Medical Education

Background: Peer physical examination (PPE) is an efficient and practical educational approach whereby students can practise their examination skills on each other before commencing clinical practice with actual patients. Little is known about the use of PPE in osteopathy education.

Introduction: Multiple choice questions (MCQs) alone or in conjunction with other test instruments are extensively used in high-stakes examination in medical institutions. Amongst numerous genres of MCQ style of exam with five options, it seems that examinees have greater chance to get correct answers for multiple true-false (MTF) than single best answer (SBA). Moreover, there has been no previous literature review revealed prediction and correlation of MCQ test format with overall student's performance. Objectives: This study, therefore, examined students' performance between these two evaluation techniques and correlated them with other assessment outcomes. Materials and Methods: The calculated contribution results of SBA orthopedic and negative no-carry-over marked MTF surgery questions of Year 3 students enrolled in Session (2011/12) and Session (2012/13) in UniSZA were analyzed separately for each year. In addition, the correlation coefficient (r) was figured out to det...

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After beginning his historical work in Switzerland in the 1950s and then continuing it in the United States at the Menninger Foundation, Henri Ellenberger (1905–1993) became the leading historian of " dynamic psychiatry ". This expression commonly denotes mental medicine that draws from psychotherapeutic practices and psychological theories to improve our understanding of mental diseases and to cure them. Although still used today, usually in juxtaposition to 19th century alienism or to biological psychiatry, the origin and meaning of this expression are unclear. An unpublished lecture (1956) by Ellenberger on this subject, accompanied by an explanatory introduction, is reproduced here to shed light on Ellenberger's interpretation of that term. This article additionally aims to draw certain parallels and distinctions between Ellenberger, Michel Foucault and George Devereux's teaching in the 1950s. Considering that the history of psychiatry is now a well-established speciality in the academic world, Ellenberger's lecture is also an original document which enables us to trace the professionalization of psychiatric historiography as an academic discipline back to its beginnings after World War II.

Advising and mentoring programs for medical students vary in their official names, scope, and structures. Catalyzed by negative student feedback regarding career advising and a perceived disconnection between faculty and students, in academic year 2003-2004, Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons implemented its formal Advisory Dean (AD) Program and disbanded its former advising system that used faculty volunteers. The AD Program has become a key element for enhancing the students' professional development

This study examined the relationships between students' personality styles and their intentions to become an entrepreneur, after completing a course in entrepreneurship education. Results indicated that, the majority of the students were extroverted, intuitive, thinking-judging, (ENTJ); introverted-sensing, thinking-judging (ISTJ); extraverted-sensing, feeling-judging (ESFJ) or extroverted-sensing, thinking-perceiving (ESTP). The students in this study had moderate intention in a new business start-up. The researchers found that, students with extraversion and sensing personality types had higher level of entrepreneurial intentions than students with introversion and intuitive styles. The result of this study has implications for higher education which entrepreneurship educators should not adopt, a "one style fits all" approach in the classroom.

Background: There has been a recent movement towards social accountability in medical schools, which includes integrating the social, economic, and cultural determinants of health into the curriculum. Medical schools and their guiding bodies have met this challenge of educating future physicians to provide effective care to diverse populations with varying response and successes. Because these topics have not been systematically taught in most medical school curricula, strategies are needed to teach them alongside clinical sciences. Aim and method: We provide 12 tips on how to teach social determinants of health and cultural competency to undergraduate medical students. These recommendations are based on a review of the literature and our experience in developing and delivering a longitudinal course over the last five years. Conclusion: Medical students must be taught to think critically about the social and cultural issues impacting health, and the intersection with the basic biology and clinical skills. Teaching social determinants of health in medicine requires keeping the material concrete and applicable. Educators must engage students in active learning strategies, reflection, and focus on how to make the material relevant to the clinical care of patients.

