Human Variation

Course syllabus for a second-year course in psychological anthropology with a general student base (many psychology majors, but also a wide variety). Draws on my own interest in phenomenology, neuroanthropology, anthropology of the senses, and skill acquisition.

The scientific working group on DNA analysis Methods (SWGDAM) mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) population data set is used to infer the relative rarity of control region mtDNA profiles obtained from evidence samples and of profiles used for identification of missing persons. In this study, the African American haplogroup patterns in the SWGDAM data were analyzed in a phylogenetic context to determine relevant single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and to describe haplogroup distributions for Africans observed in these data sets. Over 200 SNPs (n ¼ 217) were observed in the African American data set (n ¼ 1148). These SNPs ranged from having 1-39 changes in the phylogenetic tree, with sites 152 and 16519 being the most variable. On average there were 5.8 changes for a character on the tree. The most variable sites (with 19 or more changes each) observed included 16093,

Cranial and postcranial research on East and Southeast Asians has shown population variability between and within these two regions. Moreover, as populations vary by sex, sex differences vary by population. The purpose of this study is to provide the first descriptive and comparative analysis of two recently curated samples of complete, documented, contemporary skeletons from Thailand (N=104) and Hong Kong (N=94) that have not been previously studied. Sex differences reveal Hong Kong males and females as larger but less dimorphic than Thais. Stepwise discriminant function analysis of the Thai humerus and femur allowed 94%-96% sex classification accuracy. In conclusion, this research has increased our knowledge of sex and population differences in Asia and has important applications to demographic and medicolegal investigations.

Objectives: The majority of anthropological studies on dermatoglyphics examine the heritability and inter-population variation of Level 1 detail (e.g., pattern type, total ridge count), while forensic scientists concentrate on individual uniqueness of Level 2 and 3 detail (e.g., minutiae and pores, respectively) used for positive identification.

Cranial vault thickness (CVT) has been reported at many different osteometric landmarks and features on the vault. Historically, only a few landmarks are used, often bregma, lambda, vertex, and right and left euryon, and frequently comparisons are based only on "thick" versus "thin" to describe the vault overall. What is inherent in this strategy is the use of a few locations to characterize the entire vault. The problem remains that there is little information concerning CVT variation throughout an individual's vault, and the causes of variation within recent Homo sapiens important to investigating thickness variation between species in Homo. This work describes thickness variation over the entire superior vault and compares the sexes, age groups and populations in recent H. sapiens. A proportional grid is applied to the superior vault to measure thickness at 219 sampling points in a geographically diverse sample of recent H.

Establishing ancestry from a skeleton for forensic purposes has been shown to be difficult. The purpose of
this paper is to address the application of thirteen non-metric traits to estimate ancestry in three South
African groups, namely White, Black and ‘‘Coloured’’. In doing so, the frequency distribution of thirteen
non-metric traits among South Africans are presented; the relationship of these non-metric traits with
ancestry, sex, age at death are evaluated; and Kappa statistics are utilized to assess the inter and intrarater
reliability. Crania of 520 known individuals were obtained from four skeletal samples in South
Africa: the Pretoria Bone Collection, the Raymond A. Dart Collection, the Kirsten Collection and the
Student Bone Collection from the University of the Free State. Average age at death was 51, with an age
range between 18 and 90. Thirteen commonly used non-metric traits from the face and jaw were scored;
definition and illustrations were taken from Hefner [2], Bass [6] and Hauser and De Stephano [7].
Frequency distributions, ordinal regression and Cohen’s Kappa statistics were performed as a means to
assess population variation and repeatability. Frequency distributions were highly variable among South
Africans. Twelve of the 13 variables had a statistically significant relationship with ancestry. Sex
significantly affected only one variable, inter-orbital breadth, and age at death affected two (anterior
nasal spine and alveolar prognathism). The interaction of ancestry and sex independently affected three
variables (nasal bone contour, nasal breadth, and interorbital breadth). Seven traits had moderate to
excellent repeatability, while poor scoring consistency was noted for six variables. Difficulties in
repeating several of the trait scores may require either a need for refinement of the definitions, or these
character states may not adequately describe the observable morphology in the population. The
application of the traditional experience-based approach for estimating ancestry in forensic case work is
problematic.

