Planting

Jaborandi (Pilocarpus sp.;) is a shrub or small tree 3-7.5 m tall that can be found in native stands or as isolated individuals throughout Brazil. The leaves of jaborandi contain the alkaloid pilocarpine, widely used in ophthalmology for treatment of certain types of glaucoma and more recently for xerostomia. This paper discusses the current systems of production of jaborandi leaves in Maranhao, Northeastern Brazil. On one side, the extractivism practiced by indigenous people and peasants; on the other, the plantation recently established, as the result of heavy investment by a pharmaceutical company. In the extractive system, the non-sustainable exploitation of the drug-rich leaves of this plant species may have produced considerable damage to the native populations over time, reducing the size of the populations, and impoverishing their gene pools. The following potential effects of the plantation are discussed; contribute to diminishing the pressure on wild populations; impact on the local people currently involved in the extractivism; and its impacts on the local economies. Jaborandi (Pilocarpus sp., Rutaceae): Uma Esp6cie Nativa e Sua Rfipida Transforma~o em Cultura. Jaborandi (Pilocarpus sp.) ~ um arbusto ou arvoreta de 3-7.5 m de altura, que pode ser encontrado em formaf6es nativas ou como indfviduos isolados em vdrias partes do Brazil. As folhas do jaborandi cont~m o alcal6ide pilocarpina, largamente utilizado em oftalmologia, no tratamento de certos tipos de glaucoma. Este trabalho mostra vdrios aspectos dos atuais sistemas de produfao de folhas de jaborandi no Maranh~o, Nordeste do Brasil. De um lado, o sistema extrativista praticado por comunidades indigenas e camponeses; do outro, a plan-tagSo, recentemente implantada como resultado de significativo investimento por parte de uma industria farmac~utica, buscando domesticaf~o desta esp~cie nativa. No sistema extrativista, a explorag8o extrativa das folhas de jaborandi pode estar produzindo danos considertiveis its populaf6es nativas, reduzindo o tamanho dessas populag6es e empobrecendo suas bases gen(ticas. A plantafao, por outro lado, levanta quest6es em relafao ~ sua contribuifao para diminuir a pressao sobre as populagSes nativas, sobre o futuro do povo atualmente envolvido no extrativismo, e os seus efeitos na economia local.

Les boues de station d'épuration sont constituées de sédiments résiduaires issus des traitements des eaux usées. En France, chaque habitant génère environ 50 g de matières sèches de boues par jour et ces résidus représentent environ 850 000 t de matières sèches par an. Actuellement, 60% des boues de station d'épuration produites en France sont épandues en agriculture alors que 20 à 25% sont mises en décharges et 15 à 20% sont incinérées. L'impact de la politique européenne en matière de traitement des eaux usées se traduit par une augmentation de la production des boues qui dépasserait, en France, un million de tonnes de matières sèches en 2005. Dans ce contexte général d'augmentation des quantités de boues, d'une part, et devant l'abandon progressif de la mise en décharge des déchets non ultimes, d’autre part, on voit difficilement comment la part de l'épandage pourrait diminuer. Cependant, la controverse qui s'est développée au cours des dernières a...

& Introduction The limited ability of Quercus species to regenerate naturally in Mediterranean forests has led to the development of various artificial regeneration methods; however, there is no general consensus as to what specific method is the best one for this purpose. & Material and methods In this work, we assessed morphology, growth and survival of two Quercus species (Quercus ilex ssp. ballota and Quercus suber) using two different methods of artificial regeneration (viz. direct seeding and planting) and two seedling ages (1-year-old seedlings and 3-year-old seedlings) in southern Spain. & Results and discussion The 1-year-old seedlings of both species were found to exhibit the highest survival percentages and direct-seeded plants intermediate survival values. For direct-seeded plants, seed mass was found to have a significantly positive effect on the establishment success in both species. No clear-cut trend in survival was detected in the 3year-old seedlings. The survival of the 3-year-old Q. suber seedlings and the direct-seeded plants was similar, but not in Q. ilex, where the survival of the 3-year-old seedlings was the lowest. The latter result may have been a consequence of cultivation in smaller containers leading to root deformation and limiting plant access to water. Differences in survival could not be ascribed to morphological and growth variables or stomatal conductance. & Conclusion Based on the results, all three artificial regeneration methods can be similarly effective provided appropriate nursery cultivation conditions are used and seeds are protected against predators, the best choice in each case being dictated by the particular restoration goals.

Jesus is the head of the church. He wants the church to be able to carry out the mission of salvation to the whole world so that everyone can be saved. The ideal church services are always based on the mission of Jesus when He was on the earth. The church needs to implement the holistic concept that is integrated mission of Jesus which includes aspects of physical, mental, spiritual and social. In order for the church grow rapidly both in quality and quantity, the church has to apply the methods base on the Bible. In this study, the research wants to develop the biblical foundation of Old Testament and New Testament and then how to apply these methods in context of Dani's tribe culture in Papua, Indonesia.

