History of Christian Thought

Oi Christianoi - Sezione antica, n. 26 ----- Su Ipazia di Alessandria e su Sinesio di Cirene molti hanno già scritto: Ipazia, una nota antica scienziata e filosofia, Sinesio, un nobile, suo allievo e poi vescovo cristiano; Ipazia, da alcuni presa in considerazione unicamente come vessillo del femminismo, Sinesio, spesso trascurato a fronte di più famosi Padri della Chiesa. La peculiarità del libro, che è frutto di un accurato studio critico delle relative fonti primarie e secondarie, consiste nel tipo di approccio: le due figure e le loro opere sono esaminate sullo sfondo dei differenti ambiti culturali in cui si sono sviluppate le vicende della loro vita, pur nella contemporaneità: la differenza di ambiti culturali consente di evidenziare di questa donna e di questo uomo non solo la validità del loro lungo rapporto amicale, testimoniate da alcune lettere di Sinesio a noi pervenute, ma anche l'alto valore interculturale di tale rapporto.

Цель предлагаемой статьи – дать общую характеристику отношению к ораторскому искусству, которое сложилось в элитарной культуре Средних веков. Автор показывает, что данное отношение было далеко не однозначным, и вскрывает причины этой сложности. Он утверждает, что помимо радикального отвержения риторики (более декларируемого в теории, чем осуществляемого на практике) исследуемая
культура имела опыт её христианской адаптации, суть которой, равно как и мотивы отказа от красноречия, описывается в работе.

Tato ptrezentace ukazuje hlavní školy a postavy jak západní tak východní křesťanské teologie v historickém přehledu. Jejím cílem je pomoci studentům sledovat základní výzvy a diskuse v různých tradicích ve stejnou dobu.

This presentation follows the main schools and figures in both Western and Eastern Christian Theology over the centuries. Its aim is to enable students to follow the main challenges and discussions which were going on in various traditions at the same time.

L’influence de la pensée chrétienne sur les systèmes fiscaux d’Europe occidentale. La pensée religieuse fait partie, selon Ripert, des forces créatrices du droit. L’impôt est un élément constitutif du pouvoir souverain, mais il n’est cependant qu’un objet secondaire des doctrines sociales des Eglises chrétiennes, dont les conceptions fiscales sont motivées par des fondements théologico-politiques. Si l’éclatement protestant a favorisé sa soumission au pouvoir fiscal du prince, l’unité catholique maintenait une attitude plus réservée. L’abandon catholique du modèle féodal est contemporain de la déchristianisation des sociétés européennes. L’affirmation unie du devoir fiscal accompagne donc désormais des sociétés où le civisme fiscal décline. Quant à l’influence de ces doctrines chrétiennes sur le droit fiscal positif, l’étude comparée des systèmes européens révèle qu’elle est moins directe qu’indirecte. En effet, l’interventionnisme fiscal à but religieux ou moral est des plus réduits. Il se limite à certains aspects « archaïques » des régimes fiscaux. En ce qui concerne la structure des systèmes fiscaux, au contraire, cette influence semble plus forte. Elle oppose la rationalité axiologique, au sens de Weber, du catholicisme, qui a freiné l’adoption de l’impôt sur le revenu, à la rationalité instrumentale du protestantisme, qui a favorisé l’adaptation des systèmes fiscaux au développement économique moderne.

The Influence of Christian Thought on European Tax Systems. Religious thought is part of the creative sources of law, according to Georges Ripert. Although being an intrinsic element of sovereignty, taxation has always been a secondary issue of the Christian church’s social doctrines, the basis of which are both theological and political. While the division of protestant churches helped the State’s power compliance, the united catholic Church has long maintained a more reserved attitude towards it. Comparative studies show that the influence of these religious teachings on tax laws seems to be more indirect than direct. In fact, tax intervention on religious or moral purposes is very little, and is limited to some aspects of ancient tax systems. On the contrary, their influence on the structure of tax systems is much more significant. It confronts the value rationality – according to Max Weber – of Catholicism which held back the emergence of Income Taxes and the means-ends rationality of Protestantism which helped tax systems to adapt to the modern development of economy.