Past Human Behavior from Bone Chemical Analysis-Respects and Prospects Chemical analysis (stable isotopic ratios and elemental concentrations) of archeological populations allows us to trace the human diet system in prehistory. We can successfully follow the evolution of human diet and the consequences of dietary change on human health. To do this, the study of chemical composition must be integrated with analysis of the entire individual (bone physiology) and the analysis of society and environmental geochemistry. The advent of quantifiable data of known precision in prehistoric studies (chemistry, epidemiology) allows greater specificity but requires greater precision and rigor in our interpretations of past behavior. Before we can take full advantage of the new methodology, we must understand the nature of chemical variation in archeological populations. Variation between individuals and populations in chemical indices comes from differences in measurements, samples, age, sex, health, diet, burial, and laboratory preparation. However, dietary reconstructions as well as significant information on human biocultural adaptation can be derived from the multivariate studies.

Lip print pattern (LPP) is unique to each individual. For decades, forensic experts have used LPP for personal identification to solve criminal cases. However, studies investigating ethnic variation in LPP are scanty. Our study wanted to investigate variation in LPP between two ethnic groups, Oraon tribals and Bengalee Hindus, residing in West Bengal, India. A total of 280 participants included 112 Oraons and168 Bengalee Hindus of both. Prints were taken using dark shaded lipstick and transparent cellophane tape and recorded into white A4 sheet. Prints were divided into four quadrants and examined by magnifying glass. For analysis of results, classification of Suzuki and Tsuchihashi was followed. A p value of 0.05 was considered to be statistically significant. It was observed that Type II pattern was dominant in first and second quadrants in both ethnic groups, irrespective of sex. Combination of Type II+III was found to be the most common pattern in males among both Oraons (16.2%)...

Despite great progress in identifying genetic variants that influence human disease, most inherited risk remains unexplained. A more complete understanding requires genome-wide studies that fully examine less common alleles in populations with a wide range of ancestry. To inform the design and interpretation of such studies, we genotyped 1.6 million common single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in 1,184 reference individuals from 11 global populations, and sequenced ten 100-kilobase regions in 692 of these individuals. This integrated data set of common and rare alleles, called 'HapMap 3', includes both SNPs and copy number polymorphisms (CNPs). We characterized population-specific differences among low-frequency variants, measured the improvement in imputation accuracy afforded by the larger reference panel, especially in imputing SNPs with a minor allele frequency of #5%, and demonstrated the feasibility of imputing newly discovered CNPs and SNPs. This expanded public resource of genome variants in global populations supports deeper interrogation of genomic variation and its role in human disease, and serves as a step towards a high-resolution map of the landscape of human genetic variation.

The craniofacial skeleton carries out diverse functions served by hierarchically integrated developmental and functional modules. The craniofacial biologist is interested in how the skeleton of the cranium evolves and develops to integrate these functions while the clinician is more concerned with how function and development is altered in disease. The study of pathology is informative with respect to the control of development as is the study of normal variability. Particularly interesting are the paranasal sinuses which show marked variation within humans, in the human fossil record and among our close relatives. Their variations in humans are important clinically because they can be associated with increased susceptibility to disease and render sinus surgery more difficult. The extent and nature of variation within and between cranial structures is also informative with respect to normal developmental regulation since this can inform us about how their development is regulated. To fully understand the reasons we possess paranasal sinuses and why they vary it is necessary to relate their development to the temporally and spatially integrated development of the face from modules. Recent advances in morphometrics and mechanical modelling of the developing face have opened up new avenues of investigation likely to lead to such an understanding. They have the potential to test mechanical and spatial hypotheses of sinus ontogeny and so are likely to lead to new insights into craniofacial biology of importance to both evolutionary biologist and clinician.Es esqueleto facial cumple una serie de funciones distintas que se llevan a cabo a través de módulos tanto funcionales como módulos del desarrollo todos ellos organizados jerárquicamente. Mientras que el biólogo craneofacial está interesado en conocer la evolución y la ontogenia de la integración de esto módulos en el esqueleto craneofacial, el clínico se interesa mas por como la función y el desarrollo están alterados por enfermedad. El estudio de las patologías y el de la variación normal son interesantes en cuanto a los mecanismos de control ontogénico. Los senos paranasales que demuestran una variación marcada en humanos modernos, homínidos fósiles y nuestros parientes evolutivos más cercanos, los simios, son especialmente interesantes. La variación de los senos paranasales en humanos tiene elevada importancia clínica porque se asocia con una susceptibilidad elevada a infectarse y porque aumenta la dificultad de intervención cirujana. El grado y la naturaleza de esta variación entre determinadas módulos craneofaciales y dentro de aquellos contienen también información sobre la regulación ontogénica normal. Para un conocimiento completo de los motivos de la formación de los senos paranasales y su variación es necesario relacionar su desarrollo con las propiedades de la integración espacio-temporal de los componentes craneofaciales a lo largo de la ontogenia. Avances recientes en morfometría y en la modelización mecánica de la cara durante su ontogenia han abierto nuevas perspectivas para la investigación. Estas metodologías permiten testar hipótesis espaciales y funcionales de la ontogenia de los senos. Asimismo, contienen el potencial de incrementar nuestro conocimiento sobre la biología craneofacial, algo tan importante para el biólogo evolutivo como para el clínico.

