени кандидата исторических наук Екатеринбург -2006 Работа выполнена на кафедре истории России в ГОУ ВПО «Уральский государственный университет имени А. М. Горького». Научный руководителькандидат исторических наук, профессор Б. Б. Овчинникова Официальные оппоненты: доктор исторических наук, ведущий научный сотрудник В. В. Трепавлов, доктор исторических наук, профессор А. Г. Нестеров Ведущая научная организация -ГОУ ВПО «Санкт-Петербургский государственный университет» Защита состоится «____» __________2006 г. в ______ часов на заседании диссертационного совета Д 212.286.04 по защите диссертаций на соискание ученой степени доктора исторических наук при ГОУ ВПО «Уральский государственный университет имени А. М. Горького» по адресу: 620083, г. Екатеринбург, пр. Ленина, 51, комн. 248. С диссертацией можно ознакомиться в научной библиотеке Уральского государственного университета имени А.М. Горького. Автореферат разослан «___» ___________ 2006 г. Ученый секретарь диссертационного совета доктор исторических наук, профессор В. А. Кузьмин

Исследованные за последние 200 лет на Алтае раннесредневековые памятники специалисты обозначают, как правило, как «древнетюркские» или «тюркские», либо как памятники «алтае-телеских тюрок» или «алтае-орхонских тюрок», подразумевая под ними принадлежность к тюркам-тугю. Предпринятые автором сбор, картирование и анализ тамг в виде острого угла, встречающихся в погребениях с конем, на скалах и стелах на Алтае и в сопредельных регионах, а также сопоставление их с данными письменных источников позволяют утверждать, что эти памятники принадлежали карлукам. Картирование этих тамг фиксирует основную территорию расселения карлуков — прежде всего, географический Алтай, а также иллюстрирует все перипетии и этапы их бурной истории: переселение части из них в Центральную и Внутреннюю Монголию, в Семиречье.

Scholars interpret the early medieval objects investigated over the past 200 years in Altai, as a rule, as “ancient Turkic” or “Turkic”, or as objects of “Altai-Teles Turks” or “Altai-Orkhon Turks”, meaning that they belong
to the Turks-Tugyu. The collection, mapping and analysis of tamgas in the form of an acute angle, found in burials with a horse, on rocks and steles in Altai and in neighboring regions, undertaken by the author, and comparison with the data of written sources allows us to confirm that these monuments belonged to Karluks. The mapping of these tamgas fixes the main territory of their settlement — first of all, the geographical Altai, and also illustrates all the peripetia and stages of the turbulent history of the Karluks: resettlement part of them to Central and Inner Mongolia, to the Semirechye.

Кулешов Вяч. С. Фрагменты генеалогии правителей Волжской Булгарии X века // Вспомогательные исторические дисциплины в современном научном знании : Материалы XXXII Международной научной конференции, Москва, 11–12 апреля 2019 г. / Редакционная коллегия: С. В. Зверев и др. М.: ИВИ РАН, 2019. — В надзаглавии: Российский государственный гуманитарный университет, Историко-архивный институт, Высшая школа источниковедения, вспомогательных и специальных исторических дисциплин; Российская академия наук, Институт всеобщей истории, Отдел специальных исторических дисциплин. — С. 235–238.

This book is the extended and English version of one of my published books, Kültür Tarihi Açısından İskit-Türk Aynılığı (Selenge, Istanbul 2017, Turkish). My goal is to reach to people in the world who are interested in Scythian culture and raise the awareness of them in context of the book title.

http://www.amazon.com/dp/B08P4GBPF8/ref=cm_sw_r_tw_dp_x_7Vn5FbVYK8XTT

A rkeolojik verilere ve tarihi kaynaklara göre Hunlar (Hiung-nu/M.Ö.3.yüzyıl-M.S.6. yüzyıl) ve Kök Türkler (Kök Türük /Tuküe/ M.S.552-744), Ki-lin (Qi-lin/ ) denilen efsanevi bir yaratığa inanırdı. Göçebelerin bu yaratığa inandıkları hakkında eski metinlerde bilgi bulunmasıyla birlikte sanat eserlerinde de bu mi-tolojik yaratığın görülmesi, göçebelerde bu yaratığın son derece saygın bir yeri olduğunu göstermektedir. Ki-lin efsanesinin asıl kaynağı eski Çin metinlerine dayanmakta ve çok eskilere gitmektedir. Çin klasikleri arasında yer alan ve Zhou devrinden (M.Ö.1046-256) tarih ile ilgili Shu-jing ve Chun-qiu, şiir ile ilgili Shi-jing, ritüellerle ilgili Li-ji/Li-ki ve bir sözlük çalışması olan Er-ya, Batı/Erken Han devrinden (M.Ö. 206-M.S.25) tarih ile ilgili Shi-ji/Shi-ki (M.Ö. 91), Doğu/Geç Han devrinden (M.S.25-220) bilim, felsefe, edebiyat ve mitolojiyle ilgili Lun-heng (M.S. 80), bir sözlük çalışması olan Shuo-wen-jie-zi (M.S. 100) ile mitoloji ve tarihle ilgili Shi Yi Ji (M.S. 4. yüzyılda derlenmiş) isimli eserlerde Ki-lin hakkında önemli bilgiler bulunmaktadır. 1 Ki-lin yaratığının eski Çin'de son derece prestijli bir yeri vardı ve özellikle imparatorluk sarayına yakın uğurlu ve koruyucu göksel kutsal bir yaratıktı. Eski Çin inanışına göre uğurlu ve koruyucu Ejderha, Feniks (Feng-huang), Kaplumbağa ile birlikte Ki-lin dört kutsal ve göksel akıllı hayvandan biri olup yaratıkların lideriydi. Eski metinlere göre Ki-lin, efsanevi bir hükümdar olan Huang-di (Sarı İmparator/ M.Ö. 2698-2598) zamanından itibaren bilinmekteydi. Ki-lin daha çok imparatoru, soylu sınıfı, bilge kişileri, ileri gelenleri, iktidarı ve imparatorluğu temsil ediyordu ve onlarla ilişkiliydi. Evreni meydana getiren karşıtlıkların uyumlu döngüsünü ifade eden Yin-Yang ile bağlantılı erkek ve dişi ikilisinden meydana gelmiş Ki-lin, erkek için Ki ve dişi için Lin isimlerini almıştır. Bahsettiğimiz erken devir eski metinlere göre tek boynuzlu ve dört ayaklı bu yaratığın vücudu önceleri Zhou devrinde kemikten tek boynuzlu antilop veya geyik, sonrasında ise antiloba benzetilmesi yanında Geç Han devrinde etten tek boynuzlu ata da benzetilmiştir. Tek boynuzlu bu yaratıkta, öküz kuyruğu da bulunuyordu. Tüylü ve beyaz renkte olup yüksek ve büyük olan bu yaratığın kemikleri olağanüstü idi. Bu yaratık genellikle saray bahçelerinde veya şehrin dışında ormanlık alanlarında dolaşırken görülürdü. Güneşin hızıyla tek boynuzlu yaratığın hızı arasında benzerlik görülüyordu. İyi yürekli ve bilge olan bu efsanevi yaratık, iyiliğin ve yardımseverliğin simgesiydi. Bu yaratığın sağlıklı bir şekilde görülmesi iyi şansa; sakat olarak görülmesi, yakalanması, ölmesi veya HUNLARIN BİR KOLU OLUP SONRADAN ONLARDAN AYRILAN VE EFSANEVİ Kİ-LİN YARATIĞINA İNANAN KÖK TÜRKLER, MEZARLARINDA HUNLAR GİBİ Kİ-LİN FİGÜRLERİNİ UYGULUYORLARDI. KÖK TÜRKLER, ÖLDÜKTEN SONRA RUHLARININ BİR KUŞ GİBİ GÖĞE YÜKSELECEĞİNE VE ORADA ESKİ YAŞAMLARINA DEVAM EDECEKLERİNE İNANIYORLARDI.