Pilocarpus sp.;) is a shrub or small tree 3-7.5 m tall that can be found in native stands or as isolated individuals throughout Brazil. The leaves of jaborandi contain the alkaloid pilocarpine, widely used in ophthalmology for treatment of certain types of glaucoma and more recently for xerostomia. This paper discusses the current systems of production of jaborandi leaves in Maranhao, Northeastern Brazil. On one side, the extractivism practiced by indigenous people and peasants; on the other, the plantation recently established, as the result of heavy investment by a pharmaceutical company. In the extractive system, the non-sustainable exploitation of the drug-rich leaves of this plant species may have produced considerable damage to the native populations over time, reducing the size of the populations, and impoverishing their gene pools. The following potential effects of the plantation are discussed; contribute to diminishing the pressure on wild populations; impact on the local people currently involved in the extractivism; and its impacts on the local economies.

There is a growing interest in converting organic wastes to charcoal for use as a sustainable soil amendment with a potential to improve soil productivity and sequester C. Three consecutive greenhouse experiments were conducted to investigate the effects of charcoal with different ash and volatile matter (VM) contents on soil properties and maize (Zea mays) growth and to evaluate the effect of time on charcoal performance. Five charcoal amendments (high-VM corncob, low-VM corncob, Kiawe, Binchotan, and a gasification charcoal of Leucaena leucocephala) applied at a 2.5% (wt/wt) rate were compared with a zero-charcoal control with and without fertilization. Only the gasification charcoal significantly increased maize growth without fertilization. The low-VM corncob charcoal with fertilization significantly increased maize growth by 164% compared with the fertilized control in the first planting cycle. Maize growth in the high-VM corncob charcoal supplemented with fertilizer treatment was significantly lower than that of the fertilizer-alone treatment in the first planting cycle. The negative effect of the high-VM charcoal on the fertilizer was caused by bioavailable carbon in the charcoal, which increased soil microbial activity and could have caused N immobilization. Both the beneficial and detrimental effects of charcoal did not persist beyond the first planting cycle, suggesting that charcoal impacts are temporary. Whereas charcoal ash and VM content seem to be important parameters for predicting charcoal behavior in the short-term, more research is needed to examine a broader spectrum of feedstocks exposed to varying thermal treatments.

Seedling production from wildlings and early field performance of planted wildlings of four ecologically and commercially important Shorea species were studied in rainforest conditions of South Kalimantan (Indonesian Borneo). We report results from eight trials on Shorea johorensis, S. leprosula, S. faguetiana and S. parvifolia. Five trials were conducted in the nursery and three in the field. Growth medium, container type, wildling size or duration of shading period did not have significant effects on survival or growth of wildlings in the nursery. Keeping the potted wildlings in the greenhouse resulted in significantly higher survival than keeping them under shading net. Duration of greenhouse period had a significant effect on the survival of wildlings, with three weeks being the minimum period resulting in acceptable survival. Early field performance of hardened wildlings was better than that of seedlings raised from seed. Wildlings of 10–40 cm can be grown successfully in the nursery in several growth media and container types. A greenhouse period of 3–5 weeks is necessary for rooting and high survival. Use of wildlings is recommended as a supplementary method for producing dipterocarp planting stock. The techniques tested in the study are simple and appropriate for seedling production in conditions where skilled labor and advanced technology are not available.

Influence de la litière foliaire de cinq espèces végétales tropicales sur la croissance du mil (Pennisetum glaucum (L.) R. Br.) et du maïs (Zea mays L.) pour le développement (IRD), UR 179, Laboratoire d'écologie microbienne des sols et agrosystèmes tropicaux (Lemsat), Centre ISRA-IRD, Route des hydrocarbures, BP 1386 CP, Dakar, Sénégal <Mariama.Diallo@ird.sn> <Saidou.Sall@ird.sn> 2 Institut de recherche pour le développement, Laboratoire MOST, Unité de recherche séquestration du carbone et bio-fonctionnement des sols (UR SeqBio), Ensam, 2 place Viala, Bâtiment 12, 34060 Montpellier cedex 1, France <Jean-Luc.Chotte@mpl.ird.fr> 3 Institut de recherche pour le développement (IRD), Département de biologie végétale, Université Cheikh Anta Diop, BP 5005, Dakar, Sénégal <alguisse@orange.sn> Résumé L'objectif de ce travail a été d'évaluer l'influence de la litière de cinq espèces végétales fréquemment utilisées dans les plantations agroforestières en...

