Parasite Ecology

Lecithocladium angustiovum is identified from the stomach (87.33%) and the intestine (12.67%) of Indonesian short mackerel (Rastrelliger brachysoma). The description includes an elongated body; a mean total length of 1018.84 µm; and an ecsoma of 47.52% of the total length. The oral and ventral sucker ratio is 1:0.63, and the pharynx length is 97.42 µm. The sequence results were obtained by 18s rDNA gene sequencing of the 354 basepair (bp) DNA segment, and the mean base composition (%) was 17.7 A; 35.7 T; 29.6 G; and 17.1 C. A phylogenetic tree was constructed to demonstrate the genetic distance between L. angustiovum and sequences from Lecithocladium excisum, Dinurus longisinus, Plerurus digitatus and Lecithochirium caesionis obtained from GenBank.

Some species of the fungal genus Ophiocordyceps that parasitize ants have evolved some degree of behavioral manipulation to increase their own transmission. Carpenter ants (Camponotus spp.) infected by Ophiocordyceps unilateralis species climb vegetation and bite leaves or other plant parts before death, while other ants infected by other Ophiocordyceps species die buried within or on the leaf-litter, attached to stems and tree trunks. The microenvironment of the host's death location is important for fungal development and dispersal to new hosts, being an interesting example of an extended phenotype. This study investigated the effect of humidity variation in space (15 km 2) and time (14 months) on the occurrence and expression of the extended Ophiocordyceps phenotype parasitizing ants in Central Amazonia. We found O. unilateralis s.l., O. kniphofioides s.l. and O. australis s.l. parasitizing 30 ant species, but O. unilateralis s.l. was by far the most abundant fungus. Parasitized Camponotus atriceps and C. bispinosus were more abundant and died in higher places in periods with greater air humidity. Otherwise, the abundance and height of C. senex cadavers were higher in drier plots. These results provide insights on how the spatial and temporal variation in air humidity may shape the occurrence and behavioral manipulation of ants infected by entomopathogenic fungi at larger scales.

In the present study, a tetraphylleadean larval cestode Scolex pleuronectis Müller, 1788 was determined in the intestine of shore rockling Gaidropsarus mediterraneus, Atlantic horse mackerel Trachurus trachurus, blotched picarel Spicara flexuosa, grass goby Zosterissesor ophiocephalus and round goby Neogobius melanostomus. Fish were collected by commercial fishermen in Sinop coasts of the Black Sea in April and May 2014. Infection prevalence and mean intensity values were determined as 12.5% and 2.00 ± 0.0 in shore rockling; 4.76% and 1.00 ± 0.0 in Atlantic horse mackerel; 20.0% and 6.80 ± 3.20 in botched picarel; 20.00% and 4.00 ± 0.0 in grass goby and, 1.44% and 55.00 ± 0.0 in round goby. Our results showed that this parasite species can be found widely at its larval stage in many bony fish species in the Black Sea.

Many bird species have white spots in their tails or wing feathers, and such characters have been hypothesized to be either reliable signals (handicaps) or amplifiers that facilitate the message of a signal. In barn swallows,Hirundo rustica , the size of the white spots in the tail feathers is sexually dimorphic and positively correlated with feather length. We tested whether such spots act as handicaps or amplifiers. These white spots affect sexual selection in barn swallows, as shown by an experiment in which we randomly subjected males to (1) a considerable reduction of the size of all the spots by the use of a black permanent marker pen, (2) a small reduction of the size of the spots, or (3) no reduction. There was a positive association between spot size and the number of offspring produced per season. The white tail spots were preferred by feather-eating Mallophaga as a feeding site: holes made by Mallophaga were more abundant in the white spots than expected by chance. A habitat choice experiment with Mallophaga on barn swallow tail feathers revealed that they preferred white spots over black parts of the tail feathers. We therefore expected long-tailed male barn swallows to have more Mallophaga than short-tailed males. However, the opposite relationship was observed, indicating that long-tailed males may reliably signal their quality by the presence of large white tail spots without parasite damage. Thus white tail spots in barn swallows appear to be a reliable signal of phenotypic quality.