In 2020, the doctor of historical sciences V. V. Trepavlov turns 60 years old. The article describes the biography and career path of the scientist. Interest in the history of Eurasian nomads appeared in V. V. Trepavlov in his school and student years, and the first scientific result was his Candidate’s dissertation on socio-political continuity in the state system of the Great Mongol Empire of Genghis Khan. His doctoral dissertation was devoted to the famous history of the Nogai Horde. At the Institute of Russian History V. V. Trepavlov passed all stages of career growth, after graduate school he worked as a laboratory assistant, junior, senior, leading and chief researcher, now he is the head of the Center for the History of the Peoples of Russia and Interethnic Relations. For several years, he simultaneously served as deputy director of the Institute on scientific work. The main monographic works of the scientist of the day are briefly described.

The current paper covers education and the constructed lifestyles around it in the Pre-Islamic Turks. Specializing on the first Turk states, despite the shortage of resources about the interested topic, the Hun Empire, Göktürks and Uighur’s will be taken into consideration.

377’de İstanbul önlerine gelen, 6. yüzyılda kente yerleşmeye başlayan, burada askerlik, esirlik, misafirlik, ticaret, eğitim, sığınma, siyasî rehin olmak, siyasî evlilik ve kolonizatörlük için kısa ya da uzun süreli kalan Türkler Hunlardan, Bulgarlardan, Avarlardan, Göktürklerden, Hazarlardan, Peçeneklerden, Oğuzlardan, Kıpçaklardan, Selçuklulardan, Osmanlılardan ve muhtemelen Karluklardan oluşmuştur. Fetih sonrasında kentin Türkleştirilmesine katkıda bulunabilecek ciddî bir Türk nüfus 1453’te varolamamışsa da İstanbul, içinde 6. yüzyıldan itibaren neredeyse her yüzyıl yaşayan Türklerin iyi bildiği ve yabancı olmadığı bir kent olmuştur.

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The Turks who came to Constantinople in 377, and started settling in the city in the 6th century, stayed there for short or long periods for different reasons; military purposes, marriage, captivity, visit, trade, education, political asylum, etc. These people were mainly composed of Huns, Bulgars, Avars, Gokturks, Khazars, Pechenegs, Oghuz, Qypchaqs, Seljuks, Ottomans and perhaps Qarluqs. Even though there was no considerable number of  Turkish population in 1453 to help Turkify the city after the Conquest, the point is that, starting with the 6th century, Constantinople had already been  a well-known, familiar city for the Turks.

Überlegungen zu verschiedenen Aspekten der vormuslimischcn Geschichte Mirtelund Zentralasiensrgehören zu den Randerscheinungen hiesiger historischer Forschung. Diese Tatsache ist um so bedauerlicher angesichts cines seit Jahren anhaltendcn Interesses an kulturhistorischen Fragestellungen handelt es sich doch gerade hier um einen Raum, dem aufgrund seiner Lage und naturräumlichen Konstellation seit jeher eine zentrale Vermittlerfunktion im Austausch zwischen den Hochkulturen Europas, Vorder-, Süd-und Ostasiens zukam. Eine der Grundlagen dieser Drehscheibenfunktion Mittelund Zentralasiens ist das Wechselspiel diverser Formen seßhafter und nomadischcr Lcbensweisen. Ihr Zusammenspiel prägt über weite Strecken nicht nur die politische, sondem auch die wirtschaftliche und kulturclle Entwicklung dieses Raumes. Ein müglichst diffcrenziertes Verständnis flir die Problcmatik dieses Phänomcrs ist deshalb unverzichtbare Voraussctzung für die Untersuchung einer ganzcn Reihe von Fragestellungen auch zur antiken und frühmittelalterlichen Geschichte Mittelund Zentralasicns. Leider wurden im Rahmen althistorischcr Forschung kaum grundlegende Uberlegungen zur lnteraktion seßhafter und nomadischer Gruppen untemommenund dies, obwohl die Fragestcllung wichtige Berührungspunkte zum Fach besitzt.2 Über weite Strecken werden statt dessen Stcreo-Für die D{rrchsicht des Aufsatzes und zahlreiche hilfrciche Anmerkungen dankc ich Prof.

Elinizdeki kitabın temel iddiası da, en eski tarihî devirlerden ortaçağlara ve modern döneme, Türkler ve İskitlerin aynı halklar olduğudur. Bu iddia, atlı-savaşçı Türk-İskitlerin konar-göçer yaşam tarzı unsurları ve eklemeli dilleri üzerinden delillendirilmeye çalışılmıştır. Kıl çadırları, araba-evleri, ete dayalı beslenmeleri, kısrak sütü-kımız içmeleri, kadınların erkeklerle eşit konumu, Tûran taktiği, at üstündeyken geriye ok atmaları, giyim-kuşamları, yas törenleri, ölü gömme biçimleri, kanaatkârlık ve cesaretleri, bu çalışmada üstünde durulan karakteristik Türk-İskit yaşam tarzı unsurlarından bazılarıdır.