"It is argued in this article that the human body both in health and disease cannot be fully understood without adequately accounting for the different levels of human variation.The article focuses on variation due to ancestry, arguing that the inclusion of information pertaining to ancestry in human anatomy teaching materials and courses should be carried out and implemented with care and in line with latest developments in biological
anthropology and related sciences. This seems to be of particular importance in the education of health professionals, as recent research suggests that better knowledge of human variation can improve clinical skills. It is also argued that relatively small curricular changes relating to the teaching of human variation can produce significant educational
gains."

ABSTRACT: Cleft lip and palate (CLP) is a craniofacial malformation affecting more than seven million people worldwide that results in
defects of the hard palate, teeth, maxilla, nasal spine and floor, and maxillodental asymmetry. CLP facial soft-tissue depth (FSTD) values
have never been published. The purpose of this research is to report CLP FSTD values and compare them to previously published FSTD
values for normal children. Thirty-eight FSTDs were measured on cone beam computed tomography images of CLP children (n = 86;
7–17 years). MANOVA and ANOVA tests determined whether cleft type, age, sex, and bone graft surgical status affect tissue depths. Both
cleft type (unilateral/bilateral) and age influence FSTDs. CLP FSTDs exhibit patterns of variation that differ from normal children, particularly
around the oronasal regions of the face. These differences should be taken into account when facial reconstructions of children with CLP are created.

Background
Sitting height (SH), sub ischial leg length (SILL) and the sitting height/leg length ratio (SH/SILL) are useful tools for assessing
human body proportions. They are often used to detect the presence of abnormal growth, especially in school-aged children.
Materials and Methods
Our cross-sectional study was conducted among 1012 preschool children aged 2 to 6-years from Integrated Child Development
Services (ICDS) scheme centers at Bali Gram Panchayat, Arambagh, Hooghly District, West Bengal, India. Anthropometric measurements
like height, weight, SH were measured following standard protocol.
Results
There was no age combined significant sex difference in any variable. However, age specific sex differences were there in few age
groups. Highly significant (p<0.001) age variations existed in all variables. The body mass index (BMI) was significantly (p<0.01)
negatively correlated with SILL (r=-0.443), SILLP (r=-0.302) and UTL (r=-0.346) in both sexes. It was significantly (p<0.01)
positively associated with UTLP (r=0.302). Moreover, SILL was significantly positively correlated with UTL in both sexes (boys,
r=0.821 and girls, r=0.871; p<0.01), whereas it was significantly negatively associated with UTLP (boys, r=-0.590 and girls, r=-
0.552; p<0.01) in the participants.
Conclusion
Our results suggest that, in both sexes, there were significant age differences in SILL, SILLP, upper trunk length (UTL) and unified
technology learning platform (UTLP). The BMI had significant associations with these variables in both sexes. Moreover, SILL
had significant correlation with UTL and UTLP among the participants.