L’influence de la pensée chrétienne sur les systèmes fiscaux d’Europe occidentale, Préface de P. Beltrame, Paris, L’Harmattan, collection « Finances publiques », 2007, 464 p.

From Studia Patristica 46 (2010) 221-32
I argue that the monotheletes of the seventh century were perfectly orthodox, in the sense of understanding volition in Christ in the same way as did most dyotheletes and also the earlier tradition. Their opponents at the time misrepresented them, as also also most modern treatments.

Il punto di osservazione è centrato sopattutto sulle vicende di carattere sociale dottrinale istituzionale interne alla chiesa romana, nella convinzione che queste hanno avuto peculiarità destinate a un'influenza sul lungo periodo e che Roma rappresentò, da un lato, un modello rispetto al resto del cristianesimo d'Occidente, dall'altro, un polo d'attrazione ma, a volte, di confronto/contrasto non solo rispetto alle chiese d'Oriente, ma anche a quelle stesse d'Occidente.

On this essay, we will present to the reader Justin Martyr, a II century Christian philosopher and theologian. To accomplish this task, we will give a brief summary of the use of the term διδάσκαλος in the Greek poetic and philosophical literature, in Flavius Josephus and the New Testament. Onwards, we will reconstruct the essential elements of Justin's philosophical school at Rome. Aditionally, we will present Justin's biographical data and a critical analysis of his legal procedure and conviction, as transmited by the Acta Iustini, Rescencion A. Finally, we will do a stylistic analysis of Justin's Apology.

Resumo: No presente artigo, apresentaremos ao leitor a figura de Justino Mártir, filófofo e teólogo cristão do século II. Para tanto, apresentaremos um breve resumo do emprego do termo διδάσκαλος na literatura poética e filosófica grega, em Flávio Josefo e no Novo Testamento. A seguir, reconstruiremos os elementos essenciais da escola filosófica de Justino, em Roma. Adicionalmente, apresentaremos os elementos biográficos conhecidos sobre Justino e analisaremos criticamente o registro de seu processo judicial e condenação, conforme transmitidos pela Recensão A dos Acta Iustinus. Finalmente, realizaremos uma análise estilítica da Apologia, de Justino.

Christianity is one of the major and also the latest religions in Bangladesh. This monotheistic religion is based on the lifestyle, moral ideals, speech, and humanistic attitude of Jesus Christ. Their main religious belief is that Jesus is the son of God and the savior of mankind. The presence of Christianity is not very new and Christianization is going on for over 400 years in this area the Christian community is one of the largest increasing religious communities in Bangladesh. The Christian community of Bangladesh is divided into two main branches- Catholic and Protestant. However, Christianity is practiced here under the patronization of several missionaries. Although there are some differences in structures and activities their mission is almost the same. This paper analyzes the historical background and present situation of Christians focusing on some issues like conversion, socio-political impact, and cultural encounters, along with the development that took place over the years in a Muslim-majority country like Bangladesh.

The Athanasius-Arius conflict is a major debate of, as well as in, the history of Christianity. Being more of a phenomenon than an event, it took place in the fourth century. The controversy it brought about started raging throughout the Christendom, particularly in the major city of Alexandria and the Middle East, almost immediately. The pivotal point of the controversy was the true nature of Christ, which triggered an enormous debate throughout the Roman Empire after the conversion of Constantine the Great to Christianity and his promotion of Christian religion under discreet official patronage.