Doğrusu, dünya üzerindeki tüm varlıklar gibi topluluklar da tanımlanıp adlandırılmak için bir “ötekiye” ihtiyaç duymaktadır. Bu bağlamda konar-göçer Türk-İskitler ve yaşadıkları coğrafyayla ilgili ilk tanımlamalar, yerleşik eski İranlılardan da geriye, Sümer coğrafyasındaki yerleşik topluluklara kadar gitmektedir. Bununla beraber, tarih boyunca bir topluluğun, ötekisi saydığı bir diğerine karşı vehmettiği üstünlüğün zaman, mekân ve aidiyetle sınırlı olduğuna inanıyoruz. (Kitabın arka yazısı)

The study of ancient Turkic antiquities in the Altai is of particular significance since this region is considered to have been the native land of the ancient Turks. According to genealogical legends, the Altai is connected to the early history and to the origin of the Turkic community. The Altai period of ancient Turkic history is important, also, as the period during which the Turks developed their own statehood. As a result of the creation of an extended empire, the ancient Turks influenced and transmit-ted elements of their material culture (e.g., caftan, belt plaque decorations, stirrups) and aspects of their political structure to other nomads of the Eurasian steppe. They also had a significant influence on the settled people of China, Sogd, Sassanian Iran and Byzantium.
Ancient Turkic antiquities in the Altai include mound burials, stone sculptures and enclosures, rock paintings - graffiti and runic inscriptions, associated with them. These antiquities also include set-tlements and objects of iron metallurgy. Burials offer the most interesting and informative source for the history of the ancient Turks. At present at least 187 burials have been investigated in the Altai region. Forty-three of them - represented in this book for the first time - were excavated by the East-Altaic Group of the Institute of Archaeology and Ethnography of the Siberian Department of the Russian Academy of Sciences, under the leadership of V.D. Kubarev. These burials are located mostly in central and south-eastern Altai.
Despite voluminous publications on ancient Turkic archaeology, many research problems remain. These include problems in the correlation of archaeological and written records relating to burial ritual; the problematic lack of ancient Turkic monuments relating to the First Turkic Qaghanate in comparison with materials from a later period; and questions regarding the actual and detailed reconstruction of composite artifacts such as armor, caftan, saadak belt and others. In this book, using new and informative ancient Turkic burials, we attempt to address some of these problems. In the interpretation of ancient Turkic burials other sources were used: materials from other ancient Turkic monuments, written records, ethnographical data, and information provided by epic literature.
The ancient Turks created an original material and spiritual culture. This culture had an appreciable influence on neighboring peoples; at the same time it absorbed elements of those foreign cultures. Analyzing the complex of different sources, and first of all, the materials derived from burials, it is possible to confirm the complex nature of ancient Turkic culture. This culture included elements of the earlier Pazyryk culture and of the Xiong-nu period, on the other hand, on the other hand, ancient Turkic culture had genetic connection to the modern Turkic-speaking populations in South Siberia.

В монографии публикуются материалы новой, представительной серии древнетюркских погребений, исследованных на территории Российского Алтая. В научный оборот вводится археологическая коллекция, содержащая как широко распространенные и массовые категории предметов, так и редкие и уникальные находки. К числу последних принадлежит защитный доспех, набранный из металлических пластин, остатки кафтанов из китайского узорчатого шелка, предметы из органических материалов.
Материалы погребений древних тюрок Алтая анализируются автором с привлечением данных по другим древнетюркским памятникам (оградкам, изваяниям, граффити), а также с использованием письменных источников и этнографических свидетельств. Это позволило всесторонне охарактеризовать материальную и духовную культуру древних тюрок Алтая, включая погребальную обрядность, военное дело, костюм и целый ряд других вопросов.

УДК 902.2 ББК 63.444-427 С 325 Научный редактор: доктор исторических наук А.А. Тишкин Рецензенты: доктор исторических наук В.В. Горбунов; доктор исторических наук А.В. Харинский; кафедра архелогии и всеобщей истории Горно-Алтайского государственного университета С 325 Серегин, Н.Н. Социальная организация раннесредневековых тюрок Алтае-Саянского региона и Центральной Азии (по материалам погребальных комплексов) : монография / Н.Н. Се регин. -Барнаул : Изд-во Алт. ун-та, 2013. -206 с. ISBN 978-5-7904-1541-8 В монографии представлен современный опыт реконструкции общественной организации раннесредневековых тюрок Алтае-Саян ского региона и Центральной Азии. Продемонстрирова ны возможности анализа и социальной интерпретации материалов раскопок погребальных комплексов, а также корреляции полученных результатов со сведениями из письменных источников. Издание рассчитано на специалистов в области археологии и истории, а также на широкий круг исследователей, интересующихся различными аспектами изучения кочевых обществ Азии. УДК 902.2 ББК 63.444-427 Монография подготовлена и издана при финансовой поддержке РГНФ (проект №12-31-01245а2 «Социальная организация раннесредневековых тюрок Центральной Азии (по археологическим и письменным источникам)»)

Öz: İskit/Saka-Türk yaşam tarzı ve dil birliğini kanıtlayan deliller ışığında iz sürüldüğünde, Türk kadının Avrasya bozkırlarından Anadolu'ya, yaşamı ve toplumsal konumu nasıl bir dönüşüm sergiler? Çalışmamızda bu sorunun cevabını bulmaya çalışırken, öncelikle arkeolojik ve yazılı kaynaklara dayanarak İskitler ve diğer Türk topluluklarındaki konargöçer kadınların ortak konumunu ele alacağız. Eş zamanlı olarak, Türk soylu kadınların yüksek konumunun Eski Yunan ve diğer halkları nasıl etkilediğini irdeleyeceğiz. Ardından, Türklerin Anadolu'da yerleşik hayata geçmeden hemen önceki fetih ve gaza dönemlerinde destanlara ve tarihlere yansıyan Türk kadının profiline bakacağız. Ve nihayet, yerleşik hayata geçmelerine paralel olarak şehirlerde mukim olan kadınların önceki atlı-arabalı, gerektiğinde savaşçı yaşam tarzlarının nasıl bir dönüşüme uğradığını ve bu bağlamda Bâcıyân-ı Rûm'un olası niteliklerini değerlendirmeye çalışacağız. Anahtar kelimeler: İskitler, Türkler, Amazonlar, Türk kadını, Bâcıyân-ı Rûm. The Evolving Life Style of Turkish Women: From the Scythians to the Bâciyân-ı Rûm Abstact: Given the anthropological and linguistic evidence that points to the Turkish origin of Scythian/Saka culture a question this paper addresses relates to the evolution of Turkish women's lifestyle and social position from the Eurasian steppes to the Anatolian plateau. To answer this question, we will primarily utilize archaeological and written sources to examine the common position of nomadic women in Scythians and other Turkish societies. Subsequently, we will examine the impact of the high position of ethnically turkish women upon Greeks and other societies. Then, we will look at the profile of Turkish women in Turkish legends and histories produced during the conquest of Anatolia and before the Turks became sedentary. Finally, we will attempt to reconstruct the possible features of Bâcıyân-ı Rûm by looking into the transformation in the lifestyle of women from a nomadic life as occasional mounted warriors to the life of sedentary Turkish women in Anatolian cities.

