Water Temperature

Recruitment is essential for the maintenance of populations, but far more is typically known about the more easily-observed adult stages than their smaller, often microscopic early life-history counterparts. This discrepancy can be particularly problematic for populations of foundation species that create biogenic habitat for a multitude of other taxa, but are themselves prime candidates for exploitation, fragmentation, and loss, and therefore become the focus of restoration eVorts partly or fully dependent on recruitment. The purpose of this study was to improve ecological understanding for early life-history stages of the habitat-forming marine alga Cystoseira barbata (Stackhouse) C. Agardh (Fucales: Sargassaceae), member of a genus that has experienced considerable fragmentation and population decline on European coasts. Using experimental manipulations of water temperature, light intensity, and sediment accumulation, we observed that sediment virtually precluded recruitment of C. barbata, and greatly impacted the survival of recently settled germlings (up to »83% mortality). Stronger intensities of light facilitated the growth of germlings, including the capacity for »50% of them to outgrow detrimental sediment and survive. Temperature (10 vs. 16°C) had no eVect on early recruitment, survival, or growth. This information helps to identify likely causes and locations of recruitment failure, and by extension, the conditions needed (either naturally or through human intervention) to facilitate recruitment and possible habitat restoration. Ultimately, this knowledge can increase our capacity to predict population persistence and the likely success of restoration eVorts. Communicated by S. D. Connell.

Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) smolts (mean weight 66 g) in freshwater were exposed to three replicate levels of carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) partial pressures for 60 days in an open flow system: 2 mm Hg (6 mg l À 1 ; control), 5 mm Hg (16 mg l À 1 ; medium) and 7 mm Hg (24 mg l À 1 ; high) at constant pH. Water temperature was 7 -9 jC and oxygen concentration higher than 9 mg l À 1 . All groups were transferred to 34x seawater on day 60 and kept there for 150 days. No significant differences in weight and length were found between groups during the freshwater and seawater period. While mean cellular haemoglobin (in the high group) and plasma chloride (in the medium and high group) were significantly lower than that of the control group during the freshwater period, no significant differences between groups were observed in mean haemoglobin concentration, haematocrit, or gill Na + ,-K + -ATPase activity. Increased nephrocalcinosis and contents of Ca in the kidney in response to increasing water CO 2 levels were observed at day 58. After 4 weeks in seawater, pH in muscle and whole body ash, Ca, P and Zn content were all significantly higher in 0044-8486/03/$ -see front matter D Aquaculture 215 (2003) 301 -319 fish exposed to elevated CO 2 levels during the freshwater period. This indicates that freshwater CO 2 levels affected tissue mineral content after transfer to seawater. D

Unravelling the epidemiology of cholera has been one of the most elusive problems in tropical medicine. The early contest between 'contagionists' and 'localists' in the last century finds a modern equivalent in the on-going debate on whether the epidemiology of cholera has significant environmental determinants. This study investigates the role of climate and geography on seasonality and interannual variations of cholera, using historical mortality data between 1891 and 1940 from 24 districts of Bengal. The coastal districts exhibit a bi-annual seasonal cycle, as previously described for cholera in this region, but with a dominant peak in the spring. Spring mortality, particularly in the coastal region, shows significant correlations (r = 0.50, p < 0.001) with sea surface temperatures in the Bay of Bengal. During post-Niño years (a total of 13 events) when coastal sea temperatures rise, spring epidemics with excess mortality (over 15 000 deaths on average) occur, resulting in a shift away from the usual seasonal pattern. Significant correlations (r = 0.58, p < 0.001) between sea temperatures in the Pacific (an El Niño index) and cholera's spring deaths, and a peak at a frequency of approximately 1 /4.2 years in the power spectrum, support the influence of this climatic forcing. Cholera's winter peak, dominant further away from the estuary, appears less consistently associated with water temperatures in the Bay of Bengal, and accounts for most of the interannual variation in the geographical spread of cholera in Bengal. The differences in our results for spring and winter suggest the possibility of different aquatic reservoirs for the pathogen. As sea water temperature can only explain part of the historical variability in cholera deaths, and the seasonality of temperature is similar to that of other environmental parameters, further studies to elucidate causal pathways are warranted. Here, we provide geographical and climatological support for the hypothesis that environmental factors are important in the dynamics of endemic cholera.