Abstract --Introduction. The Sahel zone of Africa is characterized by recurring dryness, increased soil degradation, low agriculture yields and frequent periods of famines. It is consequently necessary to introduce crops less dependent on rainfall and able to participate in food self-sufficiency. In this context, we tested improved cultivars of jujube tree in the north of Burkina Faso. Materials and methods. Five improved cultivars of jujube tree of Israeli (Ben Gurion) or Indian (Gola, Kaithali, Seb and Umran) origin were planted in a research station starting from young grafted seedlings (approximately 500 plants·ha -1 ); they were irrigated either by a traditional manual technique, or by a drip system. Fruit weight and dimension (length and width) were studied after 2 and 3 years of plantation. Results. The cultivar yields in the second and third years, irrespective of the cultivar, gave, respectively, 0.48 t·ha -1 and 3.54 t·ha -1 with an average annual production of (0.97 and 7.08) kg per plant. The cultivars Ben Gurion, Gola and Seb produced approximately 500 fruits per plant, Umran, 300 fruits per plant, and Kaithali, 200 fruits per plant. The cultivar Ben Gurion presented the highest average fruit weight (15 g) and Kaithali, the lowest (6 g). The most productive cultivars proved to be Ben Gurion and Gola which, with the cultivar Umran, gave the largest fruits. Discussion and conclusion. The yields observed for the 2-and 3-year-old plants could produce, by extrapolation, a harvest of almost 13 t·ha -1 in the ninth year. These first results obtained in an area not very favorable for agricultural production make it possible to consider the possibility of developing the jujube tree in the Sahelian zone of Africa, and could lead in the long term to a substantial income source for the local populations.

Oaks (Quercus spp.) are one of the most important tree taxa in the northern hemisphere. Although they are dominant in mixed species forests and widely distributed, there are frequent reports of regeneration failures. An adequate population of large oak advance reproduction is a critical prerequisite to successful oak regeneration, and hence sustainability of oak. But, many oak forests lack sufficient density of large and competitive oak advance reproduction. Artificial regeneration of oak by underplanting is done to supplement natural populations of oak seedlings or to introduce oak in stands where it is missing. Planting high quality seedlings is important. Silvicultural practices that regulate stand density such as thinning and the shelterwood method are needed to increase oak's regeneration potential by promoting accumulation and growth of natural and planted seedlings before the final regeneration harvest. Control of competing vegetation and herbivory are important elements in the regeneration prescription. Light in the understory is a limiting factor to the accumulation of large oak advance reproduction. Light levels (20-50 % ?) sufficient for biomass production in oak reproduction result through management of stand density and other competing vegetation. We review and synthesize the literature on silvicultural approaches to using artificial regeneration to obtain successful oak regeneration that is grounded in fundamental principles of oak biology and ecology. Principles of oak regeneration presented here may also have relevance to other hydric, mesic and dry-mesic forest environments. New Forests (2012) 43:955-978 957

Reforestation of degraded tropical sites is often hampered by soils of high acidity, high aluminum saturation, and low fertility. To evaluate the possibility of cultivating Acacia species on such soils, a study was conducted at Waiawa, HI, to test growth under conditions of (1) high acidity (primarily aluminum) and nutrient stress, and (2) no acidity stress and high nutrient availability. Twelve Acacia species, including the important native Hawaiian species Acacia koa, were established on a Ustic Kanhaplohumult soil. The experimental design was a split plot with two fertility treatments as the main plots and the 12 Acacia species as subplots. The treatments were: low fertility (F0; 143 kg ha−1 14-14-14 plus micronutrients) and high fertility (F1; 8 Mg ha−1 lime, 143 kg ha−1 14-14-14 plus micronutrients, 200 kg P ha−1, and 77 kg K ha−1). Acacia angustissima, Acacia aulacocarpa, Acacia auriculiformis, Acacia cincinnata, Acacia crassicarpa, Acacia implexa, Acacia koa, and Acacia mangi...

Planting pattern affects canopy structure of crops and influences other physiological characteristics such as light interception and radiation use efficiency. In the current paper, the effects of planting patterns on the canopy structure, light interception, and photosynthetic characteristics at silking stage of two maize (Zea mays L.) cultivars (Beiyu288 and Xianyu 335) were examined in three planting patterns narrow-wide rows of (1) 30 cm + 170 cm (P1, 6.4 plants m -2 ), and (2) 40 cm+90 cm (P2, 6.4 plants m -2 ), and uniform row of 65 cm (control, i.e. CK, 6.4 plants m -2 ). The ratio of leaves perpendicular to rows was highest in P1 and the leaf orientation value in P1 was constant and slightly lower in P2 compared with that in CK. Although a decrease in the total intercepted photosynthetically active radiation (IPAR) of P1 was found in the two cultivars, more incoming PAR was detected at the middle-low canopy strata of P1. The apparent quantum yield and the net photosynthesis rate (P N ) in P1 and P2 were significantly higher than those in CK. The P N and stomatal conductance (g s ) values in P1 were significantly higher than those in CK, and the intercellular CO 2 concentration decreased with an increase in P N . These results indicated that narrow-wide row planting patterns improved the canopy structure, allowed more IPAR to reach the middle-low strata of the canopy, and enhanced the leaf photosynthetic characteristics of maize crops at silking stage compared with CK.