The first summarizing work in historiography on the history of the Western Turkic khanate - State of VI-VIII centuries on the territory of modern Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan and Eurasia. Book of international team of authors for the first time brought together data from numerous written, visual, archaeological sources on the history of the Western Turks, that created a state on the territory of Central Asia and Eastern Europe and established a vast empire from the Altai to the Balkans. Atlas is well illustrated, and provides a variety of detailed maps, equipped with signposts, addressed to a wide audience - from academic researchers to students.

En el libro HIJOS DE TITANES • EL SECRETO ÍBERO, Enrique Cabrejas Iñesta nos relata de modo llano su experiencia personal con un descubrimiento extraordinario. El 21 de Abril de 2012 consiguió lo que parecía imposible: descifrar la escritura ibérica. Un hito sin precedentes en la historia de la escritura, solo al alcance de los grandes y comparable a los realizados por Champollion al descodificar la escritura jeroglífica egipcia o Ventris con la escritura de Creta. Desde este instante la obra de Enrique Cabrejas lo convierte en un referente destacado a nivel mundial en historia y lingüística. Las innumerables pruebas y significados que nos reporta, antes desconocidos, son una referencia obligada para todos aquellos que quieran comprender la historia, la lengua antigua e, incluso, también la moderna de nuestro país, o para quienes en el futuro deseen estudiarla e investigarla en profundidad, más si cabe desde el mundo académico. Hasta la fecha, el significado de esas enigmáticas escrituras no se conocía, aunque desde la comunidad científica se le dio validez a un origen indiscutible celta. Estas páginas nos revelan qué hay de cierto en todo ello. La transcripción, resuelta de numerosos textos íberos y celtíberos nos sorprende con un desenlace tan inesperado como fascinante que va más allá del descifrado de una lengua antigua. Capaz de responder a las preguntas que se han formulado los historiadores, lingüistas, investigadores y expertos durante décadas y nunca supieron ni acertaron responder: ¿Quiénes fueron los íberos y los celtíberos? ¿Cómo se llamaban? ¿De dónde vinieron? ¿Cómo llegaron? ¿Cuáles fueron sus costumbres? ¿Qué escritura es la ibérica? ¿Cuál es la ancestral y extraordinaria cultura que nos legaron?
HIJOS DE TITANES • EL SECRETO ÍBERO  nos ilumina y nos abre los ojos, no solo para saber quiénes fuimos sino para conocer quiénes somos. Todo está implícito en su escritura y por primera vez ve la luz a través de esta imprescindible publicación.

Regarding the context of the titles Qaghan (Khaqan) and Khan, and their relations with each other, a consensus has not been reached until now among scholars studying the organization of Turkic and Mongol polities. Some scholars are of the opinion that Khan was a title below in rank from Qaghan, while some scholars thought the opposite. The fact that the greatest ruler administrating the Mongol Empire held the title Qaghan while other members of the dynasty administrating various parts of the empire carried the title Khan seems to be supporting the former view. According to another opinion on this matter outside these two views, both of these titles were the same in the beginning but had differentiated in later periods. Starting from the Türks (Köktürks, Tujue 突厥) up to the Qarakhanids, it can be seen that the titles Qaghan and Khan did not have any differences yet, while Khan was actually used as an abbreviation of Qaghan. However, differences between these two titles began to emerge among the Qarakhanids. It was the title Khan that was generally used among groupings such as the Qara Khitans, Kereyids and Naimans that ruled during the 12th and early 13th centuries. Among the Mongols, Khan’s usage started in the 12th century and Qaghan’s usage started in the 13th century. Although it is understood that the Mongols differentiated between these two titles, it can be observed that there are some conflicting accounts in both Mongol and foreign sources regarding the usages of these titles among the Mongols. As to the Oghuz-Turkmens, usages of the titles Khan and Khaqan intensified during the Mongol period and afterwards. When it comes to the Ottoman period, these two titles started to be used for one another just like in the Türk-Uyghur periods. Besides, the title Khan was sometimes perceived as an equivalent of Beg during the post-Mongol period. In this study, emphasize has been put on the usages of the titles Qaghan and Khan in Turko-Mongol polities starting from the 12th century, relying on the cases of various historical sources alongside opinions of modern researchers, while the course of this process’ development is put forward.

Рахно К.Ю. Дух йин в ногайской демонологии и его параллели // Ногайцы: XXI век. История. Язык. Культура. От истоков — к грядущему. Материалы Второй Международной научно-практической конференции, г. Черкесск, 12-13 октября 2016 г. – Черкесск: Федеральная национально-культурная автономия ногайцев России, Карачаево-Черкесский государственный университет им. У.Д. Алиева, Карачаево-Черкесский институт гуманитарных исследований при правительстве КЧР, 2016. – С. 378-384.

Статья посвящена введению в научный оборот и интерпретации наскального изображения женского персонажа в трехрогом головном уборе эпохи раннего средневековья из урочища Апшиякта в Центральном Алтае. Подобный персонаж представлен в наскальных гравировках, предметах из погребений, на каменных изваяниях Алтая и Семиречья и связанных с ними монетах Западно-Тюркского каганата в Согде и Тохаристане. Эти памятники относятся к т.н. кудыргинскому типу и датируются VI–VII вв. Высокий головной убор с тремя вертикальными лопастями являлся важным элементом костюма замужней женщины у определенной этнической или племенной группы эпохи раннего средневековья Алтая и Семиречья, которой могли выступать карлуки. Вероятно, они вошли в состав племенной конфедерации тюрок-тугю и приняли самое активное участие в экспансии Первого Тюркского каганата на запад. 

