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CONTENTS FOREWORD
PREFACE
iii
v
Chapter 1
CROP PRODUCTION AND MANAGEMENT 1
Chapter 2
MICROORGANISMS : FRIEND AND FOE 17
Chapter 3
SYNTHETIC FIBRES AND PLASTICS 32
Chapter 4
MATERIALS : METALS AND NON-METALS 44
Chapter 5
COAL AND PETROLEUM 56
Chapter 6
COMBUSTION AND FLAME 64
Chapter 7
CONSERVATION OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS 77
Chapter 8
CELL — STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS 90
Chapter 9
REPRODUCTION IN ANIMALS 100
Chapter 10
REACHING THE AGE OF ADOLESCENCE 113
xii
CONTENTS Chapter 11
FORCE AND PRESSURE 127
Chapter 12
FRICTION 146
Chapter 13
SOUND 157
Chapter 14
CHEMICAL EFFECTS OF ELECTRIC CURRENT 172
Chapter 15
SOME NATURAL PHENOMENA 184
Chapter 16
LIGHT 199
Chapter 17
STARS AND THE SOLAR SYSTEM 215
Chapter 18
POLLUTION OF AIR AND WATER 239
INDEX 253
CROP PRODUCTION AND MANAGEMENT
P
aheli and Boojho went to their
uncle’s house during the summer
vacation. Their uncle is a farmer.
One day they saw some tools like khurpi, Food has to be
produced on a large
sickle, shovel, plough, etc., in the field.
scale.
In order to provide food for a large

population— regular production, proper
I want to know management and distribution of food is
where and how we necessary.
use these tools.
1.1 Agricultural Practices
You have lear nt that all living
organisms require food. Plants can make
Till 10,000 B.C. people were nomadic.
their food themselves. Can you recall
They were wandering in groups from
how green plants synthesise their own place to place in search of food and
food? Animals including humans can shelter. They ate raw fruits and
not make their own food. So, where do vegetables and started hunting for
animals get their food from? animals for food. Later, they could
But, first of all why do we have to eat cultivate land and produce rice, wheat
food? and other food crops. Thus, was born
You already know that the energy ‘Agriculture’.
from food is utilised by organisms for
carrying out their various body When plants of the same kind are grown
functions, such as digestion, respiration and cultivated at one place on a large
and excretion. We get our food from scale, it is called a crop. For example,
plants, or animals, or both. crop of wheat means that all the plants
grown in a field are that of wheat.
You already know that crops are of
different types like cereals, vegetables
and fruits. These can be classified on the
Since we all need food, basis of the season in which they grow.
how can we provide India is a vast country. The climatic
food to a large number
conditions like temperature, humidity
of people in our
and rainfall vary from one region to
country?
another. Accordingly, there is a rich
variety of crops grown in different parts to as agricultural practices. These
of the country. Despite this diversity, activities are listed below.
two broad cropping patterns can be
(i) Preparation of soil
identified. These are:
(ii) Sowing
(i) Kharif Crops : The crops which are (iii) Adding manure and fertilisers
sown in the rainy season are called (iv) Irrigation
kharif crops. The rainy season in India (v) Protecting from weeds
is generally from June to September. (vi) Harvesting
Paddy, maize, soyabean, groundnut,
(vii) Storage
cotton, etc., are kharif crops.
(ii) Rabi Crops : The crops grown in the
1.3 Preparation of Soil
winter season are called rabi crops.
Their time period is generally from The preparation of soil is the first step
October to March. Examples of rabi before growing a crop. One of the most
crops are wheat, gram, pea, mustard important tasks in agriculture is to turn
and linseed. the soil and loosen it. This allows the
Besides these, pulses and vegetables roots to penetrate deep into the soil. The
are grown during summer at many loose soil allows the roots to breathe
places. easily even when they go deep into the
soil. Why does the loosening of soil allow
1.2 Basic Practices of Crop the roots to breathe easily?
Production The loosened soil helps in the growth
of earthworms and microbes present in
the soil. These organisms are friends of
the farmer since they further turn and
loosen the soil and add humus to it.
Why can paddy not be
But why does the soil need to be turned
grown in the winter season?
and loosened?
You have learnt in the previous
classes that soil contains minerals,
water, air and some living organisms.
Paddy requires a lot of In addition, dead plants and animals
water. Therefore, it is grown get decomposed by soil organisms. In
only in the rainy season. this way, various nutrients held in the
dead organisms are released back into
Cultivation of crops involves several the soil. These nutrients are again
activities undertaken by farmers over a absorbed by plants.
period of time. You may find that these Since only a few centimetres of the
activities are similar to those carried out top layer of soil supports plant growth,
by a gardener or even by you when you turning and loosening of soil brings the
grow ornamental plants in your house. nutrient-rich soil to the top so that
These activities or tasks are referred plants can use these nutrients. Thus,
2 SCIENCE
turning and loosening of soil is very Plough : This is being used since
important for cultivation of crops. ancient times for tilling the soil, adding
The process of loosening and turning fertilisers to the crop, removing the
of the soil is called tilling or ploughing. weeds, scraping of soil, etc. This
This is done by using a plough. Ploughs implement is made of wood and is drawn
are made of wood or iron. If the soil is by a pair of bulls or other animals
very dry, it may need watering before (horses, camels, etc.). It contains a
ploughing. The ploughed field may have strong triangular iron strip called
big pieces of soil called crumbs. It is ploughshare. The main part of the
necessary to break these crumbs with a plough is a long log of wood which is
plank. The field is levelled for sowing as called a ploughshaft. There is a handle
well as for irrigation purposes. The at one end of the shaft. The other end is
levelling of soil is done with the help of attached to a beam which is placed on
a leveller. the bulls’ necks. One pair of bulls and a
Sometimes, manure is added to the man can easily operate the plough
soil before tilling. This helps in proper
[Fig. 1.1 (a)].
mixing of manure with soil. The soil is
The indigenous wooden plough is
watered before sowing.
increasingly being replaced by iron
Agricultural Implements ploughs nowadays.
Before sowing the seeds, it is necessary to Hoe : It is a simple tool which is used
break soil to the size of grains to get better for removing weeds and for loosening
yield. This is done with the help of the soil. It has a long rod of wood or
various tools. The main tools used for this iron. A strong, broad and bent plate of
purpose are the plough, hoe and cultivator. iron is fixed to one of its ends and
beam
ploughshaft
ploughshare
Fig. 1.1 (a) : The plough