A bioética e a humanização da assistência à saúde da população ocupam um espaço estratégico nas discussões sobre as necessidades de mudança nos processos de formação médica. No presente artigo, buscase uma discussão articulada entre esses temas, defendendo sua inserção transversal ao longo dos currículos de graduação em Medicina. Entendendo que o simples reconhecimento da importância do tema ou mesmo a incipiente presença desses temas nos currículos são insuficientes para promover mudanças no perfil dos profissionais formados – as quais podem ser esperadas pela adequada abordagem destes temas –, defende-se a preparação de programas de formação voltados para o conjunto de docentes envolvidos na formação profissional e a criteriosa escolha de métodos e técnicas pedagógicas que, amparados em fundamentos teóricos que expliquem o desenvolvimento da competência moral, possam efetivamente interferir neste processo.

It is sometimes argued that the non-therapeutic, non-consensual alteration of children’s genitals should be discussed in two separate ethical discourses: one for girls (in which such alterations should be termed ‘female genital mutilation’ or FGM), and one for boys (in which such alterations should be termed ‘male circumcision’). In this article, I call into question the moral and empirical basis for such a distinction, and argue that all children—whether female, male, or intersex—should be free from having parts of their genitals removed unless there is a pressing medical indication.

Theorizing a sociology of emotion that links micro-level resources to macro-level forces, this article extends previous work on emotional capital in relation to emotional experiences and management. Emerging from Bourdieu's theory of social practice, emotional capital is a form of cultural capital that includes the emotion-specific, trans-situational resources that individuals activate and embody in distinct fields. Contrary to prior conceptualizations, I argue that emotional capital is neither wholly gender-neutral nor exclusively feminine. Men may lay claim to emotional capital as a valued resource within particular fields. The concept of emotional capital should be seen as distinct from emotion management and felt emotional experience and distinctions between primary and secondary sources of capital clarify the simultaneously durable and evolving nature of capital and the habitus. To illustrate these conceptual refinements, I use interview and diary data from male nurses. Men bring primary emotional capital, developed during primary socialization, to the nursing profession while also developing secondary capital through occupational socialization centered on empathy and compassion. The construct of emotional capital is refined as a structured yet dynamic resource developed through primary and secondary socialization and activated and embodied in everyday emotion practice.

People abused by angry discipline as children, may tend to abuse or overly punish other people or themselves for perceived wrongs in their adult life. In some individuals, aggressive personality traits may be genetically inherited. The aggressive personality may feel weakened by having guidelines or boundaries for anger. Anger is a normal human emotion, and these guidelines can help express anger in a healthy way.

Contexte : Le curriculum de médecine de la Faculté de médecine de l’Université de Montréal connait plusieurs mutations majeures, dont l’adoption d’une nouvelle approche relationnelle dite de partenariat avec le patient et ses proches. L’approche repose sur le postulat du patient considéré comme acteur en possession d’un savoir important pour la formation des médecins. En conséquence, la présente recherche exploratoire décrit la révision des vignettes cliniques des dossiers d’apprentissage par problèmes qui parcourent tout au long du premier cycle de la formation médicale. But : Cette recherche présente le processus de révision d’une partie du curriculum du programme de premier cycle en médecine (programme MD) intégrant des patients formateurs, des étudiants en médecine à une équipe interdisciplinaire en sciences de la santé et de sciences humaines et sociales. Méthodes : Une méthode mixte a été employée mobilisant 24 répondants appartenant à cinq groupes différents (étudiants de méd...

Resuscitation published a consensus document on education in resuscitation that strongly recommended that "…instruction in CPR [cardiopulmonary resuscitation] be incorporated as a standard part of the school curriculum." 1 The next year the American Heart Association (AHA) recommended that schools "…establish a goal to train every teacher in CPR and first aid and train all students in CPR" as part of their preparation for a response to medical emergencies on campus. 2 Since that time, there has been an increased interest in legislation that would mandate that school curricula include training in CPR or CPR and automated external defibrillation. Laws or curriculum content standards in 36 states (as of the 2009-2010 school year) now encourage the inclusion of CPR training programs in school curricula. The language in those laws and standards varies greatly, ranging from a suggestion that students "recognize" the steps of CPR to a requirement for certification in CPR. Not surprisingly, then, implementation is not uniform among states, even those whose laws or standards encourage CPR training in schools in the strongest language. This statement recommends that training in CPR and familiarization with automated external defibrillators (AEDs) should be required elements of secondary school curricula and provides the rationale for implementation of CPR training, as well as guidance in overcoming barriers to implementation. Background Sudden cardiac arrest is a leading cause of death in the United States and Canada. It is estimated that each year emergency The American Heart Association makes every effort to avoid any actual or potential conflicts of interest that may arise as a result of an outside relationship or a personal, professional, or business interest of a member of the writing panel. Specifically, all members of the writing group are required to complete and submit a Disclosure Questionnaire showing all such relationships that might be perceived as real or potential conflicts of interest. This statement was approved by the American Heart Association Science Advisory and Coordinating Committee on September 3, 2010. A copy of the statement is available at http://www.americanheart.org/presenter.jhtml?identifierϭ3003999 by selecting either the "topic list" link or the "chronological list" link (No. KB-0103