In 1988 and ! 989, flowers were removed before opening from all pollenizers (male vines) except that closest to the middle of an orchard block 76 m long and 24 m wide, containing 140 vines at 4 m × 4 m spacing. Fruit set decreased from 100°/0 in vines nearest the central male to 17% in 1988 and to only 7% in 1989 in the most distant vines. Mean fruit weight for each vine decreased from 110 to 34 g in 1988 and from ! 13 to 37 g in 1989, fruit weight decreasing the further the vine was from the pollen source. As a consequence, yield progressively decreased from vines adjacent to the pollenizer (54.9 and 58.9 kg per vine in 1988 and 1989, respectively) to those most distant (3.7 and 1.9 kg per vine in 1988 and 1989, respectively). The area covered by a pollenizer, i.e. the area within wllich plants produce at least half the number of seeds of those closest to the pollenizer, was 229 m 2 in 1988 and 103 m 2 in 1989. Since pollen transfer, rather than its availability, is the main factor limiting pollination, to achieve full pollination about I 18 pollen sources ha-i must be provided in kiwifruit orchards, without regard to planting distances and canopy sizes. Male vines occupy too much canopy space and it is suggested that they be eliminated; instead, sectors of female vines at appropriate positions in the orchard should be grafted with male scionwood.

This paper focuses on the cropping systems in northern European countries such as Norway and Finland. Winter injury commonly occurs in strawberry fields in northern climates and inadequate snow cover further aggravates the problem. During the last decade there has been an increase in programmed "out-of-season" strawberry production. Greenhouse producers aim for year-round production, whereas those using polyethylene tunnels extend the main production season

1Despite their functional importance, little is known about how and where fungi can be conserved. It is important that we understand the consequences of habitat degradation and fragmentation for fungal assemblages if we are to devise successful conservation strategies.2We investigated the effects of fragmentation and disturbance on the diversity and landscape distribution of fungi in tropical rain forests in the Kodagu district of the Western Ghats of India. We recorded macrofungi on three occasions over a wet season, in 0·125-ha plots in 10 forest reserve sites, 25 sacred groves and 23 coffee plantations.3Despite a long history of isolation from continuous forest, sacred groves had the highest sporocarp abundance and the greatest morphotype richness per sample area, while coffee plantations had the lowest. However, coffee plantation samples were more diverse for a given number of sporocarps than a sample of a similar size from other forest types.4Ordination by non-metric multidimensional scaling suggested that sacred groves had a macrofungal assemblage that was distinct from other forest types. This compositional difference was primarily because of the presence of a group of dead wood and litter decomposing fungi. Coffee plantations and forest reserve sites had very variable but overlapping compositions.5Neither sacred grove size nor distances between a grove and continuous forest accounted for a significant proportion of the total variation in their macrofungal richness.6There was no significant correlation between dissimilarity in macrofungal assemblage composition and geographical distance between sample sites. However, we found strong congruence between patterns of dissimilarity in macrofungi and trees between sites.7Synthesis and applications. These results imply that macrofungal distribution patterns at a landscape scale are determined by habitat requirements rather than dispersal or local population dynamics. This means that habitat degradation is a more serious threat to fungal diversity than fragmentation. Sacred groves, although small, are important for fungus conservation because they provide unique types of habitat.Despite their functional importance, little is known about how and where fungi can be conserved. It is important that we understand the consequences of habitat degradation and fragmentation for fungal assemblages if we are to devise successful conservation strategies.We investigated the effects of fragmentation and disturbance on the diversity and landscape distribution of fungi in tropical rain forests in the Kodagu district of the Western Ghats of India. We recorded macrofungi on three occasions over a wet season, in 0·125-ha plots in 10 forest reserve sites, 25 sacred groves and 23 coffee plantations.Despite a long history of isolation from continuous forest, sacred groves had the highest sporocarp abundance and the greatest morphotype richness per sample area, while coffee plantations had the lowest. However, coffee plantation samples were more diverse for a given number of sporocarps than a sample of a similar size from other forest types.Ordination by non-metric multidimensional scaling suggested that sacred groves had a macrofungal assemblage that was distinct from other forest types. This compositional difference was primarily because of the presence of a group of dead wood and litter decomposing fungi. Coffee plantations and forest reserve sites had very variable but overlapping compositions.Neither sacred grove size nor distances between a grove and continuous forest accounted for a significant proportion of the total variation in their macrofungal richness.There was no significant correlation between dissimilarity in macrofungal assemblage composition and geographical distance between sample sites. However, we found strong congruence between patterns of dissimilarity in macrofungi and trees between sites.Synthesis and applications. These results imply that macrofungal distribution patterns at a landscape scale are determined by habitat requirements rather than dispersal or local population dynamics. This means that habitat degradation is a more serious threat to fungal diversity than fragmentation. Sacred groves, although small, are important for fungus conservation because they provide unique types of habitat.