works like a blade. It is pulled by Activity 1.1
animals [Fig. 1.1 (b)].
Take a beaker and fill half of it
grip beam with water. Put a handful of wheat
handle
seeds and stir well. Wait for some
time.
bent plate
Are there seeds which float on
rod
Fig. 1.1 (b) : A hoe water? Would those be lighter or
heavier than those which sink? Why
Cultivator : Nowadays ploughing is would they be lighter? Damaged seeds
done by tractor driven cultivator. The become hollow and are thus lighter.
use of cultivator saves labour and time. Therefore, they float on water.
[Fig. 1.1 (c)]. This is a good method for
separating good, healthy seeds from
the damaged ones.
Before sowing, one of the important
tasks is to know about the tools used
for sowing seeds [Fig. 1.2 (a), (b)].
Traditional tool : The tool used
traditionally for sowing seeds is
shaped like a funnel [Fig. 1.2 (a)]. The
Fig. 1.1 (c) : Cultivator driven by a tractor seeds are filled into the funnel,
passed down through two or three
1.4 Sowing pipes having sharp ends. These
Sowing is the most important part of ends pierce into the soil and place
crop production. Before sowing, good seeds there.
quality seeds are selected. Good quality
seeds are clean and healthy seeds of a
good variety. Farmers prefer to use seeds
which give a high yield.
Selection of Seeds
One day I saw my mother put

some gram seeds in a vessel
and pour some water on
them. After a few minutes
some seeds started to float
on top. I wonder why some
seeds float on water!
Fig. 1.2 (a) : Traditional method of sowing
4 SCIENCE
sufficient sunlight, nutrients and water
from the soil. Sometimes a few plants
have to be removed to prevent
overcrowding.
1.5 Adding Manure and