Zerovalent sulfur and inorganic polysulfides were determined in nine sulfiderich water wells in central and southern Israel. Although the two locations belong to the same aquifer, they are characterized by different pH and hydrogen sulfide levels. Hydrogen sulfide in the central Israel wells ranged between 19 and 32 lM, and the pH was 7.26 ± 0.07. The southern basin is characterized by lower water circulation, lower pH (around 6.8), and higher hydrogen sulfide levels ([470 lM). Polysulfides were determined by a rapid single-phase methylation using methyl trifluoromethanesulfonate (methyl triflate) reagent. The summary polysulfide concentration for S 4 2--S 7 2species was found to be around 0.14-0.75 lM in the central region of Israel and substantially higher, 2.3-4.6 lM in the southern region. The sum of polysulfide zerovalent sulfur and colloidal sulfur was quantitatively detected by cyanide derivatization and compared to polysulfide sulfur determined by methyl triflate derivatization and to the chloroform extraction of zerovalent sulfur. A method for the determination of sulfur undersaturation level-the ratio between dissolved elemental sulfur and its equilibrium concentration in the presence of solid sulfur-based on the observed levels of the major polysulfide species is described. The observed polysulfide speciation was compared with the predicted speciation under sulfur saturation conditions taking into account the water temperature, its ionic strength, and pH. Criteria for sulfur saturation versus unsaturated conditions were established based on (1) the chain length dependence of the ratio between the observed polysulfide concentrations and their predicted value under sulfur saturated conditions, and (2) the difference between the concentration of zerovalent sulfur, as determined by cyanolysis, and the total polysulfide sulfur. According to this dual criterion five of the water wells were classified as being undersaturated with respect to sulfur, though for all the examined water wells the majority of the zerovalent sulfur was in the form of polysulfide sulfur.

The energy flow in various bivalve species (Macoma balthica, Mya arenaria, Cerastoderma edule, Mytilus edulis and Crassostrea gigas) in different habitats (intertidal, subtidal and offshore areas) of Dutch coastal waters was analysed by comparing growth observations in the field with model simulations by means of the Dynamic Energy Budget (DEB) theory. The reconstruction of the seasonal food conditions suggested that with respect to food consumption, M. balthica and C. edule are the most successful species, followed by M. arenaria, and M. edulis and C. gigas. Positive growth was correlated with the beginning of the spring bloom in primary production and food limitation between species was lowest during this period. After the spring bloom, severe food limitation during the summer period was found. As a result, negative body growth occurred during most of year. DEB model simulations both on an annual and a seasonal basis also showed that, at the prevailing water temperatures, growth of the different species was not maximal. It remains uncertain whether the suboptimal food conditions were the consequence of food limitation or also of reduced filtration efficiency due to the high sediment load in the water.

The influence of water temperature on intake and affective ratings was explored in human subjects. Dehydration whether by profuse sweating (body weight loss: 289_-. 11 g, N=20) or mountain climbing (body weight loss: 1660-+58 g, N =20) resulted in the same intake. Maximal intake was observed for water at 15°C with respectively 199.0-+ 17.0 ml and 222.7_+ 17.4 ml. Colder and warmer water was ingested to a lesser extent. When 20 subjects were allowed to mix water to their preferred temperature, they chose 14.9_+ I°C and drunk 211.0_+ 19.5 ml. Votes on a pleasure/displeasure scale increased from 50°C to &C. Cold water was therefore both more pleasureable and less drunk. Dehydration resulted in a negative alliesthesia for warm water. Positive alliesthesia for cold water was probably the result of hyperthermia rather than dehydration. Water temperature Water intake Alliesthesia BOULZE, D., P. MONTASTRUC AND M. CABANAC. Water intake, pleasure and water temperature in humans.

During ONR's Shoaling Waves Experiment (SHOWEX) off the coast of North Carolina in November and December 1999, measurements of wind speed and direction as well as air and water temperatures were made using a variety of techniques. This paper shows a comparison of the measurements taken on December 3, 1999.