The use of alternative/complementary medicine has been increasing considerably. Conventional medicine must begin to address issues related to the use, safety, regulation, research and education of alternative/complementary medicine. Integrative medicine combines conventional medicine and alternative complementary practices. Integrative medicine is an innovative approach to medicine and medical education. It involves the understanding of the interaction of the mind, body and spirit and how to interpret this relationship in the dynamics of health and disease. Integrative medicine shifts the orientation of the medical practice from disease based approach to a healing based approach. It does not reject conventional medicine nor uncritically accepts unconventional practices. Integrative medicine is an effective, more fulfilling human approach to medicine based on the benefit of the patient by following good medicine practices in a scientific manner.

In recent years, many medical schools around the world have formally established professionalism education as part of their standard curriculum. While the call to prepare future doctors to behave ethically and professionally is not new, what is new is the emphasis on identity formation in the context of the expanding online universe. Nonetheless, role modelling the professional image is challenging in the digital age, especially when cultures and customs across disciplines and generations collide. Against the backdrop of hyper-vigilance about our professional image, this paper explores whether the hidden professionalism curriculum may inadvertently stifle creativity and humanity. It proposes the positive use of social media as relational or pedagogical tools in teaching learners about work-life balance and responsible online behaviours.

Medical Education 2010: 44: 387–395Context  Elective courses are a significant part of undergraduate medical education throughout the world, but the value provided by these courses and the reasons for choosing particular elective courses have not been studied extensively.Objectives  The aim of this study was to investigate medical and dental students’ experiences of elective courses in undergraduate medical education in Croatia and to gather students’ recommendations for the improvement of elective courses.Methods  Medical and dental students studying under the Bologna curriculum were given a questionnaire in which they were asked for their opinions of elective courses and their suggestions as to how they might be improved. Data on elective courses were obtained from medical schools’ administrative offices.Results  The survey response rate was 92% (834/903). Medical students gave elective courses an average grade of 3.44 out of 5, whereas dental students gave a lower average of 3.15. Students’ suggestions for change included introducing more practical work and recognising international student exchanges and attendance at conferences as elective options. A third of students indicated that teachers should be given additional training in leading elective courses. Analysis of the curriculum showed that elective courses in Croatian medical schools are very heterogeneous in terms of their content and the number of credits and assessment methods they involve, and are very conservative in that only structured courses are offered. Students cannot design their own courses or take more elective courses than represent 10% of their total number of credits.Conclusions  Student opinion should be consulted when medical schools venture into the elective curriculum so that students can feel that they are really benefiting from these subjects. Students would welcome new and personally designed strands. Elective courses are a significant part of medical education and therefore their quality and purpose need to be assessed regularly in order to ensure that they meet students’ needs.

Introduction: Cytological examination of pleural fluid is considered
less invasive than biopsy, more simple, inexpensive,
allows faster diagnosis and it facilitates in cancer screening
in some cases. Cytological examination of pleural fluid is of
great diagnostic value in both non neoplastic and neoplastic
effusions. Aim of the study was to retrospectively analyse,
all the pleural effusions, to get prevalence of benign and malignant
pleural effusions and to evaluate the cytological value
of pleural fluid in the diagnosis of benign and malignant
lesions.
Materials and Methods: Total 240 cases collected from all
the patients who underwent thoracocentasis. Data were collected
and analysed. From the received fresh sample, 10ml
fluid was taken and fluid was centrifuged at 2500 rpm for 15
minutes and smears were prepared from the sediment and
stained with MGG stain and H and E.
Results: In the study of 240 cases of pleural effusion the age
of patient ranged between 17-87 years. The male to female
sex ratio was 1:1.1.The maximum numbers of cases were in
the age group of 41-50 years, constituting 54 cases (22.4%)
of the total cases (Table 1). Most of the pleural effusion were
associated with benign conditions (84.6%). The rest (15.4%)
of the effusions showed malignant aetiology. Amongst the malignant
effusions adenocarcinoma was the most common type
of secondary (70.3%, 26 cases out of 37).
Conclusion: Cytological examination of pleural fluids is the
most effective procedure to differentiate between benign and
malignant effusion and also to know primary site of lesion in
many cases.