The article is devoted to the publication and interpretation of a female image with a three-horned headdress of the early Middle Ages from Apshiyakta petrogltphs in Central Altai. Similar images are represented in rock engravings, on artifacts from burials, on stone sculptures of Altai and Semirechye and on related coins of the Western Turkic Qaganate in Sogd and Tokharistan. These antiquities belong to the so-called Kudyrge type and date back to the VI-VII centuries AD. A high headdress with three vertical blades was an important element of the costume of a married woman among a certain ethnic or tribal group of the early Middle Ages in Altai and Semirechye, which possible were the Karluks. Probably, they became part of the tribal confederation of the Tugu-Turks and played an active role in the expansion of the First Turkic Qaganate to the west.

Eski Türk ve Moğol devletlerinin teşkilatları üzerine çalışan uzmanlar arasında, Kağan (Ḳaġan, Ḫaġan, Ḫâḳân) ve Han (Ḳan, Ḫan) unvanlarının içeriği ile bunların birbirleriyle olan ilişkileri konusunda bugüne kadar bir fikir birliğine varılamamıştır. Bazı uzmanlar, Han’ın Kağan’dan daha düşük düzeyde bir unvan olduğunu savunurlarken, bunun tam tersini savunan uzmanlar da olmuştur. Söz konusu iki unvanın farklı olduğunu savunanlar, kendilerine dayanak olarak Kaşgarlı Mahmud’un eseri Divanu Lugati’t-Türk’te geçen bir ifadeyi almışlardır. Moğollarda devleti yöneten en büyük hükümdarın Kağan (Ḫaġan), çeşitli bölgeleri yöneten diğer hanedan üyelerinin Han (Ḫan) unvanını taşımış olmaları da bu görüşü destekler gibi gözükmektedir. Sözü geçen mesele hakkında iki görüşün dışında başka bir görüşe göre ise, her iki unvan ilk zamanlarda aynı iken sonradan farklılaşmıştır. Türk Kağanlığı döneminde (552-744) Küçük Kağan şeklinde bir unvanın kullanılmış olması da bu meseleyi daha zor bir duruma getirmektedir. Küçük Kağanların, tıpkı Şad ve Yabgu unvanlarını taşıyan hanedan üyeleri gibi, bazı dönemlerde devletin başındaki Büyük Kağan’a bağlı olarak devlete bağlı halklar ile bu devletin çeşitli bölgelerini yönettikleri görülmektedir. Türk Kağanlığı’na, Ötüken Uygur Kağanlığı’na (744-840) ve Yenisey Kırgızlarına ait 8.-9. yüzyıllardan kalma çeşitli Eski Türkçe yazıtlar birbirleriyle karşılaştırıldığında ise, sözü geçen dönemde Kağan ve Han unvanları arasında henüz bir fark olmadığı, üstelik Han’ın aslında Kağan’ın bir kısaltması olduğu görülmektedir. Çin’deki Tang 唐 Hanedanı dönemini (618-907) anlatan Çin kaynaklarında bulunan kayıtlar da, bu yazıtlarda geçen anlatıları destekleyici bilgiler sunmaktadır. Görüldüğü üzere, oldukça tartışmalı bir mesele olan bu konu incelenirken konuyla ilgili bütün kaynaklar birbirleriyle karşılaştırılarak gözden geçirilmelidir. Yaptığımız çalışmaya göre, 8.-9. yüzyıllarda Eski Türklerde Kağan ve Han unvanları arasında henüz bir fark yok iken, bunların arasında fark oluşması sonraki Karahanlı ve Moğol dönemlerinde yaşanmıştır.

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Regarding the context of the titles Qaghan (Qaγan, Xaγan, Xāqān) and Khan (Qan, Xan), and their relations with each other, a consensus has not been reached until now among scholars studying the organization of Ancient Turkic and Mongol polities. Some scholars are of the opinion that Khan was a title below in rank from Qaghan, while some scholars thought the opposite. Those who thought that these titles were different have taken a statement in Mahmud of Kashghar’s (Maḥmūd al-Kāšγarī) work Compendium of Turkic Dialects (Dīwān Luγāt al-Turk) as their base of support. The fact that the greatest ruler administrating the Mongol Empire held the title Qaghan (Xaγan) while other members of the dynasty administrating various parts of the empire carried the title Khan (Xan) seems to be supporting this view. According to another opinion on this matter outside these two views, both of these titles were the same in the beginning but had differentiated in later periods. Usage of a title in the form of Lesser Qaghan during the Türk Qaghanate period (552-744) makes it even more difficult to solve this matter. It is observed that during some periods, these Lesser Qaghans subjected to the Grand Qaghan at the top of the empire, just like other members of the dynasty carrying the titles Shad and Yabghu, were administrating subjugated peoples and various parts of the empire. When the numerous Old Turkic inscriptions from 8th-9th centuries that belonged to the Türk Qaghanate, Ötükän Uyghur Qaghanate and the Yenisei Kyrgyz are compared with each other, it can be seen that the titles Qaghan and Khan did not have any differences during that period yet, while Khan actually stood as an abbreviation of Qaghan. Records in the Chinese sources that narrate the Tang Dynasty 唐 period (618-907) in China also offer cases that support narratives in these inscriptions. As can be seen, all the sources related with this matter, which is a highly problematic case, should be compared with each other and evaluated. According to our study, the titles Qaghan and Khan did not possess any differences among the ancient Turks during 8th and 9th centuries yet, but their differentiation occurred in the later Qarakhanid and Mongol periods.

The first post-classical appearance of descent from Trojan exiles is found in the Merovingian _Chronicle of Fredegar_. The author describes the Franks as sharing a common ancestry with the Turks. This connection seems absurd but could have originated with Byzantine diplomacy in the late sixth or early seventh century.  While it was retained in Frankish origin myths for nearly a millennium, its original significance appears to have been neglected very soon.  Fredegar reports the return of named ambassadors from Constantinople in 629, who could be the source for many of his eastern stories as some details fit that specific time.  While the ambassadors' sojourn coincided with Heraclius's alliance with the Göktürks, Fredegar seems unaware of Turkish involvement in the Persian wars.