The long-lived (about 20 yr) bryozoan Adeonellopsis sp. from Doubtful Sound, New Zealand, precipitates aragonite in isotopic equilibrium with seawater, exerting no metabolic or kinetic effects. Oxygen isotope ratios (y 18 O) in 61 subsamples (along three branches of a single unaltered colony) range from À0.09 to +0.68xPDB (mean = +0.36xPDB). Carbon isotope ratios (y 13 C) range from +0.84 to +2.18x PDB (mean = +1.69xPDB). Typical of cool-water carbonates, y 18 O-derived water temperatures range from 14.2 to 17.5 jC. Adeonellopsis has a minimum temperature growth threshold of 14 jC, recording only a partial record of environmental variation. By correlating seawater temperatures derived from y 18 O with the Southern Oscillation Index, however, we were able to detect major events such as the 1983 El Niño. Interannual climatic variation can be recorded in skeletal carbonate isotopes. The range of within-colony isotopic variability found in this study (0.77xin y 18 O and 1.34 in y 13 C) means that among-colony variation must be treated cautiously. Temperate bryozoan isotopes have been tested in less than 2% of described extant species -this highly variable phylum is not yet fully understood.

Altimeter measurements of sea level from the Topex/Poseidon mission are used to explore the relationship of sea level to the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) in the Mediterranean and the Black Sea. The secular trend in these areas is also calculated, and the confusing effect of the NAO discussed. Sea level throughout the Mediterranean is sensitive to the NAO during the winter months. No clear effect on the Black Sea is discovered. In the period considered (1992)(1993)(1994)(1995)(1996)(1997)(1998)(1999)(2000)(2001), the NAO has a major effect on inter-annual variability of sea level in the Mediterranean but is unlikely to have affected the apparent secular trend.

The purpoase of this research was to test the effects of three culture densities on the growth and survival of Octopus vulgaris. A total of 141 sub-adult octopuses (1,175.4 ± 194.9 g) were randomly distributed in nine tanks of 2,000 l each (3.6 m × 1.1 m, and 50 cm water depth). Three tanks were stocked with a low initial density of 4 kg/m3, while three other tanks were stocked with an initial density of 8 kg/m3, and the remaining three tanks were stocked at an initial density of 15 kg/m3. Octopuses were all fed frozen squid (Loligo gahi) at 5% body weight per day (%BW/day). The experiment lasted for 70 days. Water temperature varied between 20 ± 2°C, and salinity varied between 36 ± 1 ppt. During the entire experiment, dissolved oxygen was always >75%, and ammonia was always lower than 0.1 mg/l. No differences in growth or growth rates (between 0.9 and 1.1%BW/day for the three densities) were found. Nevertheless, mortality was significantly lower for the low density compared to the other two densities tested. Maximum densities in the culture tanks (>25 kg/m3) were attained in the higher culture densities after 56 days of the experiment.

Fish communities and habitat structures were evaluated by underwater visual censuses a rocky location impacted by thermal discharge (I) and at two control locations, one in a Sargassum bed (C1) and the other in a rocky shore with higher structural complexity (C2). Habitat indicators and fish communities exhibited significant differences between the impacted and control locations, with the impacted one

A study was conducted to ascertain monthly changes in biomass of the plant and nutrient content in various organs of Nymphoides hydrophylla grown in a tropical pond during September 1999-August 2000 in relation to environmental factors. Biomass of N. hydrophylla ranged from 25 to 247 g dry weight m -2 . Among the various organs, leaf blade showed highest nitrogen (3.0-4.6%) and phosphorus content (0.9-2.4%). Comparative data of three Nymphoides species showed that N. peltata, the temperate species, had maximum potential of biomass production while long flowering period, year around growth, higher nitrogen content in various organs and presence of other associated flora were unique features of tropical species (N. hydrophylla and N. indica). Both water temperature and water level together appeared to be the best environmental variables that significantly explained the variability in biomass of N. hydrophylla.