Date of sample delivery: 30/09/2013 ANALYSIS METHOD: Interphase FISH (iFISH) METHOD: Molecular cytogenetics analysis was performed in bone marrow interphase cells (iFISH) using the dual color molecular FISH probe LSI EGR1/D5S23, D5S721 (Vysis). The specific probe can detect: i) the 5q31 chromosomal region harboring the EGR1 gene and ii) the 5p15.2 chromosomal region (D5S721, D5S23). A total of 200 cells were analyzed.

Background: This study explores the factors influencing students to seek medical help, and student perceptions in relation to student-doctor interactions with implications for health help-seeking behaviours. Method: Students were interviewed across year groups. The interviews were audiotaped, transcribed and qualitatively analysed. Results: We interviewed 22 students and identified common themes. Conclusion: Medical students reflect on issues related to seeking medical help, their choice of GP and the decision whether to divulge they are medical students.

Objective: This study was aimed to explore students' learning response toward feedback during mini-CEX encounter. Methods: This study used a phenomenological approach to identify the students' experiences toward feedback during mini-CEX encounter. Data was collected using Focus Group Discussion (FGD) for all students who were in their final week of clerkship in the internal medicine rotation. There were 4 FGD groups (6 students for each group). All FGD were audio-taped and transcribed verbatim. The FGD transcripts were analyzed thematically and managed using Atlas-ti (version 7.0). Results: Feedback content and the way of providing feedback on mini-CEX stimulated students' internal process, including self-reflection, emotional response, and motivation. These internal processes encouraged the students to take action or do a follow-up on the feedback to improve their learning process. In addition, there was also an external factor, namely consequences, which also influenced the students' reaction to the follow-up on feedback. In the end, this action caused several learning effects that resulted in the students' increased self-efficacy, attitude, knowledge and clinical skill. Conclusions: Feedback content and the way of providing feedback on mini-CEX stimulates the students' internal processes to do a follow-up on feedback. However, another external factor also affects the students' decision on the follow-up actions. The follow-ups result in various learning effects on the students. Feedback given along with summa-tive assessment enhances learning effects on students, as well. It is suggested that supervisors of clinical education are prepared to comprehend every factor influencing feedback on mini CEX to improve the students' learning response.

Background  Multidisciplinary and interprofessional working is currently a priority in health care policy, in caring for patients and in health professional education. Realising multidisciplinary approaches presents challenges in the context of changes in doctors' and nurses' roles and the increased emphasis placed on communication with patients. In communication in consultations, explanations are employed in the service of numerous activities, including decision making, diagnosis and physical examination, but they have been little studied.Setting  This paper presents findings from a comparative study of doctors' and nurses' communication with patients in multidisciplinary health care, focusing on diabetes in primary care.Methods  Video- and audio-recorded consultations were subjected to conversation analysis. Output from discussion groups with patient representatives and health professionals underwent qualitative analysis.Findings  Distinctive features of explanations in nurses' and doctors' consultations with patients were identified. These can be understood by reference to patterns of communication. Nurses' communication was mediated by patients' contributions; doctors' communication gave an overarching direction to the consultation as a whole. While nurses' explanations began from the viewpoint of a patient's responsibility and behaviour, doctors' explanations began from the viewpoint of biomedical intervention. Their consultations lent different opportunities for patients' involvement.Conclusion  Nurses' and doctors' communications each exhibit their own distinct features. Specification of these features, when considered in the context of a particular consultation activity such as explanations, allows both recognition of the distinct contributions each profession can offer and identification of ways of combining these to maximum effect. This has implications for policy, for practice and for interprofessional education.