This study seeks to contribute to the ongoing discussion concerning the interplay of faith and reason advocating that both faith and reason are requisite to the development of the Christian mind. This dissertation consists of the following six elements: 1) it identifies the enduring tension that exists concerning issues pertaining to faith and reason; 2) it includes a review of the literature surrounding contemporary issues related to the Christian mind; 3) in contains a survey of historical perspectives on faith and reason down through the centuries of the Christian church; 4) it offers an evaluation of the relationship between faith and reason in the Christian life, as it is presented in the biblical text; 5) it provides data analysis from an original quantitative study of 895 participants of various faith persuasions, which evidence significant findings concerning contemporary perspectives on faith and reason; and 6) it concludes that the faith/reason dichotomy, however prevalent today, is unwarranted in the case of biblical Christianity. The main contribution of this study is in the development and deployment of an original quantitative study on the relation between faith and reason which included 895 participants from a variety of faith backgrounds, including over 600 self-identified Christians and over 200 self-identified atheists and/or agnostics.

The gospel according to Matthew contends that in answer to Jesus of Nazareth’s searching question to his disciples about who the Son of Man was, Simon Peter affirmed that Jesus was “the Messiah, the Son of the Living God.” Jesus responded in turn: “Blessed are you, Simon son of Jonah! For flesh and blood has not revealed this to you, but my Father in heaven. And I tell you, you are Peter, and on this rock I will build my church, and the gates of Hades will not prevail against it. I will give you the keys of the kingdom of heaven, and whatever you bind on earth will be bound in heaven, and whatever you loose on earth will be loosed in heaven” (Mt 16.16-19). For many Christians, this exchange between Jesus and Peter not only marked the formation of the church, but also secured a foundation for this institution that could weather any vicissitude of human history, for it was a house built upon the most stable of rocks, not one built upon the ever-shifting sand (Cf. Mt 7.24-27). And yet to read the history of Christianity as an institution, or collective of believers and practitioners, that remained impervious to change would be to ignore or deny the profound developments, both positive and negative, that occurred throughout the history of this major world religion. This course will guide students through the many twists and turns, zeniths and nadirs, unities and diversities, reforms and regressions of the history of Christianity, beginning with its ostensible foundation in the first century CE up until the Protestant Reformation of the sixteenth century. This history will be traced from both “above,” through more “official” sources produced by various leaders and theologians within Christianity, and from “below,” through the writings and material remains of Christian laity. This dual approach seeks to ensure that the history of Christianity is recovered in all of its rich variety and complexity.

The Apostles’ Creed is an expression of Christian theology in a period of creative and fascinating debate. The Creed is not simply a dogmatic, static and cryptic symbol of Christian faith, but, on the contrary, a lively narrative that can still inspire imagination, critical reflection and faith.


A challenge is issued to both those who have a literal interpretation of the Creed, and those who dismiss it as an incomprehensible relic of the past. The ancient debates that led to the formulation of the twelve pronouncements of the Apostles’ Creed are raised. The richness of early Christian thought is fore-grounded by looking at the ideas behind each credal pronouncement, tracing the most important Christian theological debates that inspired each statement. Early Christian theology is not treated as ‘unanimous’, but as pluralistic. The polyphony of theologian opinion which characterized the Christianity of this period is therefore highlighted and celebrated.


In explaining the context that gave birth to the Creed, this study refers to the testimony of various ‘witnesses’ of those theological arguments. This includes opponents of the Apostolic and Church Fathers: the Gnostics, ‘heretics', Jewish and pagan critics of Christian faith. .

Invoking Angels brings together a collection of essays on late medieval and early modern texts concerned with the role of angels in the cosmos, focusing on angelic rituals and spiritual cosmologies. Collectively, these essays tie medieval angel magic texts more clearly to medieval religion and to the better-known author-magicians of the early modern period. In the process of rearticulating the understanding of Christian angel magic, contributors examine the places where an intersection of Christian, Jewish, and Islamic ideas can be identified.  Aside from the editor, the contributors are Harvey J. Hames, Frank Klaassen, Katelyn Mesler, Sophie Page, Jan R. Veenstra, Julien Véronèse, Nicolas Weill-Parot, and Elliot R. Wolfson.