The role of parasitism has, to date, been largely ignored in optimal foraging theory. The mechanisms necessary to allow animals to use their diet to protect themselves from potential or actual parasitism have been observed in various species. The inclusion of the effects of parasitism on diet choice may considerably improve the predictive powers of future opti-mal foraging models.

Parasites (ectoparasites or endoparasites) are a major cause of diseases in man, his live‐ stock and crops, leading to poor yield and great economic loss. To overcome some of the major limitations of chemical control methods such as rising resistance, environmen‐ tal and health risks, and the adverse effect on non‐target organisms, biological control (biocontrol) is now at the forefront of parasite (pests) control. Biocontrol is now a core component of the integrated pest management. Biocontrol is defined as " the study and uses of parasites, predators and pathogens for the regulation of host (pest) densities ". Considerable successes have been achieved in the implementation of biocontrol strate‐ gies in the past. This chapter presents a review of the history of biocontrol, its advantages and disadvantages; the different types of biological control agents (BCAs) including predators, parasites (parasitoids) and pathogens (fungi, bacteria, viruses and virus‐like particles, protozoa and nematodes); the effect of biocontrol on native biodiversity; a few case studies of the successful implementation of biocontrol methods and the challenges encountered with the implementation of biocontrol and future perspectives.

Abstract
This study has been conducted for the period from the first of March 2014 until September 2014 and included the auditors to Diwaniya General Hospital and Women's Hospital and children in the province of Diwaniya and civil analytical laboratories in the province. A sample of 679 of auditors' stool have been examined by using the direct swab from different age groups and both sexes. The study shows that 61.26% of people have been infected by screened amoeba parasite. The infected rate of both sexes is 58.2% and 41.9%, respectively, but it does not show significant differences between them. The study also shows that the different age groups and different infected rates are the highest in the age group 1-15 years and the lowest rate in the age group 65 years and over(76.68% and 0.7%), respectively and the study does not show significant differences that are statistically significant in the infected rate of the population of the city and the countryside. The infection rate is 52.4% and 47.6%, respectively. The monthly distribution of infection shows that the highest percentage of infection is in August (31.49%) and the lowest is in March (7.93%). The impact of the quality of drinking water used on the emergence of the infection has been also noted which amounts (83.89%) in people who drink sterile or distilled water and (16.1%) in people who drink non-sterile or undistilled water. Also, it has been noted that the emergence of the highest infections in financially poor families in (787.78%) rate. Finally, it is observed that there are differences in the rate of infection among individuals who keep animals in their homes, but they are not significant statistically.
Keyward: E. histolytica , E. dispar , E. moshkoviskii

Parasites appropriate host resources to feed and/or to reproduce, and lower host fitness to varying degrees. As a consequence, they can negatively impact human and animal health, food production, economic trade, and biodiversity conservation. They can also be difficult to study and have historically been regarded as having little influence on ecosystem organization and function. Not surprisingly, parasitic biodiversity has to date not been the focus of much positive attention from the conservation community. However, a growing body of evidence demonstrates that parasites are extremely diverse, have key roles in ecological and evolutionary processes, and that infection may paradoxically result in ecosystem services of direct human relevance. Here we argue that wildlife parasites should be considered meaningful conservation targets no less relevant than their hosts. We discuss their numerical and functional importance, current conservation status, and outline a series of non-trivial challenges to consider before incorporating parasite biodiversity in conservation strategies. We also suggest that addressing the key
knowledge gaps and communication deficiencies that currently impede broad discussions about parasite conservation requires input from wildlife parasitologists.