Forest regrowth is a notable phenomenon across the tropical forest latitudes. Such reforestation takes place in the wake of land abandonment, occurs cyclically in a rotational agricultural system, and may result from the deliberate planting of trees by farmers. Although less extensive than successional forest regeneration, tree planting by small farmers can have potentially important environmental impacts at both the site and global scale. This paper examines tree-planting efforts by small farmers in the tropical frontier regions of Panama and Brazil in order to gauge the magnitude of reforestation activities, and to identify factors that influence these efforts. This paper discusses the environmental regulations, forestry law, and tenure institutions in both countries, and performs a comparative analysis of reforestation efforts with information derived from household surveys (n = 356) and in-depth tree planting interviews (n = 35). Results from logistic regression are also presented. Our results show that tree planting occurs more frequently in Panama, which we attribute to greater external support in the provisioning of extension and materials and strong market incentives. We suggest that the proximity of the study sites to Panama City facilitates external support and market drivers. Finally, our results suggest that land tenure security is an influential determinant of reforestation activities in both countries.

We compared the belowground biomass (BGB)/aboveground biomass (AGB) ratio and the vertical root distribution of 40-year-old Pinus radiata D. Don fertilized with 0 or 90 kg P·ha -1 at planting. Root biomass was determined by a combination of coring (fine roots, φ < 2 mm; small roots, 2 ≤ φ < 15 mm) and excavation (coarse roots, φ ≥ 5 mm). Stand-level AGB and coarse root biomass (CRB) were estimated with the use of allometric relations. After 40 years, AGB and CRB of P-fertilized trees were 4.5 times those of unfertilized trees, indicating that CRB scaled isometrically with AGB independently of P supply. By contrast, P fertilization increased the fine and small root biomass (FSRB) pool by only 50%. As a result, the scaling of FSRB to AGB was dependent on P supply. The differential response of the FSRB to P fertilization caused the overall BGB/AGB ratio to decrease from 0.29 in control plots to 0.20 in P-fertilized plots. Phosphorus fertilization also altered the vertical distribution of fine root biomass (FRB). For example, the proportion of FRB in the top 15 cm increased from 41% to 52% with P fertilization. Collectively, the results showed that P added early in the growth phase had a persistent effect on the BGB/AGB ratio in P. radiata. This was primarily brought about by altered biomass partitioning to the nutrient-acquiring FSRB pool.

CITATIONS 4 READS 47 5 authors, including: Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects: System of Environmental Economic Accounting for Agriculture Forestry and Fisheries View project ERMES -An Earth Observation Model based information RicE Service

In dense metropolitan areas, there are many factors including traffic congestion, building development and social organizations that may impact the health of street trees. The focus of this study is to better understand how social, biological and urban design factors affect the mortality rates of newly planted street trees. Prior analyses of street trees planted by the New York City Department of Parks & Recreation between 1999 and 2003 (n=45,094) found 91.3% of those trees were alive after two years and 8.7% were either standing dead or missing completely. Using a site assessment tool, a randomly selected sample of 13,405 of these trees was surveyed throughout the City of New York during the summers of 2006 and 2007. Overall, 74.3% of the sample trees were alive when surveyed and the remainder were either standing dead or missing. Results of our initial analyses reveal that highest mortality rates occur within the first few years after planting, and that land use has a significant effect on street tree mortality. Trees planted in one-and two-family residential areas had the highest survival rates (82.7%), while young street trees planted in industrial areas, open space and vacant land had the lowest rates of street tree survival (60.3% -62.9%). Also significant in predicting street tree success and failure are species type, tree pit enhancements, direct tree care/stewardship, and local traffic conditions. These results are intended to inform urban forest managers in making decisions about the best conditions for planting new street trees.

A dynamic whole-stand growth model for radiata pine (Pinus radiata D. Don) stands in north-western Spain is presented. In this model, the initial stand conditions at any point in time are defined by three state variables (number of trees per hectare, stand basal area and dominant height), and are used to estimate total or merchantable stand volume for a given projection age. The model uses three transition functions derived with the generalized algebraic difference approach (GADA) to project the corresponding stand state variables at any particular time. These equations were fitted using the base-age-invariant dummy variables method. In addition, the model incorporates a function for predicting initial stand basal area, which can be used to establish the starting point for the simulation. Once the state variables are known for a specific moment, a distribution function is used to estimate the number of trees in each diameter class by recovering the parameters of the Weibull function, using the moments of first and second order of the distribution. By using a generalized height-diameter function to estimate the height of the average tree in each diameter class, combined with a taper function that uses the above predicted diameter and height, it is then possible to estimate total or merchantable stand volume. Un modele dynamique de croissance de peuplement est présenté pour Pinus radiata D. dans le nord ouest de l’Espagne. Dans ce modèle, les conditions initiales du peuplement en tout point et temps sont définies par trois variables d’état (nombre d’arbres à l’hectare, surface terrière et hauteur dominante) et sont utilisées pour estimer le volume total ou marchand du peuplement pour un age donné. Le modèle utilise trois fonctions de transition dérivées avec une approche par différence algébrique généralisée (GADA) pour projeter les variables d’état correspondantes du peuplement à n’importe quel moment. Ces équations ont été ajustées en utilisant la méthode des variables indicatrices indépendantes de l’âge. En plus, le modèle incorpore une fonction de prédiction de la surface terrière initiale du peuplement qui peut être utilisée pour établir le point de départ de la simulation. Une fois que les variables d’état sont connues à un instant donné, une fonction de distribution est utilisée pour estimer le nombre d’arbres dans chaque classe de diamètre en récupérant les paramètres de la fonction de Weibull, en utilisant les moments de premier et de second ordre de la distribution. En utilisant une fonction généralisée hauteur-diamètre pour estimer la hauteur de l’arbre moyen de chaque classe de diamètre, combinée avec une fonction qui utilise la prédiction précédente du diamètre et de la hauteur, il est alors possible d’estimer le volume total ou marchand du peuplement.