The issue – and rejection – of polygamy is deeply rooted in
Western history and legal thought. Influenced by religious and civil
concerns, the law's outlook on this practice is as clear in its
position as its foundations are ambiguous. Since ancient times, European countries have consistently rejected polygamy. However, and especially since marriage became a sacrament, religious and legal thinkers have had to reconcile the biblical patriarchs' polygamy with therejection of the practice in the Christian world. Later, foreign practices and theological differences would feed an ongoing debate which continues to this day. From a pragmatic point of view, the fight against polygamy is mainly expressed through the rejection of mere bigamy. In both civil and common law jurisdictions, the rejection of polygamy goes back to the Middle Ages. Ernest Renan believed, somewhat angelically, that in the early days of Christendom "it wasn't necessary to ban polygamy", since it had already all but disappeared from Jewish customs, being "truly nothing more than an eccentricity, a royal privilege". The few cases of polygamous Jewish unions during the Empire did not attract much moral reprobation from the Jewish and Christian communities. The question did not become the object of Western reflection again until the religious troubles of the 16th century and the colonial era, when the legal straitjacket was somewhat loosened to allow certain polygamous unions, which then were strictly limited in the 19th century.

Traduction entièrement nouvelle de l'Apologie, tenant compte des dernières éditions ainsi que des enseignements tirés de l'édition-traduction du Dialogue avec Tryphon publiée en 2003, avec les articles qui l'accompagnent. Bien que les destinataires ne soient pas les mêmes, le mode de composition de l'Apologie présente, dans le détail, d'évidentes analogies avec celui du Dialogue (démarche rigoureusement argumentée et solidement structurée, au sein de laquelle le passage d'un thème à un autre se fait souvent, de manière implicite, par glissements successifs). Dans l'Apologie comme dans le Dialogue, Justin raisonne à la fois de manière discursive (plan apparent)  et analogique (démarche sous-jacente).  L'ensemble des commentaires qui ne pouvaient pas trouver place dans cette édition Pléiade se retrouveront dans une prochaine monographie sur Justin de Naplouse tenant compte de l'ensemble des données révérées par l'analyse des textes qui lui sont attribués.

Christianity emerged in a world immersed in Greek Philosophy and Hellenistic hegemony that framed its development. Unavoidably, Christianity was expressed using many ideas that existed within that framework of thought but maintained its uniqueness because it was different.

In this paper I seek to lay out the criteria for determining that some doctrine is necessary for protestant orthodoxy. I then apply these criteria to Natural Theology in order to discover if Natural Theology should be considered necessary to orthodoxy, whether it should be rejected as unorthodox, or whether it is an unnecessary doctrine  of little importance.

Justin Martyr’s Dialogue with Trypho [second century A.D.] is one of the earliest Christian works known to us. It is the first preserved Judaeo-Christian polemical document and many ancient authors seem to have been directly or indirectly inspired by it. However, the interest of this text exceeds its polemical function. Indeed, the Dialogue is an exceptional source of information on the relationship between Christianity, Judaism and Hellenism in their historical, philosophical and theological dimensions during late antiquity. Presented here is the first critical edition of this essential text, based on a reexamination of the two extant manuscripts and all earlier editions. It is accompanied by a translation, notes and commentaries, and a lengthy introduction which discusses, among other things, the organization of the work, and important lacuna, as well as exegetical and contextual problems.
This study aims to establish the text and to bring out the originality of his composition, which seems to reflect the influence of Rabbinical exegesis, both as material source for Justin and as a way of thinking.
Various indices (Greek words explained in the notes, names, biblical references, topics, ancient and modern authors) are intended to make more accessible a text described as “monstruous” by A. Harnack. This striking expression emphasized the paradox of an exceptionally rich work, too unwieldy to be properly exploited.