An 8 weeks growth experiment was conducted to determine the effects of dietary vitamin C on the survival, growth, tissue ascorbic acid contents and immunity of large yellow croaker (Pseudosciaena crocea) with initial weight of 17.82 ± 0.68 g. Seven practical diets were formulated to contain 0. 1, 12.2, 23.8, 47.6, 89.7, 188.5 and 489.0 mg ascorbic acid equivalent kg − 1 diet, supplied as L-ascorbyl-2-polyphosphate (LAPP). Each diet was fed to triplicate groups of fish in seawater floating cages (1.5 × 1.5 × 2.0 m), and each cage was stocked with 120 fish. Fish were fed twice daily (05:00 and 17:00) to apparent satiation for 8 weeks. The water temperature fluctuated from 19.5 to 25.5°C, the salinity from 25 to 28‰ and dissolved oxygen content was approximately 7 mg l − 1 during the experimental period. Results showed that the specific growth rate (SGR) (from 1.80 to 1.96% d − 1 ) had an increasing trend with the increase of dietary vitamin C, but no significant difference was observed among dietary treatments. No gross deficiency signs were observed in any of the experimental fish. Survival rate, however, significantly increased with increasing dietary vitamin C (P b 0.05). The vitamin C contents in liver and muscle correlated positively with the vitamin C in diets. The vitamin C requirement was estimated to be 28.2 mg kg − 1 based on survival, and 87.0 mg kg − 1 on liver content of vitamin C. The activities of serum lysozyme and alternative complement pathway (ACP), phagocytosis percentage (PP) and respiratory burst activity of head kidney significantly increased with increasing dietary vitamin C. The challenge experiment with Vibrio harveyi showed that fish fed the diets with supplementation of vitamin C had significantly lower cumulative mortality compared to the control group (66.7%), and the cumulative mortality (16.7%) in fish with 489.0 mg kg − 1 ascorbic acid was significantly lower than that (41.7%) in fish with 23.8 mg kg − 1 ascorbic acid. These results suggested that vitamin C significantly influenced the immune response and disease resistance of large yellow croaker.

Seven criteria (water requirement, water temperature, soil texture, terrain slope, potential farm gate sales, availability of farm inputs, and access to local and regional markets) were analyzed to determine site suitability for tilapia and clarias farming in Uganda. Crisp and fuzzy approaches of criterion classification were implemented using GIS, and the results were compared. There was a statistically significant difference

Maps of current and potential vegetation spatial patterns can be used to assess land cover changes, and aid in ecosystem management and restoration. The vegetation spatial patterns of subalpine forest species are largely controlled by variation in temperature, water and solar radiation resources. These fundamental resources were quantified across a 1100-km 2 landscape using biophysical models, a digital elevation model (DEM), and weather station data. Field data of species abundances were used to define species-habitat relationships and calibrate maximum likelihood classifications of the biophysical gradients. For comparison, a standard land cover classification of Landsat Thematic Mapper satellite imagery had an overall accuracy 68.3%. Using the biophysical gradients alone gave a similar 67.4% accuracy. The highest accuracy classification (83.2%) used both biophysical and spectral data. The biophysical resources were also used to map the presence or absence of four herb and shrub species that cannot be sensed remotely. These predictions ranged from 60% to 79% accurate. Maps of relative abundance were less accurate, from 61% to 63.2%. This low result may be due to historical and stochastic events, or simply a small data set. The spatial pattern of species and communities that are controlled by resources can be predicted using general biophysical models. The species-habitat relationships can also be used to improve remote sensing products.

Five years (1998, 2000-2003) of summer records of temperature, nutrients and dissolved oxygen concentrations in the upper 400 m of the water column of the northern Gulf of Aqaba were employed to produce a simple statistical model of the relationship between temperature versus nitrate, phosphate, silicate and dissolved oxygen concentrations. Temperature profiles in the upper 400 m during summer revealed a clear thermocline in the upper 200 m. This was reflected in nutrient and oxygen concentrations as nitrate, phosphate, and silicate increased from the surface to deep water while dissolved oxygen decreased. The best fit relationship between temperature versus nitrate and phosphate was inverse linear and the best fit correlation between temperature versus silicate and dissolved oxygen was fractional. The observed nutrient concentrations were shaped by a combination of the hydrodynamics and biological factors. Deep winter mixing and high nutrient concentrations dominate during winter. Shortly after the water stratifies in spring, the nutrients are drawn down by phytoplankton during the spring bloom and remain low throughout the rest of the year. The regression equations presented here will be useful in estimating nutrient concentrations from temperature records as long as the annual natural cycle is the main driver of nutrient concentrations and

This study examined the effect of ration level and time of delivery of a single daily meal on the growth performance of rainbow trout held under constant water temperature and a natural photoperiod. Two similar trials were conducted, the first from March to July, 1992, using ration levels of 0.5, 1.5 and 2.5% BW d-' and the second from August 1992 to January 1993, using ration levels of 1.5, 2.0 and 2.5% BW d-'.