Studies on soil strength and rooting characteristics of crops are important for water and nutrient budgeting and also for deciding the adoption of suitable soil management practice for sustainable crop production. In the present field trial, the variation of soil penetration resistance (PR) with soil water content (SWC (w/w)) and bulk density (BD) changes under bed and conventionally planted wheat was studied on a sandy loam soil of research farm of Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi. The differences in root characteristics of both systems were also compared. The results showed that, in general for all SWC, with increase in BD from 1.2 to 1.6 Mg m − 3 , PR increased but the increase was more sharp in conventional than in bed planting system. It was further seen that, at all BDs, the critical soil strength of 2 MPa arrived at higher SWC in conventional as compared to bed planting. It thus indicated that root growth continued normally at relative lower SWC in bed planting as compared to conventional planting.

To insure adequate regeneration and future timber yields of mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla King), many logged forests will have to be restocked through enrichment planting and managed using silvicultural techniques that maintain this species' long-term survival and growth. This study compared the effects of planting method and two silvicultural treatments on the survival and growth of mahogany seedlings in logging gaps in Bolivia. We tested the hypotheses that survival and growth will be higher among transplanted seedlings than seedlings established from sown seeds and higher in silvicultural treatments that reduce competing vegetation and increase light. The first silvicultural treatment consisted of gaps logged 6 months prior to planting, gaps logged just prior to planting, and gaps treated with herbicide prior to planting. The second treatment, applied 12 months after planting, consisted of manual vegetation cleaning around mahogany seedlings in half of the gaps. The first hypothesis was supported in terms of initial seedling growth but not survival, which was similar between planting methods during the 12-92 months after planting. Transplanted seedlings grew significantly faster than those established from sown seeds during the first year, but this growth advantage disappeared by the second year. Although transplants were 84 cm taller than seed-sown seedlings by the end of the study, this height gain was probably not worth the cost of growing and transplanting seedlings. The second hypothesis was supported in terms of both survival and growth. A significantly greater proportion of seedlings survived in herbicide (62%) compared to 6-month-old (46%) and recent gaps (18%) and in cleaned (51%) versus control gaps (39%). Seedlings initially grew faster in herbicide and recent gaps than in 6-month-old gaps. These differences among silvicultural treatments were largely explained by canopy cover, which, throughout the study, was at least 14% lower in herbicide gaps and 9% lower in cleaned gaps relative to their respective alternatives. By 64 months growth diminished to near zero and no longer differed among gap treatments, despite lower canopy cover in herbicide gaps. By 92 months, saplings in herbicide gaps were only 145 and 77 cm taller than those in recent and 6-month-old gaps, respectively. To maximize survival and growth of mahogany seedlings in logging gaps while minimizing costs, silvicultural strategies should focus on direct seed sowing and appropriately timed interventions (i.e. manual cleaning) to control competing vegetation.

We used the LANDIS model to study the long-term cumulative effects of postfire 10-year management (harvest and reforestation) on species abundance, age structure, and spatial pattern in the Tuqiang Forest Bureau on the northern slopes of the Great Hing'an Mountains after a catastrophic fire in 1987. Two simulation scenarios were constructed: the actual postfire management scenario and the natural regeneration scenario that assumed no postfire management activities occurred after the 1987 fire. Both scenarios were run with 10 replicated simulations per scenario over a 300-year period. Our results indicated that postfire management had a significant influence on species abundance, age structure, and spatial pattern. Postfire management effectively increased the abundance of coniferous trees (larch (Larix gmelinii) and Mongolian Scotch pine (Pinus sylvestris var. mongolica)), increased the abundance of white birch in the short-term simulation stage, and decreased the abundance of white birch (Betula platyphylla) in the long run. The aggregation level of white birch responded similarly to postfire management -increasing initially, and then decreasing over time. However, compared with the natural regeneration scenario, postfire management resulted in more fragmented larch and Mongolian Scotch pine, which could last for about 100-150 years because of timber harvesting in the first 10 years postfire. In addition, the age structure of larch forests under the postfire management scenario changed dramatically during the 300 simulation years: the abundance of mature and old-growth age classes of larch forests decreased dramatically in the first 10 years, but then increased and exceeded that under the natural regeneration scenario after about 100 simulation years. Therefore, although postfire management had a positive cumulative effect (less fragmented and more larch abundance) on forest recovery at the long-term successional stage, postfire management, especially timber harvesting within the first 10 years after the 1987 fire, posed negative effects (more fragmented and less mature forests) at short-and mid-term successional stages (about 100 years).