Le Dialogue avec Tryphon de Justin Martyr [IIe s.] est l’une des plus anciennes parmi les œuvres que la tradition chrétienne nous a léguées. C’est le premier écrit conservé de controverse judéo-chrétienne et de nombreux auteurs semblent s’en être inspirés, directement ou indirectement. Mais l’intérêt de cette œuvre déborde largement cette fonction. Le Dialogue se caractérise surtout par la richesse des informations qu’il offre pour notre connaissance des rapports entre christianisme, judaïsme et hellénisme à date ancienne, dans leur dimension historique, philosophique, exégétique et théologique.
Cette première édition critique, avec introduction (en plusieurs chapitres), traduction, notes, commentaires et indices, se fonde sur un examen nouveau des manuscrits. Elle prend en compte toutes les éditions antérieures et l’abondante bibliographie suscitée par le Dialogue. Elle vise à faire progresser l’établissement du texte en faisant ressortir l’originalité de sa composition et l’influence probable, pour le détail comme pour l’ensemble, d’une exégèse rabbinique dont Justin paraît exceptionnellement bien informé.
Les différents indices (des mots grecs commentés, des noms propres, scripturaire, analytique, des auteurs anciens, bibliographique) devraient rendre plus directement accessible un texte dont Harnack déplorait la « monstruosité » en expliquant ainsi le paradoxe d’une exceptionnelle richesse insuffisamment exploitée.

This article examines the rise of a "right-wing international" around contemporary Russia through the lens of the concept of "bad ecumenism," explored in conjunction with the author's philosophical views and personal experience of Orthodox-Protestant interaction. In contrast to "good ecumenism," which, broadly defined, seeks interconfessional dialogue and cooperation toward the common good in our pluralist world, bad ecumenism seeks interconfessional dialogue and collaborative efforts with the goal of dominating and coercing individuals and social groups that do not conform to so-called "traditional values." Hence Patriarch Kirill of the Russian Orthodox Church, Moscow Patriarchate,  dubs hardline American Evangelical Franklin Graham and other Western Christians who oppose LGBTQ rights "confessors of the faith," and Graham is happy to receive his blessing. This works in part because the history of the US Christian Right is bound up with anti-Communism and an equation of secularism with Communism. Russian actors are now playing into this narrative, insisting that because they survived Communism, they can help US and European Christians resist the "new totalitarianism" of so-called "political correctness."

Link to the dictionary: https://global.oup.com/academic/product/the-oxford-dictionary-of-the-christian-church-9780199642465?cc=gb&lang=en&#
The entry is available also online: https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780199642465.001.0001/acref-9780199642465-e-3546?rskey=1MbaFQ&result=3545

This review article explores a new indispensable reference work on the reception of
Augustine. It offers an overview of its content, structure, and methodology, as well as
a critical assessment of its overall contribution to the study of Augustine. Goethe once
remarked that, in the world, there are just a few voices, yet so many echoes. Augustine
is definitely among the ‘few voices’, which have provoked all manner of friendly and
unfriendly echoes. It is particularly important to realize that, apart from explicit
citations and references in western literature, Augustine has also profoundly shaped
medieval and modern culture through the subtle dissemination of his ideas into various
spheres of life. This reference work not only provides a description of the current state
of the reception of Augustine, but also adds the new results of the diligent work of the
contributing researchers and identifies several topics that still need to be investigated.

Summary of the Editors: In chapter nine Philippe Bobichon examines Justin Martyr’s extant writings and citation practices. Bobichon argues that composite features comprise a majority of the apologist’s biblical argumentation. These composite features, including composite citations, are sometimes derived from sources and sometimes are the result of Justin’s own textual composition. In the latter case, Justin’s deviations from known wording at times amount to textual ‘hi-jacking’ (particularly in the Apology). By contrast, the composite features in Justin’s Dialogue mirror the composition itself: the merging of multiple scriptural sources into a single, literary feature enhances Justin’s composition and underscores his view of the harmony of the Scriptures.