In the framework of a bluetongue surveillance program including clinical, serological, and entomological activities, Culicoides biting midges were light trapped weekly in two regions of central Italy, Lazio and Tuscany. In the period January 2002 through December 2005, 3,944 collections were carried out in 189 trap sites distributed in all the provinces of the two regions. Abundance data of C. obsoletus group were analyzed in relation to trap site altitude, distance from the sea, land use, and number of farmed animals. Species seasonality and overall temporal trend were also described. C. obsoletus was distributed over the whole study area, almost in all trapping sites and with high abundances. The species group was dominant among all captured Culicoides, with higher abundances recorded inland and in areas where land cover was partially or completely natural-wooded. Adults on the wing were caught all year round, with peaks in MayÐJune and middle October. The observed trend through years recorded a peak during autumn 2002, in concomitance with a local epidemic of bluetongue.

In this paper a new four electrode sensor for water conductivity measurements is presented. In addition to the sensor itself, all signal conditioning is implemented together with signal processing of the sensor outputs to determine the water conductivity. The sensor is designed for conductivity measurements in the range from 50 mS/m up to 5 S/m through the correct placement of the four electrodes inside the tube where the water flows.

Over the course of a growing season (April-October) water quality (water temperature, light, salinity, dissolved oxygen) and reproductive phenology (biomass, production of flowering shoots and seed pods, seed bank densities) were quantified in three Vallisneria americana beds in Nanjemoy Creek, MD, a tributary to the Chesapeake Bay. Clonal production of V. americana biomass increased at all sites when water temperatures rose above 25 8C. Flowering occurred during peak biomass (August-September) and resulted in the production of up to 16,000 seeds m À2 at the end of the growing season. However, observed seed bank densities represented <1% of seed production. Laboratory experiments quantified the effects of dissolved oxygen (0.29-8.00 mg l À1 ), light (0-160 mmol m 2 s À1 ), temperature (13-29 8C), salinity (0.1-17.4 psu), sediment composition (3-86% sand; 0.9-8.3% sediment organic content), and burial depth (0.2-10 cm) on V. americana seed germination. Germination of V. americana seeds was enhanced (greater overall germination and shorter time to germination) under oxygenated conditions (8.00 mg l À1 ), temperatures >22 8C, salinities of <1 psu, and in sediments composed of 3% organic content and >40% sand. Light (<160 mmol m À2 s À1 ) and burial depth (0.2-10 cm) had no significant effects on germination. Temperatures most favorable for seed germination (>22 8C) occurred in June, 2 months in the growing season just prior to development of peak vegetative standing stock. Seedlings were therefore at a distinct disadvantage to plants developed from over wintering buds. A lack of viable seed retention and inadequate environmental conditions at critical times in the growing season may be limiting seed germination success and subsequent seedling establishment within V. americana beds in the Chesapeake Bay. However, ungerminated seeds were found to maintain high viability, especially at salinities of 10 psu that can have significant negative effects of shoot growth survival. This suggests that seeds may serve as a source of reproductive material for bed recovery after periods of drought or other stressful conditions in estuarine systems. #

Ha Long Bay in North Vietnam is characterized by karst towers and bigger islands totalling more than 3000 isles. Karst processes carved hundreds of caves out of the limestone and contributed to the formation of many enclosed and semi-enclosed saltwater lakes. Here, we report the results of a general survey of several lakes and the first data on the Hang Du I lake, a small basin devoid of any apparent communication with the surrounding sea. Hang Du I is characterized by the presence of Rhizostomeae, genus Mastigias, suggesting strong similarities with the famous lakes described from the archipelago of Palau. Among the benthic organisms sponges are the most important group. Temperature and abundance of the monsoon rains are the main factors influencing remarkable seasonal variations in physical-chemical parameters and the community structure of the lake. A thermal crisis with water temperatures up to 36 • C was recorded in September 2003. In this period, usually abundant medusae and sea anemones totally disappeared. Sponge populations showed fast growth rates in winter and spring and a partial degeneration to face the harsh conditions of the summer season. When isolated from the surrounding marine environment, the saltwater lakes share the condition of oceanic islands, representing spots of habitats surrounded by a completely different environment. The Ha Long Bay marine lakes are not easy to access, being surrounded by tropical forest, but local people usually exploit them for both fishery and oyster harvesting. There is an urgent need to develop measures of protection for these endangered and unique environments, natural laboratories that facilitate the study of evolution of marine organisms, where biodiversity has been until now totally unexplored.