Macrourids are among the most abundant and diverse demersal fishes in all deep oceans, including the Southwestern Brazilian continental slope. Although not targeted by Brazilian fisheries, they suffer impact similar than the target species, being among the most discarded fishes by deep bottom trawling.
Trophic Ecology: Data from research surveys and commercial fishing were used to analyze the trophic ecology of four species inhabiting the upper slope of southern Brazil: Coelorinchus marinii, Malacocephalus occidentalis, M. laevis and Lucigadus ori. For the two abundant ones, ontogenetic changes, seasonal variations, intra- and interspecific dietary overlap, parasite fauna and aspects of functional morphology are also described. C.marinii had an extremely diverse diet, preying infauna, epifauna, plankton, necton and carcasses.
M.occidentalis fed on larger and nektonic prey, but also included crabs and carcasses in the diet. Both species showed ontogenetic shifts and seasonal variations in diet composition, both leading to changes in intra- and interspecific diet overlap patterns. Species showed quite distinct feeding anatomy and proportions of body with mouth size, reflecting on feeding strategies. There was little interspecific food overlap. In most cases when the diet was more similar there was a spatial segregation. The coexistence of these species appears to be facilitated by the development of different functional morphologies and feeding strategies. A considerable portion of the diet of these species is due to the consumption of carcasses of pelagic and mesopelagic organisms, and even insects, bypassing the benthic trophic web. Conservative (minimum) estimates of the mean weight
of carcasses in diet ranged from 3 to 20%, increasing with the size of the predators and towards deeper waters. C.marinii showed a lower consumption of carcasses and a high proportion of mesopelagic fishes and cephalopods, however, the analysis of the feeding morphology and prey size leads to believe that most of these two groups of prey were consumed as carcasses. This source of food bypass the detritus food chains and connect the concentrations of macrourids to fluctuations in the abundance of epi and mesopelagic organisms and to oceanographic processes that increase their concentration and mortality (e.g. mesoscale anticyclonic eddies).

Distribution, Biomass and Oceanography: Data from two seasonal bottom trawl surveys were used to provide information on distribution, abundances, densities, sizecomposition and biomass estimates for seven species: Coelorinchus marinii, Malacocephalus occidentalis, M. laevis, Lucigadus ori, Hymenocephalus billsam, Ventrifossa macropogon and V. mucocephalus. The total biomass was estimated in 5.5 and 8.3 kt respectively in winter-spring and summer-autumn. C.marinii and M.occidentalis comprised 98% of the biomass. For these two abundant species, surface maps were made with spawning areas, feeding index, sex and immature/mature ratios, and were related to
oceanographic processes, providing insights on strategies and important processes regulating distribution and abundance patterns. Both species showed a marked seasonal variation in the extent and location of spawning areas. Most C.marinii females were mature (90%), suggesting an early maturation during pelagic phase and acquiring demersal habit just prior the onset of maturation, while M.occidentalis showed few matures females and settle to bottom well before maturity. Temperature rather than depth seems to be the main factor regulating the batimetric distribution of both species. We describe three processes responsible for distribution and abundance patterns found in these species. Different patterns of spatial segregation were found in both species, related with depth, sex and maturity. It is suggested that areas with high biomass Macrouridae (scavengers) are induced by zones of occurrence semi-permanent mesoscale processes (e.g. eddies). These processes increase productivity and enable large biomass of short-lived organisms found in the upper layers, and also increase the concentration, mortality and availability of carcasses, favoring scavenger predators. These processes may be responsible for inconsistencies in biomass of megafauna and macrofauna found in some studies, where biomass of megafauna was of the same order of magnitude or larger than macrofauna, contradicting the Eltonian principle. It is suggested that future studies attempt to relate mesoscale processes with the biomass of potential short-lived prey in surface waters and higher biomass of scavengers. This work highlights the importance of the study of ocean dynamics, combining biological and oceanographic observations, trying to understand the role of mesoscale physical processes on the distribution and abundance patterns of species.