Background: A World Health Assembly (WHA) resolution adopted in 2014 strongly encourages member states to integrate palliative care (PC) in undergraduate training for health professionals. Objective: The study objective was to describe a consensus-based process workshop to develop PC competences for medical and nursing schools in Colombia and to present a summary of the findings. Methods: The workshop included 36 participants representing 16 medical and 6 nursing schools from 18 universities in Colombia. Participants were distributed in four thematic groups. Using the International Association for Hospice and Palliative Care (IAHPC) List of Essential Practices (LEP) as guidance, they were asked to discuss and define PC competencies at the undergraduate level. Participants provided feedback and approved each recommendation, and then were asked to complete an evaluation. Results: The resulting competences were separated into six categories: (1) Definition and Principles of PC, (2) Identification and Control of Symptoms, (3) End-of-Life Care, (4) Ethical and Legal Issues, (5) Psychosocial and Spiritual Issues, and (6) Teamwork. A comparative analysis revealed that treatment of several symptoms in the IAHPC LEP (pain, dyspnea, constipation, nausea, vomit, diarrhea, delirium, and insomnia) were included in the competencies. All of the IAHPC LEP related to psychological/emotional/spiritual care was included. The evaluation rate of return was 80%. The assessment was very positive: total score of 4.7/5.0; SD = 0.426), with 89% considering the workshop to be helpful. Conclusion: The workshop provided an opportunity for individuals from different disciplines to discuss competencies and achieve consensus. The resulting competencies will be helpful in the development of PC curricula for physicians and nurses throughout schools in Colombia and other countries.

Introduction: While there is an increasing demand for minimally invasive operative techniques in Ear, Nose and Throat surgery, these operations are difficult to learn for junior doctors and demanding to supervise for experienced surgeons. The motivation for this study was to overcome ...

The quality of both the programs and the literature that describe these programs has varied considerably. The purposes of this study were to evaluate the published literature that described computer-assisted instruction in medical education and to assess the quality of evidence for its implementation, with particular emphasis on obstetrics and gynecology. STUDY DESIGN: Reports published between 1988 and 2000 on computer-assisted instruction in medical education were identified through a search of MEDLINE and Educational Resource Identification Center and a review of the bibliographies of the articles that were identified. Studies were selected if they included a description of computer-assisted instruction in medical education, regardless of the type of computer program. Data were extracted with a content analysis of 210 reports. The reports were categorized according to study design (comparative, prospective, descriptive, review, or editorial), type of computer-assisted instruction, medical specialty, and measures of effectiveness. RESULTS: Computer-assisted instruction programs included online technologies, CD-ROMs, video laser disks, multimedia work stations, virtual reality, and simulation testing. Studies were identified in all medical specialties, with a preponderance in internal medicine, general surgery, radiology, obstetrics and gynecology, pediatrics, and pathology. Ninety-six percent of the articles described a favorable impact of computer-assisted instruction in medical education, regardless of the quality of the evidence. Of the 210 reports that were identified, 60% were noncomparative, descriptive reports of new techniques in computer-assisted instruction, and 15% and 14% were reviews and editorials, respectively, of existing technology. Eleven percent of studies were comparative and included some form of assessment of the effectiveness of the computer program. These assessments included pre-and posttesting and questionnaires to score program quality, perceptions of the medical students and/or residents regarding the program, and impact on learning. In one half of these comparative studies, computer-assisted instruction was compared with traditional modes of teaching, such as text and lectures. Six studies compared performance before and after the computer-assisted instruction. Improvements were shown in 5 of the studies. In the remainder of the studies, computer-assisted instruction appeared to result in similar test performance. Despite study design or outcome, most articles described enthusiastic endorsement of the programs by the participants, including medical students, residents, and practicing physicians. Only 1 study included cost analysis. Thirteen of the articles were in obstetrics and gynecology. CONCLUSION: Computer-assisted instruction has assumed to have an increasing role in medical education. In spite of enthusiastic endorsement and continued improvements in software, few studies of good design clearly demonstrate improvement in medical education over traditional modalities. There are no comparative studies in obstetrics and gynecology that demonstrate a clear-cut advantage. Future studies of computer-assisted instruction that include comparisons and cost assessments to gauge their effectiveness over traditional methods may better define their precise role.