The most studied and commonly applied model of fish growth is the von Bertalanffy model. However, this model does not take water temperature into account, which is one of the most important environmental factors affecting the life cycle of fish, as many physiological processes that determine growth, e.g. metabolic rate and oxygen supply, are directly influenced by temperature. In the present study we propose a version of the von Bertalanffy growth model that includes mean annual water temperatures by correlating the growth coefficient, k, explicitly and the asymptotic length, L ∞ , implicitly to water temperature. All relationships include parameters with an obvious biological relevance that makes them easier to identify. The model is used to fit growth data of bullhead (Cottus gobio) at different locations in the Bez River network (Drme, France). We show that temperature explains much of the growth variability at the different sampling sites of the network.

Recruitment is essential for the maintenance of populations, but far more is typically known about the more easily-observed adult stages than their smaller, often microscopic early life-history counterparts. This discrepancy can be particularly problematic for populations of foundation species that create biogenic habitat for a multitude of other taxa, but are themselves prime candidates for exploitation, fragmentation, and loss, and therefore become the focus of restoration eVorts partly or fully dependent on recruitment. The purpose of this study was to improve ecological understanding for early life-history stages of the habitat-forming marine alga Cystoseira barbata (Stackhouse) C. Agardh (Fucales: Sargassaceae), member of a genus that has experienced considerable fragmentation and population decline on European coasts. Using experimental manipulations of water temperature, light intensity, and sediment accumulation, we observed that sediment virtually precluded recruitment of C. barbata, and greatly impacted the survival of recently settled germlings (up to »83% mortality). Stronger intensities of light facilitated the growth of germlings, including the capacity for »50% of them to outgrow detrimental sediment and survive. Temperature (10 vs. 16°C) had no eVect on early recruitment, survival, or growth. This information helps to identify likely causes and locations of recruitment failure, and by extension, the conditions needed (either naturally or through human intervention) to facilitate recruitment and possible habitat restoration. Ultimately, this knowledge can increase our capacity to predict population persistence and the likely success of restoration eVorts.

subtracting each judge's rating of the typical American from his or her rating of the typical compatriot for each NCS item. Assuming that cultures agree on the typical American, this procedure in effect subtracts the bias plus a constant and leaves a potentially better estimate of national character. We standardized the differences as T scores, using difference score normative values from the worldwide sample, excluding the United States. The difference scores were highly correlated with NCS scores (rs 0 0.65 to 0.91, P G 0.001) and provided essentially the same results. ICCs between difference scores and NEO-PI-R observer ratings ranged from -0.44 for England to 0.48 for Lebanon (median, 0.03). ICCs between differences scores and NEO-PI-R self-reports ranged from -0.47 for Russia to 0.53 for Poland (median, 0.01). For the five factors, correlations with observer ratings across cultures ranged from 0.08 to 0.23, and those with self-reports ranged from -0.37 to 0.23. These results suggest that the lack of correspondence between NEO-PI-R and NCS profiles is not simply due to different standards of evaluation in different cultures. A different issue concerns the referencegroup effect (28), according to which self-reports and observer ratings of individuals are implicitly made by reference to the distribution of scores in the rater's culture. Such an effect would tend to make aggregate personality scores uniform for all cultures, and the failure to find correlations with NCS factors would be due to a lack of variation in aggregate NEO-PI-R means. However, NEO-PI-R means in fact vary systematically across cultures and show strong correlations across methods and with other culturelevel variables . Thus, the reference-group effect cannot explain the failure to find correlations with NCS scales. 28.

Today, many large commercial buildings use sophisticated building automation systems (BASs) to manage a wide range of building equipment. While the capabilities of BASs have increased over time, many buildings still do not fully use the BAS's capabilities and the BASs are not properly commissioned, operated or maintained, which leads to inefficient operation, increased energy use, and reduced lifetimes of the equipment. This report investigates the energy savings potential of several common heating, ventilation and airconditioning (HVAC) system re-tuning measures on a typical large office building prototype model, using the Department of Energy's building energy modeling software, EnergyPlus.