Keywords

Sub ischial leg length;
BMI;
Upper trunk length;
Sub ischial leg length percentage;
Upper trunk length percentage.

The new paradigms proposed for human health risk assessment stress the need for the use of human and human-derived cell lines, and this review summarizes the use of primary human hepatocytes and hepatocyte subcellular preparations for the investigation of the metabolism and metabolic interactions of environmental chemicals. This includes interactions based on inhibition, induction, and activation. The role of cytotoxicity is also considered. The use of hepatocytes and hepatocyte preparations provides especially important information for the investigation of human variation and is summarized. This area is, at present, relatively neglected but will in the future be essential for accurate assessment of human health risk. A detailed summary of an initial attempt to utilize microarray technology for the study of genomewide effects is included. C 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Numerous lines of evidence suggest that Homo sapiens evolved as a distinct species in Africa by 150,000 years before the present (BP) and began major migrations out-of-Africa $50,000 BP. By 20,000 BP, our species had effectively colonized the entire Old World, and by 12,000 BP H. sapiens had a global distribution. We propose that this rapid migration into new habitats selected for individuals with low reactivity to novel stressors. Certain dopamine receptor D4 (DRD4) polymorphisms are associated with low neuronal reactivity and increased exploratory behavior, novelty seeking, and risk taking, collectively considered novelty-seeking trait (NS). One previous report (Chen et al.: Evol Hum Behav 20 (1999) 309-324) demonstrated a correlation between migratory distance

Background: Femoral sulcus angle is particularly important in clinical evaluation of patellofemoral joint. Individuals show considerable differences in asymmetrical dimensions of the femur. Objectives: To determine the size of femoral sulcus angles in adult black Malawians using the skeletal collection in the department of Anatomy, College of Medicine and assess their gender differences; to compare femoral sulcus angles of Malawians with other ethnic groups. Methods: A cross sectional study was done in which femoral sulcus angles of dry bones were measured using a goniometer. Results: There is no significant difference in the mean sulcus angles between right and left femora in males (p=0.8100) and females (p=0.0742); between all males combined and females combined (p=0.8845). There is a significant difference in the mean between all left femora combined and all right femora combined (p=0.0260). Conclusion: This study has provided the mean size of the femoral sulcus angle of adult Malawians. These findings suggest that the size of the sulcus angle cannot determine gender among adult black Malawians suggesting the interpretation that femora asymmetric dimensions are population specific, which should be considered in the patellofemoral joint evaluation.

Psychology and personality of individuals may have implications for choice of, and performance in sports disciplines. Individual- and group sports differ in psychological requirements, such as, competitiveness, sensation seeking and risk taking attitude, often required in sports. There is sex difference in human in these qualities, which also show association with prenatal testosterone exposures. Second-to-fourth digit lengths ratio (2D:4D) is an indicator of prenatal testosterone exposure. Lower 2D:4D indicates higher prenatal testosterone exposure and vice versa. Males generally have lower 2D:4D than females. This study cross-sectional study investigated the relationship of 2D:4D with team based- or individual sports. The participants were 421 Polish male students with a mean (+SD) age of 19.78 (+0.79) years. Among them, 139 were engaged in sports and 282 were not. Mean 2D:4D in each hand of individual sporting group was significantly lower than the team sports- and no sports groups. Participants not involved in any sports had the highest mean 2D:4D value. However, the team sportsmen’s 2D:4D did not differ from the non-sporting group. Prenatal testosterone exposure
might have implication in sports choice and participation.

There has been much debate about why humans throughout the world differ in facial form. Previous studies of human skull morphology found levels of among-population differentiation that were comparable to those of neutral genetic markers, suggesting that genetic drift (neutral processes) played an important role in influencing facial differentiation. However, variation in soft-tissue morphology has not been studied in detail. In this study, we analyzed high-resolution 3D images of soft-tissue facial form in four Eurasian populations: Han Chinese, Tibetans, Uyghur and Europeans. A novel method was used to establish a high-density alignment across all of the faces, allowing facial diversity to be examined at an unprecedented resolution. These data exhibit signatures of population structure and history. However, among-population differentiation was higher for soft-tissue facial form than for genome-wide genetic loci, and high-resolution analyses reveal that the nose, brow area and cheekbones exhibit particularly strong signals of differentiation (Q st estimates: 0.3e0.8) between Europeans and Han Chinese. Our results suggest that local adaptation and/or sexual selection have been important in shaping human soft-tissue facial morphology.