Until relatively recently, the centuries between Xiongnu and Türk domination in the Mongolian steppelands (both north and south of the Gobi Desert) appeared as an archaeological »dark age«. At the same time, the steppe empire of the Rouran has, compared to the polities of the Xiongnu and the Türks, received relatively little attention by modern historians.
In recent years however, archaeological discoveries have started to throw new light on this period, shattering long-held assumptions and, at the same time, generating new questions. Among the most important of these recent discoveries are five 5th century elite tombs found at Yihe-nur in southeastern Inner Mongolia.
Previous studies dealing with these sumpotously furnished tombs have been focused on detailing connections with the contemporary Northern Wei court culture, labeling the tomb owners either as »Xianbei« or as »Gaoche«. However, a closer look at a set of two exquisite parade belts and a peculiar type of pectoral found at Yihe-nur, suggests that the tomb owners of Yihe-nur also adhered to fashions that were much more
common in the steppes and in the »Western Regions« than in the Chinese heartland, pointing to elite networks spanning far across Central Eurasia. Finally, this paper will inquire into the question how a better understanding of the Rouran polity and its elites can shed additional light on these elite networks in the northern Chinese frontier and beyond during the 5th and early 6th century.

Chernoles archaeological culture, which existed in the area between the rivers Dniester and Dnieper between from XIth until VIIIth centuries BC, was a culture belonging to Pre-Scythian period. According to the preaviling point of view in the scholarly milieu, the Scythians coming from east appeared in the mentioned area afterwards. However, Herodotos’ accounts in relation to the geographical location of the farmer Scythians refutes the scholarly judgment of this kind and reveal the fact that the archaeological culture of Chernoles continued its existence uninterrupted until the Sarmatian invasion. In this paper, the language of the Farmer Scythians, who appear to be the creators of Chernoles archaeological culture and to be an indigenous community in the country streching from the Dniepr River  to the Dniestr River, will be showed with linguistic materials.

Статья вводит в научный оборот материалы раннесредневекового погребения у Большой Тавдинской пещеры в нижнем течении р. Катунь на Алтае. Погребение совершено по обряду ингумации в сопровождении коня под курганной насыпью, имеющей крепиду. Погребенный подросток был ориентирован головой на восток с небольшим отклонением на север, сопровождающий его конь – в противоположную от него сторону. В состав представительного сопроводительного инвентаря, подтверждающего высокий социальный и имущественный статус погребенного, входили такие предметы как: стремя, железные удила с роговыми псалиями, наборный пояс «катандинского» типа, кочедык и др.
Аналогии сопроводительному инвентарю тавдинского погребения и, в особенности, стремени и железным удилам с роговыми псалиями, позволяют датировать погребальный комплекс VII в. н.э. В погребении было найдено только одно стремя, что можно рассматривать как особенность погребального обряда, связанную с использованием некомплектных или сознательно сломанных вещей.
Погребения с конем на Алтае исследователи, как правило, относят к древним тюркам или к т.н. тюркской культуре. Однако критический взгляд на сведения китайских источников в переводах разных китаистов позволяет приписать погребения с конем на Алтае преимущественно карлукам. Так, например, в тексте китайской хроники недвусмысленно подчеркивается, что в середине VIII века одна из двух групп карлуков, не подчинившихся уйгурам, кочевала на Алтае, а также то, что карлукский ябгу в подтверждение своего status quo получил от китайских властей титул «князь Алтая».
Во второй половине I тыс. на Алтае сложилась пестрая этническая картина: карлуки проживали здесь совместно с азами, тюрками племени чеби и, вероятно, телеским племенем пугу. Исследованное у Большой Тавдинской пещеры раннесредневековое погребение, в числе прочих, маркирует северную границу карлукских погребений с конем.

The article is devoted to the publication of early medieval burial materials at the Big Tavdinskaya cave in downstream of the river Katun in Altai. The burial was made according to the rite of inhumation, accompanied by a horse under a mound with crepida (base of large stones). The buried teenager was oriented with his head to the east with a slight deviation to the north, the accompanying horse - in the opposite direction from him. The representative accompanying inventory, confirming the high social and property status of the buried, included such items as: stirrup, iron snaffles with horn cheekpieces, a plague decorated belt of the "Katanda" type, kochedyk, etc.
The analogies to the accompanying grave goods of the Tavda burial and, in particular, analogies to the stirrup and iron snaffles with horn cheekpieces, let us to date the burial complex into the 7 th century AD. Only one stirrup, which was found in the burial, can be considered as a feature of the funeral rite associated with the use of incomplete or consciously broken things.
Researchers attribute the burials with a horse in Altai, as a rule, to the an-cient Turks or to the so-called Turkic culture. However, a critical look at the in-formation of Chinese sources in the translations of various Sinologists makes it possible to attribute the burials with a horse in Altai mainly to the Karluks. So, for example, in the text of the Chinese chronicle is unequivocally emphasized that in the middle of the 8 th century one of the two groups of Karluks, who remained independent from Uyghurs, nomadized in Altai, and also that the Karluk Yabgu, in confirmation of his status quo, received from the Chinese authorities the title “Prince of Altai ".
In the second half of the 1 st millennium, a heterogeneous ethnic picture formed in Altai: the Karluks lived here together with the people of Az tribe, the Türks of the Chebi tribe and, probably, the Pugu Teles tribe. An early medieval burial excavated near the Big Tavdinskaya Cave, among others, marks the northern border of the Karluk horse burials wide spreading.

The subject of the article was the identification of authority symbols among the early Middle Age Turkic population groups in the Central Asia. The study was based on archaeological materials, primarily from the excavated burial complexes of the second half of the 1st millennium AD. The study of the available materials and supplementary sources (written, visual art items, ethnographic) made it possible to identify artifacts which served as symbols of a person’s position within the
early Middle Age political elite hierarchy. In view of the significant militarization of the nomads most of these items were related to military activities. Important authority symbols included: close combat bladed weapons (sword, dagger), battle axe, spear, padded armor. Another symbol of a person’s status and his power position was also the artistically decorated flail. An important indicator of a nomad’s belonging to a political elite was a composite belt. Other toreutics items (metal vessels, mirrors, decorations and costume) served mostly as the symbols of wealth, however they too were used as the attributes of the nomads upper classes.