Unique components of tropical habitats, such as abundant vascular epiphytes, influence the distribution of species and can contribute to the high diversity of many animal groups in the tropics. However, the role of such features in habitat selection and demography of individual species has not been established. Understanding the mechanisms of habitat selection requires both experimental manipulation of habitat structure and detailed estimation of the behavioral and demographic response of animals, e.g., changes in movement patterns and survival probabilities. Such studies have not been conducted in natural tropical forest, perhaps because of high habitat heterogeneity, high species diversity, and low abundances of potential target species. Agroforestry systems support a less diverse flora, with greater spatial homogeneity which, in turn, harbors lower overall species diversity with greater numerical dominance of common species, than natural forests. Furthermore, agroforestry systems are already extensively managed and lend themselves easily to larger scale habitat manipulations than protected natural forest. Thus, agroforestry systems provide a good model environment for beginning to understand processes underlying habitat selection in tropical forest animals. Here, we use multistate, capture-recapture models to investigate how the experimental removal of epiphytes affected monthly movement and survival probabilities of two resident bird species (Common Bush-Tanager [Chlorospingus ophthalmicus] and Golden-crowned Warbler [Basileuterus culicivorus]) in a Mexican shade coffee plantation. We established two paired plots of epiphyte removal and control. We found that Bush-Tanagers were at least five times more likely to emigrate from plots where epiphytes were removed compared to control plots. Habitat-specific movement patterns were not detected in the warbler. However, unlike the Golden-crowned Warbler, Common Bush-Tanagers depend upon epiphytes for nest sites and (seasonally) for foraging. These dispersal patterns imply that active habitat selection based on the presence or absence of epiphytes occurs in C. ophthalmicus on our study area. Survival rates did not vary with habitat in either species. Interestingly, in both species, survival was higher in the nonbreeding season, when birds were in mixed-species flocks. Movement by Common Bush-Tanagers into areas with epiphytes occurred mostly during the breeding season, when mortality-driven opportunity was greatest.

Abstract.- Seeding techniques (direct seeding on flat/ridges, transplanting on flat/ridges and parachute planting) in transplanted and direct wet-seeded rice were evaluated in relation to onset of rice stem borer for two consecutive seasons. Adult moth appearance was counted 30, 45 and ...

Water and corm planting intensity for saffron should be limited due to scarce resources. An analysis of crop yield production and profit maximisation can be conducted to determine the optimal water and corm planting intensity of saffron. However, there is uncertainty or risk associated with this analysis due to unpredictable factors, among which the amount of seasonal rainfall (green water) is an important one. In this study, equations were derived for determination of water and corm planting intensity of saffron at variable seasonal rainfall leading to maximum crop yield or profit with controlled water conditions and two scenarios of planting in a semi-arid region. The first scenario (Iranian) is that the planted corms in the first year remained in soil for consecutive years. The second scenario (European) is that the planted corms in the first year are ploughed out and replanted in the next year. In general, it is concluded that the maximum value of applied irrigation water and corm planting intensity are similar in both scenarios. For Iranian scenario of corm cultivation, land limiting condition should be considered for the second year onwards and the value of optimum applied irrigation water is most affected by seasonal rainfall and it is not sensitive to the water price. In water limiting condition, the optimum corm planting intensity is dependent neither on the seasonal rainfall nor on the water price. However, the optimum applied irrigation water is dependent on the seasonal rainfall and corm planting intensity. An equation was presented for water resources planning with deficit irrigation, different seasonal rainfall and corm planting intensity under Iranian and European scenarios of corm planting.

A field experiment was conducted to investigate the effects of different levels of drip irrigation and planting methods on yield and yield components (number of fruits per plant, number of primary and secondary branches per plant, and plant height) of green pepper (Capsicum annuum, L.) in Bako, Ethiopia. Three irrigation levels (50, 75 and 100% of ET c) and two planting methods (normal and paired-row planting) were applied. The experiment was laid out in a split plot design, with irrigation levels as main plots and planting methods as sub-plots, in three replications. It was found that the effects of both treatments on yield, number of fruits per plant and plant height of green pepper were highly significant (p < 0.01) whereas the number of primary and secondary branches per plant was affected significantly (p < 0.05). The maximum and minimum values of the yield and yield components were recorded from treatment plots I 100 P (full irrigation level with paired-row planting method) and I 50 P (50% of ET c irrigation level with paired-row planting method), respectively, with the exception of plant height. However, the average plant height (cm) recorded from the I 100 N treatment plot was not significantly different from the I 100 P treatment plot. Moreover, it was found that the effect of treatment interactions on both yield and yield components of green pepper was found to be highly significant (p < 0.01). A 50% reduction in irrigation level caused a reduction in yield of about 48.3 and 74.4% under the normal and paired-row planting methods, respectively, whereas, a 25% reduction in irrigation level caused a reduction in yield of about 22.8 and 47.7% under the same planting methods. Under both deficit irrigation levels (I 50 and I 75), the normal planting method gave higher total yield and yield components of green pepper than the paired-row planting method. Yield response factor (k y) values of 0.96 and 1.57 were determined for the normal and paired-row planting methods, respectively, suggesting utmost precautions when using the paired-row planting in areas with limited water supply. The results revealed that full irrigation water supply under paired-row planting method (I 100 P) could be used for the production of green pepper in an area with no water shortage. Moreover, it was found that the average yields recorded from the I 75 under the paired-row planting method is fairly greater than the national average.