John Henry Newman spearheaded one of the first modern retrievals of the Christian doctrine of the Christian doctrine of deification. This article argues that, precisely because of the early date of Newman’s rehabilitation, his treatment is not tinted by the polemics surrounding theosis that developed in the late nineteenth century between Eastern and Western Christianity. To Newman, deification is not an Eastern doctrine, it is not cause for division between East and West, and it does not supplant justification. Instead, it is arises from a broad patristic consensus, it is a tool for union among the churches, and it provides resources for understanding justification properly.

This paper introduces the concept of PROXY PAIN™ in order to describe the relationship between purgatory and self-inflicted punishment  in the 13th and 14th centuries. It analyses the dramatic tension between penitential practice and purgatory highlighting the pivotal force of pain in the Life of Christina von Hane. It also studies the self-inflicted maltreatment of sexual organs against the backdrop of theological and mystical ideas.

The presence of Christianity is not very new in the south-eastern part of Bangladesh and Christianization has been going on for over 150 years in this area. Now, Christianity is one of the largest increasing religious communities and has been able to strike its roots much deeper into the south-eastern hilly areas than in the plains elsewhere in Bangladesh. The indigenous people of Bangladesh, living in hills and foothills, are the most disadvantageous group regarding education, occupation, sanitation, water, health, and so on. Many NGOs are working there under the banner of progress and development but they always hide their main agenda. This paper is focused on the historical background, religious beliefs of indigenous people, and the present situation of Christians making focusing on some issues like nature and cause of conversion, neo-missionaries like NGOs activities, and social impact in a Muslim majority country and shape of Christianity in Chittagong Hill Tracts of Bangladesh.

The present text is the same as the one published in the form of an entry essay in the Encyclopedia of Psychology and Religion (ed. D. A. Leeming). Cf. the section "Encyclopedia and Dictionary Entries" of my academia.edu profile. It has been used as an introduction to the above author for teaching philosophical theology and history of Christian thought in 2019.

Professor of History of Christianity and Medieval history at European University if Rome; member of Poenitentiaria Apostolica Vaticana Scientific Committee; consultant of the Pontifical Council for Culture; PhD in Medieval History at Catholic University of Sacred Heart - Milan; professional journalist engaged in divulgation of cultural and historical items; writer of historical and geographical essays and educational articles.

El miedo al sufrimiento es un sentimiento humano que aleja al hombre de Dios y le apega a la carne, el mundo y egoísmo. Sólo los que tienen gracia muestran espíritu de renuncia y superan su miedo. La renuncia es una experiencia mística y el hombre debe mortificarse para alcanzar a Dios. La reflexión sobre la pasión de Cristo es un eficaz instrumento para superar el egocentrismo. Así, la insignificancia del hombre ante Dios le hace superar su frágil naturaleza. La vida es una senda de renuncia y entrega a Dios; de purificación por medio de la superación del miedo y el sufrimiento. La mortificación es el recurso imprescindible para la beatificación; para gozar de la palabra de Dios y lograr la salvación. Quien no la escucha queda muerto. “Quien no quiera tener al Cristo amargo será devorado en la miel” afirmó Müntzer en Zwickau , porque “Dios sólo habla a la criatura en el dolor”. Este artículo analiza estos presupuestos a la luz de las controversias que alimentaron y produjeron enfrentamientos sociales de enorme calado en la Europa de la génesis de las querellas y guerras confesionales.

The old scientism comes to us with the same old agenda and slogans, though not without some twists and turns – and with a new name. Not only so, it has also deployed a new army of propagandists and evangelists, equally, if not more, vigorous and desperate to win new converts to its creeds and dogmas from every street corner the world over by every means.
No doubt, the new atheism, as it is called today, has been gaining grounds in the lecture halls of some ivory tower academicians of the philosophical materialistic stream as well as the popular media. For which the so-called four horsemen of the anti-theistic apocalypse – Richard Dawkins, Daniel Dennett, Sam Harris and the late Christopher Hitchens – must be credited.