Türklerin İslâmiyete geçişleri ve bunun nedenleri konusunda farklı görüşler bulunmaktadır. Bu konuda öne sürülen görüşlerden birine göre, eski Türk inançları ile İslâmiyet arasında, özellikle de Teŋri ve Allah kavramlarında benzerlikler bulunması bu süreci hızlandırmıştır. Türklerin bu dönemdeki Teŋri algısı incelendiğinde, İslâm'daki Allah kavramıyla aralarında bazı benzerlikler olduğu görülmektedir. Ancak İslâm'daki katı Allah inancının tersine, Türklerin Teŋri algıları daha esnek olmuştur. Nitekim eski Türk inançları, İslâm'dan ve onun Allah kavramından benzerliklerin yanı sıra epey farklılıklar da göstermektedir. İki inanç arasındaki benzerlikler Türklerin İslâm'a geçişlerini belki kolaylaştırmış olsa da bu olayı zorlaştıran inançlar da var olmuştur. Türklerin Müslüman olmalarının pek çok farklı nedeninin bulunduğu da unutulmamalıdır. Çalışmamızda, dönemin kaynakları kullanılarak Türklerin İslâmiyete geçiş sürecindeki Teŋri algıları ile İslâm'daki Allah kavramı karşılaştırılmış, benzerlikler ve farklılıklar ortaya konulmuştur.

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Different views exist on the conversion of Turks to Islam and its reasons. According to one of these views, the existence of similarities between ancient Turkic beliefs and Islam, especially in the concepts of Täŋri (Tengri) and Allah, speeded up this process. When the perception of Täŋri among the Turks during this period is examined, it can be observed that it possessed some similarities with the concept of Allah in Islam. However, contrary to the strict belief of Allah in Islam, the perception of Täŋri among Turks was more flexible. Indeed, ancient Turkic beliefs show quite many differences from Islam and its concept of Allah as well as they show some similarities. Even if the similarities between the two faiths may have made it easier for the conversion of Turks to Islam, beliefs that made this event more difficult also existed. It should also not be forgotten that the conversion of Turks to Islam had many different reasons. In our study, the perceptions of Täŋri among Turks during their process of Islamization and the concept of Allah in Islam have been compared using the sources of the period, while similarities and differences between the two have been demonstrated.

Bibliografische Information der Deutschen Nationalbibliothek Die Deutsche Nationalbibliothek verzeichnet diese Publikation in der Deutschen Nationalbibliografie; detaillierte bibliografische Daten sind im Internet über http://portal.dnb.de abrufbar.

This is the second edition of the book originally published in 2005, by the 'Gutenberg" Publ. House, Sofia. It deals with the so-called 'Inside' and 'Outside' Others in the histories of Bulgars, Khazars, Ancient Turk, and Uighurs and covers the period between the 6th and the 9/10th centuries.

В эпоху раннего средневековья на территории Центральной Азии существовали микрооазисы, жители которых образовали самобытные культуры, поддерживая тесные связи с населением сопредельных регионов, и окружающими кочевыми племенами. В этот период своего блестящего развития достигла культура, созданная жителями долины Зарафшана -согдийцами. Неотъемлемым компонентом согдийской культуры стали инновации, внесенные прямо или косвенно тюркскими племенами. Изучение этого процесса и его содержания наталкивается на несколько препятствий, связанных с такими проблемами как историко-географические границы Согда, согдийской культуры и широта распространенности самоназвания «согдийцы», содержание термина «тюрк» в зависимости от контекста применения.

Göktürk Kağanlığı'nın siyasî tarihini ele alan bazı araştırmacılar, bu devletin Doğu ve Batı Kağanlıkları olarak ikiye ayrılmasının 581'de yaşandığını, Batı Göktürk Kağanlığı'nın bu yılda Tardu Ḳaġan tarafından kurulduğunu, devletin temellerinin ise onun babası İştemi Yabġu Ḳaġan tarafından atıldığını kabul etmişlerdir. Ancak araştırmacıların bir kısmı, bazı yeni bulgulara dayanarak Batı Göktürk Kağanlığı'nın Tardu Ḳaġan tarafından değil, onun desteğini alan ve *Buḳan Ḳaġan'ın oğlu olan Apa Ḳaġan (Daluobian) tarafından 583'te kurulduğunu belirtmişlerdir. Konuyla ilgili Çin kaynaklarını kullandığımız çalışmamızda vardığımız sonuca göre, Göktürk Kağanlığı 583'te ikiye bölünmüşse de yaşanan iç mücadele, hanedanın Yixiji Ḳaġan'ın soyu ile *Buḳan Ḳaġan'ın soyu arasında Büyük Kağanlık konumunu elde etmek amacıyla verilmiş ve ilk başta bağımsız bir Batı Göktürk Kağanlığı'nın kurulması amaçlanmamıştır. Bir "Hükümdar-Yapıcı" olarak hareket ettiği düşünülebilecek olan Tardu Ḳaġan, bu mücadelede uzun bir süre boyunca Yixiji Ḳaġan'ın soyuna karşı *Buḳan Ḳaġan'ın soyunu desteklemiş ve ancak 600 yılında Büyük Kağan olma iddiasında bulunabilmiştir. *Buḳan Ḳaġan'ın soyu hep doğuyu ele geçirmeye çalışmış, ancak bunda başarısız olmuştur. Tardu Ḳaġan'ın soyundan gelen Shegui Ḳaġan'ın 611'de Batı Göktürk Kağanlığı'nın tahtına oturmasıyla birlikte ise Büyük Kağanlık konumu için verilen mücadele sona ermiş ve Batı Göktürk Kağanlığı, amacı yalnızca batıya doğru yayılmak olan bağımsız bir devlete dönüşmüştür.