The creation of innovative technologies and technical means to obtain high yields of grain and cereal crops plays an important role in world practice. The article provides the researchers from all over the world and many reputed companies which are manufacturing agricultural maschines have developed combined machines for minimal tillage and sowing. All of these machines combine active and passive elements for tillage, preparation for planting, as well as a planting machine. Passive elements include softening blades, deepening blades, cultivator claws, leveling blades, discs, rollers, and more. The active elements consist of working bodies that rotate vertically and horizontally or with a hanging blade. The concluding part of the article states that a new technology of minimizing soil on sloping lands in Uzbekistan and scientific research on the creation of a combined machine is being carried out in Uzbekistan. This technology eliminates water erosion on slopes and increases soil fertility.

Because trees cover only 6.4% of the total land area of Bangladesh, while agricultural expansion continues to massively deplete the natural forests, a well-managed homestead forestry practice is vital for reversing the existing trend and promoting the ecological balance of the country. An understanding of the decision-making process of the farmers who practice homestead forestry is important in expanding and improving the practice. This paper seeks to characterize and analyze factors influencing farmers' decisions about tree planting. Logistic and multiple regression analyses were applied to determine the factors that influence the farmers' tree-planting decisions. The analyses demonstrate a number of important conclusions: (i) tree-planting increases with the amount of homestead land owned; (ii) farmers whose main source of income is non-agricultural are more likely to decide to plant trees in the homestead; (iii) purchasing cost of fuelwood has a positive influence on tree-planting decisions; (iv) number of male family member has a positive influence on farmers' tree-planting decisions; and (v) knowledge of the activities of the forestry extension programs has a positive influence on tree-planting decisions. The results of the study demonstrate that, in recent years, farmers' decisions of whether or not to plant trees have been based primarily on economic rather than ecological concerns. It is concluded that there is substantial potential for the improvement of homestead forestry, and that properly managed homestead forestry can alleviate the poverty of rural people by increasing overall household income. To this end, it is suggested that forestry extension workers work more closely with the local people in order to implement homestead forestry.

Root observations in situ with a rhizotron camera enabled us to compare the performance of apple (Malus ·domestica Borkh.) trees on 3 rootstock clones planted in a New York orchard with a history of apple replant disease. Visual observations were conducted in situ at monthly intervals during 2 growing seasons through minirhizotron tubes for trees grafted onto 3 rootstocks: M.7 (M.7), Geneva 30 (G.30), and Cornell-Geneva 6210 (CG.6210). There were 3 preplant soil treatments (fumigation, compost amendment, and untreated checks) and 2 tree planting positions (within the old tree rows or in the old grass lanes of the previous orchard at this site). Preplant soil treatments and old-row versus grass-lane tree planting positions had no apparent influence on root systems, whereas rootstock clones substantially influenced root growth and demography. New root emergence was suppressed during the first fruit-bearing year (2004) on all 3 rootstock clones compared with the previous nonbearing yea...

A controlled seeding rate such as seeds per hectare or fertilizer application rate (e.g. kg per hectare) is desired when planting or applying fertilizer in order to obtain the optimum yield of a crop. A study was conducted in 2004 and 2005 at the Department of Agricultural Engineering, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana to evaluate the performance of 30 jab planters randomly selected from a total of 68. These jab planters had been manufactured by a local Ghanaian manufacturer. The objective of the study was to evaluate the performance of jab planters for maize (Zea mays, L.) seed and inorganic fertilizer delivery. Five high yielding local maize varieties including Okomasa, Obaatanpa, Abeleehi, Dorke-SR, and Dodzi were used in 2004. In 2005, four different inorganic fertilizers: NPK 15-15-15, NPK 19-19-19, NPK 20-20-20 and Ammonium Sulphate were used. The experiments were arranged in a completely randomized design. For each of the 30 jab planters, there...

Forest regrowth is a notable phenomenon across the tropical forest latitudes. Such reforestation takes place in the wake of land abandonment, occurs cyclically in a rotational agricultural system, and may result from the deliberate planting of trees by farmers. Although less extensive than successional forest regeneration, tree planting by small farmers can have potentially important environmental impacts at both the