1. J Am Coll Radiol. 2010 Oct;7(10):814-9. Radiology in Mexico: professionalism and high-quality radiology practice. Ramírez-Arias JL, Ríos-Reina JL, Fajardo-Dolci G. Hospital Angeles del Pedregal, National Autonomous University of Mexico, Mexico City, Mexico. ...

performance was evaluated by an examiner who was not connected with the project. Evaluation of results and impact The low performers included 15 men and 6 women aged 19-20 years. All came from high socioeconomic backgrounds and had gained high scores in their entrance examinations. Non-academic causes of low performance were stress resulting from language problems (8 ⁄ 21 students), problems in adjusting to life away from home (6 ⁄ 21), lack of self-confidence (12 ⁄ 21), fear of failure (8 ⁄ 21) and worry about the future (10 ⁄ 21). Academic problems included difficulty in managing study time (17 ⁄ 21), lack of concentration (10 ⁄ 21), inability to retain what was studied (10 ⁄ 21), examination anxiety (8 ⁄ 21), inability to write examinations (5 ⁄ 21), etc. Analysis by paired t-test revealed a statistically significant improvement in the post-programme performance of the 16 students who participated in the sessions (P < 0.001). The pre-and post-programme performances of the 6 low performers who did not participate in the project showed no statistically significant difference (P ¼ 0.518, Wilcoxon signed rank test). A post-programme questionnaire was administered to assess the participants' response to the intervention. The response was positive and majority of them felt that the sessions had helped to improve their performance (average score 3.63 ⁄ 6.00), change their study behaviour (3.69 ⁄ 6.00) and change their attitude (3.50 ⁄ 6.00). They felt that the strong point of this programme was that it gave them more confidence and boosted their self-esteem. It was concluded that poor performers can benefit from individually tailored remedial programmes which include counselling and training in study skills, along with good mentor support.

Successful innovation and change in the way medical students are prepared are notoriously difficult. The relationship between the administrative structures of the medical school and its teaching hospitals, other responsibilities ofits teachers and administrators, and the intricacies of the curriculum as a system of interrelated components, mean that any real change has wide repercussions. An opportunity for evaluation of a curriculum undergoing change was presented at the University of New South Wales, when the Faculty of Medicine introduced a new 6-year medical curriculum in 1988. The change was made to address a number of problems experienced with the old 5-year curriculum. The Course Evaluation Committee was in a unique position to conduct an ongoing evaluation of the new curriculum, year by year, as it was being introduced. A method for obtaining feedback from both staff and students on a medical curriculum undergoing change, is described. While some sample results are presented, the paper concentrates on the advantages and disadvantages of, and our experiences with, this method. Advantages include the specificity and timing of the information collected, and the high response rate. One disadvantage was the repeated use of the same cohort of students. Some staff still perceived the evaluation process as a threat, or were sceptical about the value and validity of student feedback. Whether staff acknowledged ownership of the new curriculum also affected the use of feedback.

Since 1994, higher education policy has been committed to equity of access for all, irrespective of race and gender. We investigated progress towards these goals in the education of medical doctors, with an emphasis on gender. Databases from the Department of Education (DoE), Health Professions Council of South Africa (HPCSA) and University of Cape Town (UCT) Faculty of Health Sciences were used to explore undergraduate (MB ChB) trends at all eight medical schools and postgraduate (MMed) trends at UTC. Nationally women have outnumbered men in MBChB enrollments since 2000, figures ranging between 52% and 63% at seven of the eight medical schools in 2005. However, the rate of change in the medical profession lags behind and it will take more than two decades for female doctors to outnumber male doctors. A study of UCT postgraduate enrollments shows that females had increased to 42% of MMed enrollments in 2005. However, female postgraduate students were concentrated in disciplines such...

The licensing of provincial surgeons and physicians in the post-Restoration period has proved an awkward subject for medical historians. It has divided writers between those who regard the possession of a local licence as a mark of professionalism or proficiency, those who see the existence of diocesan licences as a mark of an essentially unregulated and decentralized trade, and those who discount the distinction of licensing in assessing medical expertise availability in a given region. Such a diversity of interpretations has meant that the very descriptors by which practitioners were known to their contemporaries (and are referred to by historians) have become fragmented and difficult to use without a specific context. As David Harley has pointed out in his study of licensed physicians in the north-west of England, “historians often define eighteenth-century physicians as men with medical degrees, thus ignoring … the many licensed physicians throughout the country”. One could simi...