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Some of the researchers who studied the political history of the Türk (Gokturk) Qaġanate have concluded that the division of this empire occurred in 581, the Western Türk Qaġanate was founded by Tardu Qaġan in this year and the foundations of this state were established by his father Ištämi Yabġu Qaġan. However, relying on some new discoveries, several researchers have pointed out that the Western Türk Qaġanate was not founded by Tardu Qaġan, but it was founded in 583 by Apa Qaġan (Daluobian), *Buqan Qaġan's son, who received Tardu Qaġan's support. According to the conclusion we reached in our study, in which we used the Chinese sources related with the topic, even though the Türk Qaġanate was divided into two halves in 583, the civil war was fought between two different branches of the dynasty, one of them descending from Yixiji Qaġan and the other descending from *Buqan Qaġan. This civil war was fought with the aim of acquiring the position of Great Qaġan and the foundation of an independent Western Türk Qaġanate was not aimed in the beginning. Tardu Qaġan, who can be thought of acting as a "Kingmaker", supported the lineage of *Buqan Qaġan against the lineage of Yixiji Qaġan for a long time in this struggle and he could claim to become the Great Qaġan only in the year 600. The lineage of *Buqan Qaġan always attempted to conquer the east, but they always failed in this. With the ascend of Tardu Qaġan’s descendent Shegui Qaġan to the throne of the Western Türk Qaġanate in 611, the struggle for the position of Great Qaġan came to an end and the Western Türk Qaġanate transformed into an independent state with the sole aim of expanding towards the west.

Abbâsîler’in iktidara gelmesine kadar Müslümanlar tarafından fetihlerde ve gazâlarda ele geçirilmiş çok sayıda esir çoğunlukla köle olarak istihdâm edildiklerinden Müslümanların ayrıca uluslararası köle ticaretine başvurmalarına gerek kalmıyordu. Fakat Abbâsîler dönemi büyük fetihlerin artık sona erdiği akabinde siyasî bölünmelerin ve ciddi toprak kayıplarının yaşandığı bir dönemdi. Nihayetinde fethedilecek veya gazâ yapılacak alanların daralması da bu yollarla elde edilen kölelerin İslâm dünyasına doğru akışını yavaşlatmıştı. Abbâsîler de böylece beliren insan ihtiyacı sorunlarını muazzam ekonomilerinin ve ticarî bağlantılarının yardımıyla uluslararası köle ticaretine başvurarak aşabilmişlerdir.
Abbâsîler’in insan ihtiyacını karşılayan coğrafyaların başında, Bilâdü’s-Sakālibe ve Bilâdü’l-Etrâk’a ev sahipliği de yapan, muazzam insan kaynaklarıyla Avrasya coğrafyası gelmekteydi. Bu coğrafyanın savaşçı kavimleri Varyag-Ruslar’ın, Macarlar’ın ve Türkler’in çok büyük oranda savaşçılıklarıyla elde ettikleri esirlerin kahir ekseriyetini de -bilhassa konumuz dâhilinde salt etnik tanımlamalar olmayan- Sakālibe ve Türkler meydana getirmişlerdir. Avrasya’nın savaşçı kavimleri tarafından istihsâl edilmiş köleler gerek yine bunlar tarafından gerekse de uluslararası köle tüccarları vasıtasıyla evvelen Abbâsîler’le aralarında bulunan büyük köle ticareti merkezlerine taşınmışlardı. Mevzubahis uluslararası tüccarlarsa aynı zamanda köle istihsâliyle de meşgul olmuş Varyag-Ruslar, Hazarlar, İdil Bulgarları ve Müslümanların yanı sıra Avrupa menşeli Râzâniyye tüccarlarından ve Mâverâünnehir menşeli Soğd tüccarlarından meydana gelmekteydiler.
Uluslararası köle ticaretinin gerçekleştiği merkezlerin hemen hemen tamamı ya Sâmânîler’in hâkimiyeti altındaki Mâverâünnehir’de ya da Hazarlar’la İdil Bulgarları’nın hâkimiyeti altındaki İtil nehri boylarıyla Hazar denizinin yakın çevresinde konuşlanmışlardır. Mevzubahis merkezlere taşınmış kölelere, Abbâsîler’e sevklerinden öncesinde, onları istihdâm edeceklerin beklenti ve beğenileri doğrultusunda ya birtakım temel eğitimler verilmiş ya da bu köleler burada iğdiş de edilmişlerdi. Müstahdimlerin beklentilerine göre şekillendirilen köleler, bunun sonrasındaysa gerek Hazar denizi veya yakın çevresi gerekse de Horasan üzerinden geçen ticarî güzergâhları takiben Abbâsî memleketine doğru taşınmışlardı. Avrasya coğrafyasıyla gerçekleştirilen mevzubahis uluslararası köle ticareti de Abbâsî Devleti döneminin neredeyse tamamı boyunca betimlenen şekilde devam etmiştir. Nihayetinde gazilerin ve fatihlerin vadedilmiş ganimetlerinden köleler, Abbâsîler dönemine gelindiğinde ithal edilen lüks ticarî emtiaya dönüşmüşlerdir.

Since the prisoners of war that were captured during the conquests and battles by the Muslims were employed as slaves until the rise of the ‘Abbāsids, the Muslims did not have to establish a connection with the international slave trade. However, the ‘Abbāsid Era was not the epoch of the grand conquests; rather, it was generally affiliated with the political schisms and mass territorial losses. The narrowing of the to-be-conquered and to-be-raided lands had slowed down the influx of the slaves through the Islamic World by these methods. Thus, the ‘Abbāsids were able to eliminate their human force problem by consulting to the international slave trade with the help of their immense economy and mercantile links.
In order to attain human sources, Abbasids mostly benefitted from the Eurasian continent with its excessive manpower stock as the host of the Bilād al-Sakāliba and Bilād al-Atrāk. The majority of the captives abducted by the Eurasian warrior tribes Varangian-Rus’, Madjars and Turks as a result of their warfare accomplishments were the Sakāliba and the Turks. Those slaves taken captive by the Eurasian war-maker peoples were firstly sent to the mass slave trade centres connected to the Abbasids either by these warrior tribes or international slave traders. These international traders were composed of Varangian-Rus’, Khazars, Volga Bulgars and Muslims -who simultaneously engaged in enslavement activities- and also of Rādhānite traders of European descent and Soghdian traders of Transoxania descent.
Almost all of the international slave trade centres were either in Transoxania under the control of the Sāmānids or Volga valley and the vicinity of the Caspian Sea under the control of the Khazars and Volga Bulgars. Before their arrival to the ‘Abbāsid lands, the slaves transported to the aforementioned centres were either trained in the way their potential masters would appreciate or castrated. Thence, shaped in the way their potential masters would approve, they were sent not only to the Caspian Sea and its surroundings but also to the ‘Abbāsid territories via the trade routes passing through Khorasan. The international slave trade with the Eurasian soil continued in this depicted way almost through the entire the ‘Abbāsid period. At the end, the slaves as the promised booties of the ghazis and conquerors turned into luxurious commercial commodities when the ‘Abbāsid period began.