DNA metabarcoding offers new perspectives, especially with regard to the high‐throughput identification and diagnostics of pathogens. Microsporidia are an example of widely distributed, opportunistic and pathogenic microorganisms in which molecular identification is important for both environmental research and clinical diagnostics. We have developed a method for parallel detection of both microsporidian infection and the host species. We designed new primer sets: one specific for the classical Microsporidia (targeting the hypervariable V5 region of small subunit [ssu] rDNA), and a second one targeting a shortened fragment of the COI gene (standard metazoan DNA‐barcode); both markers are well suited for next generation sequencing. Analysis of the ssu rDNA data set representing 607 microsporidian species (120 genera) indicated that the V5 region enables identification of >98% species in the data set (596/607). To test the method, we used microsporidians that infect mosquitoes in natural populations. Using mini‐COI data, all field‐collected mosquitoes were unambiguously assigned to seven species; among them almost 60% of specimens were positive for at least 11 different microsporidian species, including a new microsporidian ssu rDNA sequence (Microsporidium sp. PL01). Phylogenetic analysis showed that this species belongs to one of the two main clades in the Terresporidia. We found a high rate of microsporidian co‐infections (9.4%). The numbers of sequence reads for the operational taxonomic units suggest that the occurrence of Nosema spp. in co‐infections could benefit them; however, this observation should be retested using a more intensive host sampling. Our results show that DNA barcoding is a rapid and cost‐effective method for deciphering sample diversity in greater resolution, including the hidden biodiversity that may be overlooked using classical methodology.

A diversity of macro-and microparasitic species exert strong influences on wildlife population density, community structure, and ecosystem functioning, all through their impacts on individual host fitness. Through consuming, manipulating, and relocating wildlife feces, over 7,000 species of coprophagous dung beetles interact with a staggering diversity of wildlife parasites with fecal-oral transmission in ways that both increase and decrease transmission. Here, we review the mechanisms by which dung beetles influence micro-and macroparasite transmission and outline a future research framework that integrates theory and empirical insights to advance our understanding of how these relationships may interact with ongoing environmental change drivers to further influence wildlife populations and community structure. Any organism that significantly influences parasite transmission will impact multiple levels of biological organization. Therefore, improving our understanding of the role of dung beetle interactions within disease ecology will be key to future efforts to understand the overall dynamics of infection in wildlife and how parasites contribute to the maintenance of ecosystem structure and function and evolutionary processes in wild animals.

Cryptococcus neoformans is an encapsulated yeast belongs to basidiomycetes, causing morbidity and mortality in specialized populations such as HIV/AIDS. It is related to the immune system of the host, both, cellular and humoral immunity. Furthermore, intact and adequate immune system is needed in order to prevent and control infection. Mononuclear phagocytic cells (monocyte and macrophage) plays a central role in protective immunity against this intracellular microorganism. Normal macrophage have the ability to phagocyte and destroy internalized pathogen, through the action of lysosomal enzymes. In HIV infected individuals, even though internalization still occur but instead of being destroyed, the yeast can reside and replicate inside the phagolysosome compartment, a process known as intracellular parasitism. During that process, internalized yeast cells can undergo lateral transfer from infected macrophages to non-infected ones. This process allows dissemination of the fungus to other part of the body.

This study reports the first records of the parasitism rates of the association among ectoparasitic flies of the family Streblidae found in phyllostomid bats in the state of Maranhão. Specimens were collected in patches of secondary forest and borders of mangrove in the village of Quebra Pote, located in the south portion of the island of São Luís. A total of 201 flies of 15 species and eight genera [Aspidoptera falcata Wenzel, A. phyllostomatis (Perty), Mastoptera minuta Costa Lima, Megistopoda aranea (Coquillett), M. proxima (Séguy), Speiseria ambigua Kessel, Stizostrebla longirotris Jobling, Strebla guajiro (García & Casal), S. hertigi Wenzel, Trichobioides perspicillatus (Pessôa & Galvão), Trichobius costalimai Guimarães, T. dugesii Townsend, T. dugesioides phyllostomus Guerrero, T. joblingi Wenzel and T. longipes (Rudow)] were collected from 50 individuals of nine species of phyllostomid bats [Artibeus lituratus (Olfers), A. obscurus Schinz, Carollia perspicillata L., Glossophaga soricina Pallas, Lophostoma carrikeri J A Allen, Micronycteris minuta Gervais, Phyllostomus discolor Wagner, P.hastatus Pallas and Sturnira lilium E Geoffroy)]. Mastoptera minuta, T. costalimai, T. longipes, A. falcata and S. longirostris, were the most frequently found ectoparasites, present in at least 50% of the infected bats. Two species of bats, C. perspicillata e P. discolor, showed the highest richness of ectoparasites, with four species of flies each, and an infection rate of 46% and 100%, respectively.