Human intraspecific variation is a complex problem, but may be better understood by using computational models in tandem with knowledge about the genetic bases of phenotypic traits. These results can be used in a multitude of settings. To move closer to this goal, biologically-realistic mappings between genotype and phenotype are constructed using genetic algorithm and neural network-like models. These models allow for gene-gene and gene-environment interactions to be characterized in the resulting phenotype. Two types of model are introduced: a simple, two-layer model, and a more complex model. The final section will focus on trends of growth and development in relation to relationship to modeling anthropometric traits and other morphological phenomena.

We report the discovery of an African American Y chromosome that carries the ancestral state of all SNPs that defined the basal portion of the Y chromosome phylogenetic tree. We sequenced~240 kb of this chromosome to identify private, derived mutations on this lineage, which we named A00. We then estimated the time to the most recent common ancestor (TMRCA) for the Y tree as 338 thousand years ago (kya) (95% confidence interval ¼ 237-581 kya). Remarkably, this exceeds current estimates of the mtDNA TMRCA, as well as those of the age of the oldest anatomically modern human fossils. The extremely ancient age combined with the rarity of the A00 lineage, which we also find at very low frequency in central Africa, point to the importance of considering more complex models for the origin of Y chromosome diversity. These models include ancient population structure and the possibility of archaic introgression of Y chromosomes into anatomically modern humans. The A00 lineage was discovered in a large database of consumer samples of African Americans and has not been identified in traditional hunter-gatherer populations from sub-Saharan Africa. This underscores how the stochastic nature of the genealogical process can affect inference from a single locus and warrants caution during the interpretation of the geographic location of divergent branches of the Y chromosome phylogenetic tree for the elucidation of human origins.

We examined the affect of tissue depth variation on the reconstruction of facial form, through the application of the American method, utilizing published tissue depth measurements for emaciated, normal, and obese faces. In this preliminary study, three reconstructions were created on reproductions of the same skull for each set of tissue depth measurements. The resulting morphological variation was measured quantitatively using the anthropometric craniofacial variability index (CVI). This method employs 16 standard craniofacial anthropometric measurements and the results reflect ‘‘pattern variation’’ or facial harmony. We report no appreciable variation in the quantitative measure of the pattern facial form obtained from the three different sets of tissue depths. Facial similarity was assessed qualitatively utilizing surveys of photographs of the three reconstructions. Surveys indicated that subjects frequently perceived the reconstructions as representing different individuals. This disagreement indicates that size of the face may blind observers to similarities in facial form. This research is significant because it illustrates the confounding effect that normal human variation contributes in the successful recognition of individuals from a representational three-dimensional facial reconstruction. Research results suggest that successful identification could be increased if multiple reconstructions were created which reflect a wide range of possible outcomes for facial form. The creation of multiple facial images, from a single skull, will be facilitated as computerized versions of facial reconstruction are further developed and refined.

Human morphological changes do not follow universal pattern and vary
between/among individuals and other socio-cultural parameters. Study on age related changes in muscle and fat distribution are still insufficient considering particular occupational group like tea labourers. Present study explored the nature and magnitude of age changes in selected anthropometric and body composition traits in adult Oraon tea garden labourers of Alipurduar district. The anthropometric and body composition traits including 12 variables were collected from 712 healthy individuals. Study group was divided in 4 age cohorts. Sexual dimorphism was observed in the nature and magnitude of age changes in body composition traits. ANOVA showed differences between/among age groups for fat and fat free components traits. Pearson’s correlation showed positive relationship of age with fat components and negative relationship with height, weight, fat free components. Tea garden laborers showed unique nature and magnitude of age changes in muscle and fat starting immediately after young age.