Background Because of resources deficiency, a well-funded budget system is very important for achieving organizational goals. Hence, providing a specific pattern for performance analysis is important to allocate funds to medical universities Objectives In this study, econometric method and linear regression estimation were used to investigate the economic behaviour of the budget allocation process. Methods Data used in the present study were panel data from medical universities obtained during an eight-year period. The explanatory variables in this model included the numbers of faculty members and students. Also, separate linear regression was estimated as a dependent variable for the levels of expenditure budget and total budget. Results Our findings showed that if budgeting is done solely based on faculty members, allocation of public budget for each faculty member is 113.7 million Tomans, and if it is performed based on students, the allocated budgets are 9.8, 2.2, and 25.9 million Tomans for each undergraduate, professional doctorate (medicine, pharmacy, and dentistry) and postgraduate student, respectively. Conclusions In general, budget allocation for university education sector had a strong relationship with faculty members and students. However, the place of budget consumption and performance quality indicators still remain unclear. The results of this study can be applied for quantitative modelling to predict and allocate budget to medical universities.

For more than 25 years, we have been looking for biomathematical laws controlling and structuring DNA, genes, proteins, chromosomes and genomes [1,2]. In 1997 we discovered a simple numerical law based solely on atomic masses, unifying the 3 languages of biology: DNA, RNA, and amino acids. This law, “The Master Code Of Biology” is published in 2009 in the book codex biogenesis [3] and then in 2015 in a reference article peer review [4]. In 2017 we publish different applications: HIV, SNPs, brain genetics [5-8]. On the other hand, at the beginning of the 2000s we studied the integrity of the Prions proteins (CJD, Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease), showing a common invariant bi-attractors in “W”, while the amyloid was characterized by a pattern in “V” shape. Since that time, biologists such as Claudio Soto have visually demonstrated in 3D the same biological form in horseshoe for the amyloid protein [9-13].

OBJECTIVES Educators often speak of web-based learning (WBL) as a single entity or a cluster of similar activities with homogeneous effects. Yet a recent systematic review demonstrated large heterogeneity among results from individual studies. Our purpose is to describe the variation in configurations, instructional methods and presentation formats in WBL.

Diarrhea is a common side effect of chemotherapy regimens. Diarrhea can cause depletion of fluids and electrolytes, malnutrition, and dehydration. Chemotherapy-induced diarrhea (CID) can occur in as many as 50-80 percent of patients receiving chemotherapy. Probiotics have been shown effective at preventing diarrhea in inflammatory bowel disease and may prove useful in the oncology setting, Clinical research indicates that probiotics promote a healthy balance of intestinal flora and has immunomodulatory effects in cancer patients and may help minimize some of the negative gastrointestinal side effects associated with treatment. This article reviews the current available scientific literature regarding the effect of Floralite capsules in promoting immune function & As supportive therapy for chemotherapy induced diarrhea.

AIM & OBJECTIVES The study investigated the level of drug adherence among hypertensive patients at a tertiary care hospital in Erode, Tamil Nadu. Specific objectives included measurement of blood pressure (BP) control achievement, estimating prevalence of drug adherence behaviour, and establishing the association between drug adherence behaviour and achievement of BP control. METHODS AND MATERIALS A question based observational study was carried out for 6 months with 102 participants. FINDINGS From the total number of subjects, majority were females (n =56; 54.9%). Out of the 102 patients, 40.2% (n = 41) of them were found to be medication adherent and 59.8% (n = 61) were non adherent. Blood pressure control was achieved in 70.7% (n = 29) among adherent patients while BP control was only 39.3% (n = 24) in non adherent patients. CONCLUSION From this study it can be concluded that medication adherence is very much important for blood pressure control. Poor drug adherence behaviour prevails among hypertensive patients and it can lead to poor achievement of blood pressure control. Thus this study shows an importance of regular patient counselling and awareness programme for improving medication adherence.