In the food industry pasteurisation is very commonly carried out using plate heat exchangers. Steady-state analysis of, and experimentation into, the effects of disturbances on the temperatures showed that temperature approach (water inlet temperature minus milk outlet temperature) changed very little. This showed that control based on a steady temperature approach could be effective. A control algorithm that calculates the

Bioenergetic models of fish have been used to study a large number of processes. Like most models, bioenergetic models require the estimation of numerous parameters. As a consequence, they have often relied on parameters borrowed from other species or values extrapolated from other life stages or size-classes. The magnitude of the biases associated with these practices remains largely unknown. The objective of this study was to determine whether or not metabolic rates could be extrapolated between closely related species and life stages. We focused on Pacific salmon Oncorhynchus spp. and steelhead O. mykiss, as the metabolic rates of these species have been well documented. Our analyses showed that models derived from closely related species did not accurately predict the metabolic rates of salmon, indicating that the practice of ''species borrowing'' should be avoided in assessing fish metabolic rates. Our work also showed that allometric equations of metabolic rates were not stable when measured over small size ranges and that biases could be introduced when these models are extrapolated to smaller or larger fish. In addition, we found that, except for steelhead, published models of Pacific salmon metabolic rates were inaccurate. Mean bias ranged from close to 0% to over 200% depending on size and water temperature, with about two-thirds of the bias values exceeding 20%. These biases could have large impacts on bioenergetic model predictions. Increased funding and scientific recognition of the need for additional basic research will be necessary to build more accurate bioenergetic models for Pacific salmon, especially models applied to the ocean phase of the life cycle.

Ana Silvaa,b, Laura Quintanaa, Matıas Galeanoa & Pablo Errandoneaa aDepartamento de Neurofisiologıa, Instituto de Investigaciones Biológicas Clemente Estable; Unidad Asociada de Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de la República, Avda. Italia 3318, 11600 ...

Changes in lake water temperature and trophic states were inferred using chironomid fossil assemblages from Lac Long Inférieur (Southern Alps, France). In the Late Glacial, a colder period, possibly analogous to the Younger Dryas, is characterised by a peak in Micropsectra, a cold stenothermic taxon. The increase in temperatures during the Late Glacial interstadial is indicated by a decrease in the percentages of cold stenothermic taxa (Tanytarsus lugens/Corynocera oliveri grp.) and by an increase in taxa linked to the development of vegetation in the littoral zone. The beginning of the Holocene is marked by the presence of taxa adapted to warmer and more eutrophic waters. During the Holocene, the progressive warming of the climate and increase in lake trophic status were indicated by the increase of eutrophic and warmer water indicators. An increase in tributary inflow into Lac Long Inférieur was also inferred by the increase in rheophilous taxa, reflecting increased snowmelt. During the Subatlantic, the composition of the chironomid spectra suggests a re-cooling of the climate and/or a decrease in lake trophic status.

Egg data from ichthyoplankton monitoring sites in the western English Channel (1988–2003) and northern Spain (1990–2000) and macroscopic maturity data from biological samples of purse seine landings in western and southern Iberia (1980–2004) are used to describe the spawning seasonality of sardine (Sardina pilchardus) in European waters of the northeast Atlantic using generalised additive models. The fitted models reveal a double peak in spawning activity during early summer and autumn in the western Channel, a wider spring peak off northern Spain and a broad winter season in the western and southern Iberian Peninsula. At all sites, a high probability of spawning activity was observed over at least 3 months of the year, with the duration of the season increasing with both decreasing latitude and increasing fish size. Off western and southern Iberia there are indications that the spawning season has been of longer duration in recent years for all size classes (reaching in some cases 8 months of the year for large fish). These patterns are in general agreement with existing literature and theoretical expectations of sardine spawning being driven locally by the seasonal cycle of water temperature, assuming preferences for spawning at 14 –15°C and avoidance for temperatures below 12°C and above 16°C. Regional quotient plots indicated that spawning tolerance to higher temperatures increases progressively with decreasing latitude. Despite the weak evidence for geographical differences in temperature tolerance that may have some genetic origin, the degree of spatio-temporal overlap in sardine-spawning activity within Atlantic European waters is unlikely to promote any reproductive isolation in that area.

Water temperature plays a key role in determining the persistence of shovelnose sturgeon Scaphirhynchus platorynchus in the wild and is a primary factor affecting growth both in the hatchery and in natural waters. We exposed juvenile shovelnose sturgeon to temperatures from 88C to 308C for 87 d to determine the effect of temperature on growth, condition, feed efficiency, and survival. Growth occurred at temperatures from 128C to 308C; the optimal temperature predicted by regression analysis was 22.48C, and the minimum temperature needed for growth was greater than 10.08C. The maximum feed efficiency predicted by regression analysis was 24.5% at 21.78C, and condition factor was highest in the 188C treatment. Mortality was significantly higher at 288C and 308C than at lower temperatures but less than 10% across the thermal regimes tested and 0% at 14-188C. Mortality was observed at and below 128C, suggesting that extended periods of low temperature may deplete energy reserves and lead to higher mortality. Rearing juvenile shovelnose sturgeon at temperatures above 248C reduced the growth rate and feed efficiency and increased mortality. Temperatures in the range 18-208C appeared to maximize the combination of condition, growth, and feed efficiency while not increasing thermal stress. This study corroborates field studies suggesting that altered temperature regimes in the upper Missouri River reduce the growth of shovelnose sturgeon. This information may help protect the thermal habitat critical to the species and guide restoration efforts by delineating temperature regime standards for regulated rivers and those affected by hydroelectric facilities and suggesting new criteria for conservation propagation.