Extensive research in human genetics on presumably neutral loci has shown that the overwhelming majority of human diversity is found among individuals within local populations. Previous apportionments of craniometric diversity are similar to these genetic apportionments, implying that interregionally differing selection pressures have played a limited role in producing contemporary human cranial diversity. Here we show that when cranial variation is independently partitioned using principal components analysis of Mosimann shape variables, some estimates of interregional craniometric differentiation are larger than those for most genetic loci. These estimates are similar to estimates for genetic loci where interregionally differing selection pressures are implicated in producing the observed patterns of variation within and among regions. These results suggest that differences among regions in at least some cranial features, particularly in the nasal region, are in part the product of interregionally differing selection pressures. Moreover, these results have implications for assessing the biological affinities of prehistoric samples that are temporally separated from contemporary human reference populations. Am

"The subadult age distribution for the Bab edh-Dhra' charnel house A22 collection, dated to the Early Bronze Age II/III period (2800-2300 BCE), was constructed using femoral diaphyseal length estimates. Vertical head diameter and mediolateral neck breadth were measured for 56 fragmented left subadult proximal femora in order to estimate diaphyseal lengths using a regression equation (Hoppa and Gruspier, 1996). These lengths were used to place femora into an age category (fetal, infant, young child, old child, and adolescent) based on dental or functional development scales. Diaphyseal length ranges for these categories were constructed using available studies of other skeletal collections, including the Bab edh-Dhra’ Early Bronze I cemetery (3150-2950 BCE).

Age distributions based on the two separate scales were not significantly different (x2=3.38, p=0.34). Using the dental scale, 10% of the remains were classified as fetal, 4% as infant, 19% as young child, 44% as old child, and 23% as adolescent. This profile was significantly different from four North American groups ranging in location and time period, but not to other comparative groups from around the world. The age profile was not significantly different from another constructed using mandible dental data for the Early Bronze II/III subadults (x2=2.16, p=0.54) indicating a robust estimate, but it was significantly different from the Early Bronze I group (x2=16.35, p=0.001). Preservation and conservation issues in A22 may have affected these estimates, or changes in settlement and subsistence strategies may have altered childhood mortality.

This research was supported by the NSF–REU program (SES 0649088) at the University of Notre Dame."

The scientific working group on DNA analysis Methods (SWGDAM) mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) population data set is used to infer the relative rarity of control region mtDNA profiles obtained from evidence samples and of profiles used for identification of missing persons. In this study, the African American haplogroup patterns in the SWGDAM data were analyzed in a phylogenetic context to determine relevant single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and to describe haplogroup distributions for Africans observed in these data sets. Over 200 SNPs (n ¼ 217) were observed in the African American data set (n ¼ 1148). These SNPs ranged from having 1-39 changes in the phylogenetic tree, with sites 152 and 16519 being the most variable. On average there were 5.8 changes for a character on the tree. The most variable sites (with 19 or more changes each) observed included 16093,

Shape analysis of the human orbital cavity is challenging due to several reasons. First, it is a smooth surface where only few anatomical landmarks can be identified. Second, data acquisition via CT-scanning is limited due to poor representation of the orbital walls caused by the so-called partial volume effect. The structure of the orbital walls can also lead to gray values differing from the rest of the bony tissue. Hence, automatic segmentations based on gray value thresholds will not include them in the segmentation and produce pseudoforamina in the segmented orbital walls.

In this study, a symmetric template mesh representing the orbital region was created. Forty-six landmarks were placed manually onto skull surfaces which were automatically segmented from CT-scans of 656 individuals of European (♀:n=164, ♂:n=164) and Chinese (♀:n=164, ♂:n=164) origin. A statistical model was computed on basis of the template mesh and semi-automatically matched onto the skull surfaces. This way, the defects in the representation of the orbital wall were interpolated. Next, 600 bilateral semi-landmarks, evenly distributed on the surface of the orbital cavity, were placed automatically on each individual. Procrustes analysis and principal component analysis were performed on these configurations. Shape variation depending on the factors sex and population affinity was analysed using the principal component (PC) scores of the PCs accounting for 98% of the total variance. The results indicate significant influence of population affinity and sex on orbital cavity shape with weak interaction between the two.