There is great interest in explaining how beneficial microbiomes are assembled. Antibiotic-producing microbiomes are arguably the most abundant class of beneficial microbiome in nature, having been found on corals, arthropods, mollusks, vertebrates, and plant rhizospheres. An exemplar is the attine ants, which cultivate a fungus for food and host a cuticular microbiome that releases antibiotics to defend the fungus from parasites. One explanation posits long-term vertical transmission of Pseudonocardia bacteria, which (somehow) evolve new compounds in arms-race fashion against parasites. Alternatively, attines (somehow) selectively recruit multiple, non-coevolved actinobacterial genera from the soil, enabling a ‘multi-drug’ strategy against parasites. We reconcile the models by showing that when hosts fuel interference competition by providing abundant resources, the interference competition favors the recruitment of antibiotic-producing (and resistant) bacteria. This partner-choice mechanism is more effective when at least one actinobacterial symbiont is vertically transmitted or has a high immigration rate, as in disease-suppressive soils.

Cladosporium epichloës Lobik, associated with Epichloë typhina (Pers.) Tul. & C. Tul. and known from three records worldwide, is reported from Poland for the first time. The morphology and distribution data of this species as well as the first records of Cladosporium uredinicola Speg. and Phoma glomerata (Corda) Wollenw. & Hochapfel as parasites of powdery mildews in Poland are presented. Information concerning specimens of five other hyperparasitic species deposited in Herbarium Universitatis Lodziensis (LOD) is provided.

Dung beetles are detrivorous insects that feed and reproduce with the fecal material of vertebrates. This dependency on vertebrate feces implies frequent contact between dung beetles and parasitic helminths with a fecal component to their life-cycle. Interactions between dung beetles and helminths carry both positive and negative consequences for successful parasite transmission, however to date there has been no systematic review of dung beetle-helminth interactions, their epidemiological importance, or their underlying mechanisms. Here we review the observational evidence of beetle biodiversity-helminth transmission relationships, propose five mechanisms by which dung beetles influence helminth survival and transmission, and highlight areas for future research. Efforts to understand how anthropogenic impacts on biodiversity may influence parasite transmission must include the development of detailed, mechanistic understanding of the multiple interactions between free-living and parasitic species within ecological communities. The dung beetle-helminth system may be a promising future model system with which to understand these complex relationships.

In this work we record the highest number of bat flies species among those already performed in the Brazilian cerrado and discuss the associations and patterns of parasitism of these species and their hosts. A total of 1,390 ectoparasitic flies were collected, belonging to 24 species of Streblidae and one of Nycteribiidae, parasitizing 227 bats of 15 species. Among the species found, the presence of Trichobius sp. on Lonchophylla mordax and the first occurrence of Hershkovitzia sp. on Thyroptera devivoi are highlighted. Lophostoma species presented the highest proportion of individuals with infracommunities and the highest values of parasitological indexes. The high number of bat fly species and hosts, as well as the high values for rates of parasitism and infracommunities, suggests that this area of cerrado has good shelter conditions for these species. The abundance of species and high rates of parasitism detracts from the hypothesis that a higher mean intensity of ectoparasites results from lower competition among flies for hosts in areas with lower ectoparasite species richness. Biogeographical and historical factors of host populations, besides the number of host species and individuals sampled, may contribute to species number and intensity of parasitism.

Formal training in conservation biology education is an important component of the suite of solutions to current environmental problems. As conservation biology textbooks underpin many conservation education programs at both undergraduate and graduate levels, the portrayal of conservation issues and coverage of specific biotic groups plays a potentially important role in guiding the training of the next generation of conservation professionals. Parasites represent the majority of species diversity on earth, play critical roles in ecology and evolution, and are often at higher risk of decline and extinction than their free-living counterparts. Yet parasites continue to receive scant attention from conservation scientists and educators. We searched the index of 77 English language conservation biology textbooks for parasite or pathogen related content, published between 1970 and 2009. When present, we categorized a textbook’s parasite content as positive, neutral or negative with respect to the author’s portrayal of parasite biodiversity. The vast majority (72%) of conservation textbooks either portray parasites uniquely as threats to conservation goals established for free-living species or do not mention parasites at all. While no single textbook can be expected to provide extensive treatment of conservation-related topics across all biological groups, we outline three reasons why parasites should feature more prominently in formal conservation education, and suggest several ways in which greater incorporation of these parasite topics could strengthen the teaching and practice of conservation biology.