171 Climate and bioclimate information for tourism in Greece Andreas Matzarakis Meteorological Institute, University of Freiburg, Werderring 10, D-79085 Freiburg, Germany e-mail: andreas. matzarakis@ meteo. uni-freiburg. de Abstract Weather, climate and tourism are ...

Lactococcus garvieae is the etiological agent of Lactococcosis, an emergent disease which affects many fish species and causes important economic losses both in marine and freshwater aquaculture when water temperature increases over 16 1C in summer months. Normally, it causes a hyperacute and haemorrhagic septicemia. This paper presents a state of the art review of fish Lactococcosis including aspects such as pathogen characterization, pathogenesis, epidemiology, diagnosis and control measures of the disease in farmed fish.

Maintaining insulative fat stores is vital for homeothermic marine mammals foraging in cold polar waters. To accomplish this, animals must balance acquisition and expenditure of energy. If this balance is shifted, body condition can decrease, challenging thermal homeostasis and further affecting energy balance. Prior studies of temperature regulation in sea lions have neither quantified basic all-inclusive heat flux values for animals swimming in cold water, nor determined whether they exhibit consistent spatial patterns of heat flux. Heat flux and skin temperature data were thus collected from four captive Steller sea lions using heat flux sensors (HFSs) with embedded thermistors. Optimal sensor placement was established using infrared thermography to locate the major areas of heat flux along the surface of the animals. Experiments were conducted on swimming animals in a large habitat tank with and without a drag harness, and on stationary animals in a temperature-and currentcontrolled swim flume. All heat flux measurements were corrected by a previously determined correction factor of 3.42 to account for insulative effects of the HFSs and attachment mechanism. Heat flux from shoulders and hips was consistently greater than from mid-trunk and axillary areas in both swimming and stationary animals, suggesting that certain areas of the body are preferentially used to offload excess heat. Mean heat flux for animals swimming with a drag harness was significantly greater than for unencumbered animals, indicating a likely increase in heat production beyond minimum heat loss. Thus, thermal stress does not appear to constitute significant costs for Steller sea lions swimming under conditions of increased drag at speeds of approximately 1 m/s in water temperatures of approximately 8.0 8C. D 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

The main goal of this work was to establish a monitoring network on main rivers of Kosovo. We aim to apply WFD (Water Framework Directive) in Kosovo as soon as possible, and our research could be the first step towards it. Waters of the rivers Drini i Bardhë, Morava e Binçës, Lepenc and Sitnica, which are of supra-regional interest, are investigated systematically. Statistical methods are applied to find locations where integrated water resources management can be suggested. Sediments of these rivers were also investigated at the same monitoring points and results have recently been published by us. In this paper we present results of mass concentrations of ecotoxic metals: Cu(II), Pb(II), Cd(II), Zn(II) and Mn(II) in waters of four main rivers of Kosovo. Results of anomalous concentrations of ecotoxic metals in water are compared with anomalous concentrations of the same elements found in sediments. In Drini i Bardhë River the only anomalous value (for Mn) was found in sediment. In Morava e Binçës extreme values of Cd were found in sediments at the lower stretch of the river. In water anomalous values of Cd, Cu and Mn were found at the upper stretch of the river, which are above permanent toxic values. In Lepenc River anomalies were not found, indicating uncontaminated river. Sitnica River is still polluted at two locations, although most of the industry is closed. Anomalous values of Cd, Pb and Zn were found in sediments and of Pb in water at location S 2 (Fushë Kosovë); at location S 5 (Mitrovicë) anomalous values of Cu, Cd, Pb and Zn were found in sediments and of Cd and Zn in water. Continuation of water and sediment monitoring by Kosovo authorities is highly recommended. Possible remediation at critical locations on Sitnica and Morava e Binçës rivers would be desirable.