Rüdell, A. 2016. Shape variation of the human orbital cavity. In: Program of the 85th annual meeting of the American Association of Physical Anthropologists. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 159:277.

Against the background of the race debate and the principal elements of the current understanding of human intraspecific variation, we pre- sent the status of the race concept in Polish anthropology. Using question- naires, we twice surveyed physical anthropologists about their agreement with the statement &quot;There are biological races within the species Homo sapiens.&quot; In the 1999 study, 62% of respondents disagreed with race (defined as sub- species) and 31% accepted it. In the 2001 study, this proportion was reversed: only 25% rejected race (by any definition) with the remaining respondents (75%) differing widely as to its accepted meaning. Each time, age was signifi- cant factor in differentiating the replies - in general, acceptance of race increased with age while rejection declined. It appears that Polish anthropolo- gists regard race as a term without taxonomic value and often in a populational sense. Here we point out, however, the risks associated with the &quot;met...

Here we describe and evaluate a new method for quantifying long bone curvature using geometric morphometric and semi-landmark analysis of the human femur. The technique is compared with traditional ways of measuring subtense and point of maximum curvature using either coordinate calipers or projection onto graph paper. Of the traditional methods the graph paper method is more reliable than using coordinate calipers. Measurement error is consistently lower for measuring point of maximum curvature than for measuring subtense. The results warrant caution when comparing data collected by the different traditional methods. Landmark data collection proves reliable and has a low measurement

La diversificación de los seres humanos, así como su origen, es y ha sido el objeto de estudio de la antropología biológica. A fines de siglo XIX y principios del XX se realizaban descripciones de caracteres biológicos de distintos grupos humanos. Sin perspectiva evolutiva, el objetivo predominante era la clasificación de la diversidad. Había un manifiesto interés en las mediciones antropométricas porque se creía que servían como -indicadores raciales‖. En cuanto a la evolución humana, se especulaba sobre su origen geográfico y las características de los primeros homínidos.

Population data on the hypervariable regions of the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) genome are used to convey the relative rarity of mtDNA profiles obtained from evidence samples and of profiles used to identify missing persons. In this study, mtDNA profiles of Spanish individuals (n = 312) were analyzed to describe haplogroup distributions and to determine relevant single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) of those haplogroups. All nine common European haplogroups were observed in the sample, and these were divided into subgroups when possible. Haplogroup H was the most common haplogroup. The haplogroups U, J, T, and V were the next most frequent groups, each occurring at a frequency of 6.4% or greater. In addition, African and Asian sequences were present though rare in the samples. The data were compared with and found to be similar to other published data sets. There were 109 SNPs observed in the data set, including 10 positions not previously reported. The most variable sites are consistent with other studies.

The scientific working group on DNA analysis Methods (SWGDAM) mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) population data set is used to infer the relative rarity of control region mtDNA profiles obtained from evidence samples and of profiles used for identification of missing persons. In this study, the African American haplogroup patterns in the SWGDAM data were analyzed in a phylogenetic context to determine relevant single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and to describe haplogroup distributions for Africans observed in these data sets. Over 200 SNPs (n ¼ 217) were observed in the African American data set (n ¼ 1148). These SNPs ranged from having 1-39 changes in the phylogenetic tree, with sites 152 and 16519 being the most variable. On average there were 5.8 changes for a character on the tree. The most variable sites (with 19 or more changes each) observed included 16093,

Variation in cranial robusticity among modern human populations is widely acknowledged but not well-understood. While the use of ''robust'' cranial traits in hominin systematics and phylogeny suggests that these characters are strongly heritable, this hypothesis has not been tested. Alternatively, cranial robusticity may be a response to differences in diet/mastication or it may be an adaptation to cold, harsh environments. This study quantifies the distribution of cranial robusticity in 14 geographically widespread human populations, and correlates this variation with climatic variables, neutral genetic distances, cranial size, and cranial shape. With the exception of the occipital torus region, all traits were positively correlated with each other, suggesting that they should not be treated as individual characters. While males are more robust than females within each of the populations, among the independent variables (cranial