In this comprehensive research study, a total of 816 fish specimens belonging to 31 fish species collected from Sinop coasts of the Black Sea were investigated for myxosporean parasites in the period from February 2013 to November 2014. Gills, urinary bladder, kidney, gall bladder, intestine and gonads were examined at x400 magnification using a phase contrast microscope equipped with a digital camera and hand drawing attachment at the Faculty of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences in Sinop, Turkey. A total of 19 myxosporean species was identified from 14 fish species; their identities and hosts were Sphaeromyxa sevastopoli in Parablennius sanguinolentus; Myxidium parvum in P. tentacularis and Salaria pavo; M. gadi in Merlangius merlangus; Enteromyxum leei in Chromis chromis; Ortholinea gobiusi in Neogobius melanostomus; O. divergens in P. sanguinolentus; O. orientalis in Mullus barbatus and Alosa tanaica; Ceratomyxa merlangi in M. merlangus; Myxobolus muelleri(?) in Diplodus annularis; M. asymmetricus in P. tentacularis and P. Sanguinolentus; M. parvus in Liza saliens and M. barbatus; M. rotundus(?) in Symphodus cinereus; Myxobolus sp1. in N. melanostomus and P. tentacularis; Myxobolus sp2. in Gobius paganellus; Myxobolus sp3. in G. niger; Myxobolus sp4. in L. saliens; Henneguya sp. in P. tentacularis; Sinuolinea rebae in Solea solea; Polysporoplasma mugilis in L. saliens. The results obtained throughout the present study were compared with 69 myxosporean species so far been reported in the Black Sea, their microhabitats and hosts. Of the 19 identified myxozoan parasite species, 3 species (E. leei, O. orientalis, S. rebae) were new records for the Black Sea parasite fauna as well as 11 species (S. sevastopoli, M. parvum, E. leei, O. gobiusi, O. divergens, O. orientalis, M. asymmetricus, M. parvus, M. rotundus, S. rebae, P. mugilis) were new records for Turkish parasite fauna. Several myxosporean species were also determined from previously not reported host species and therefore were registered for new host records. Current study also yielded 5 myxosporean species identified only at genus level from new hosts and believed to be new for science. This study is the first to provide a comprehensive and comparative data on the past and current status of the myxosporean fauna of the Black Sea fishes.

Members of the phylum Myxozoa are among the
most cosmopolitan parasites of fish, and the genus Myxobolus
is the largest within the class Myxosporea in freshwater and
marine environment from all over the world. Myxobolus
parvus has been reported from mainly mugilid fishes from
different localities including the Black Sea. Leaping mullet
Liza saliens collected by fishermen off Sinop coasts of the
Black Sea in the period between September 2014 and
December 2015 was investigated for myxosporean parasites
using conventional methods. M. parvus Schulman, 1962 was
the only Myxobolus species identified and it was found in the
gills, gall bladder, kidney tubules, and inside several cysts
located on the lower jaw of examined fish in the present study.
Morphometric data and all details of parasitic infection were
determined and presented in tables and illustrated in figures.
Molecular characterization was also conducted to reveal its
position within Myxosporea. Two M. parvus samples from
gills and kidney showed the same haplotype and appeared in
the same sub-lineage with marine Myxobolus species. The
closest haplotypes to M. parvus were Triactinomyxon sp.
and Endocapsa sp. which are the actinosporeans forms of
unknown myxozoan species. These data are the first in molecular
characterization of M. parvus, its occurrence in lower
jaw of leaping mullet along with its infection prevalence
values off the Turkish Black Sea coasts.