Fertilisers
The substances which are added to the
soil in the form of nutrients for the
healthy growth of plants are called
manure and fertilisers.
Fig. 1.2 (b) : A seed drill
Seed drill : Nowadays the seed drill [Fig. I saw a healthy crop growing
1.2 (b)] is used for sowing with the help in a farm. In the neighbouring
of tractors. This tool sows the seeds farm, the plants were weak.
uniformly at proper distances and Why do some plants grow
depths. It ensures that seeds get covered better than others?
by the soil after sowing. This prevents
damage caused by birds. Sowing by Soil supplies mineral nutrients to the
using a seed drill saves time and labour. crop. These nutrients are essential for
the growth of plants. In certain areas,
farmers grow crop after crop in the same
There is a nursery near my field. The field is never left uncultivated
school. I found that little or fallow. Imagine what happens to the
plants were kept in small nutrients?
bags. Why are they Continuous growing of crops makes
kept like this? the soil poorer in certain nutrients.
Therefore, farmers have to add manure
to the fields to replenish the soil with
nutrients. This process is called
Seeds of a few plants
such as paddy are first
manuring. Improper or insufficient
grown in a nursery. When manuring results in weak plants.
they grow into plantlets, Manure is an organic substance
they are transplanted in obtained from the decomposition of
the field manually. Some plant or animal wastes. Farmers dump
forest plants and flowering plant and animal waste in pits at open
plants are also grown in places and allow it to decompose. The
the nursery. decomposition is caused by some
microorganisms. The decomposed
An appropriate distance between the matter is used as organic manure.
seeds is important to avoid overcrowding You have alr eady lear nt about
of plants. This allows plants to get vermicomposting in Class VI.
Activity 1.2 showed better growth of plants? In
which glass was the growth fastest?
Take moong or gram seeds and Fertilisers are chemical substances
germinate them. Select three equal
which are rich in a particular
sized seedlings out of these. Now
take three empty glasses or similar nutrient. How are these different from
vessels. Mark them A, B and C. To manure? Fertilisers are produced in
glass A add little amount of soil factories. Some examples of fertilisers
mixed with a little cow dung manure. are— urea, ammonium sulphate,
In glass B put the same amount of super phosphate, potash, NPK
soil mixed with a little urea. Take (Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Potassium).
the same amount of soil in glass C The use of fertilisers has helped
without adding anything [Fig.
farmers to get better yield of crops
1.3(a)]. Now pour the same amount
of water in each glass and plant the such as wheat, paddy and maize. But
seedlings in them. Keep them in a excessive use of fertilisers has made
safe place and water them daily. After the soil less fertile. Fertilisers have also
7 to 10 days observe their growth become a source of water pollution.
[Fig. 1.3(b)]. Therefore, in order to maintain the
fertility of the soil, we have to
substitute fertilisers by organic
manure or leave the field uncultivated
(fallow) in between two crops.
The use of manure improves soil
texture as well as its water retaining
capacity. It replenishes the soil with
all the nutrients.
Another method of replenishing
Fig. 1.3 (a) : Preparation of the experiment
the soil with nutrients is through crop
rotation. This can be done by growing
different crops alternately. Earlier,
farmers in northern India used to
grow legumes as fodder in one season
and wheat in the next season. This
helped in the replenishment of the soil
with nitrogen. Farmers are being
encouraged to adopt this practice.
In the previous classes, you have
Fig. 1.3 (b) : Growing seedlings with manure learnt about Rhizobium bacteria.
and fertiliser
These are present in the nodules of
Did all the plants in all the glasses the roots of leguminous plants. They
grow at the same pace? Which glass fix atmospheric nitrogen.
6 SCIENCE
Table 1.1 : Differences between Fertiliser and Manure
S. No. Fertiliser Manure
1. A fertiliser is an inorganic Manure is a natural substance obtained

salt. by the decomposition of cattle dung,
human waste and plant residues.
2. A fertiliser is prepared in Manure can be prepared in the fields.

factories.
3. A fertiliser does not provide Manure provides a lot of humus to the soil.
any humus to the soil.
4. Fertilisers are very rich in Manure is relatively less rich in plant

plant nutrients like nitrogen, nutrients.
phosphorus and potassium.
Table 1.1 gives the differences each part of the plant. Water also
between a fertiliser and manure. protects the crop from both frost and
hot air currents. To maintain the
Advantages of Manure : The organic
moisture of the soil for healthy crop
manure is considered better than
growth, fields have to be watered
fertilisers. This is because
regularly.
z it enhances the water holding The supply of water to crops at
capacity of the soil. different intervals is called irrigation.
z it makes the soil porous due to which The time and frequency of irrigation
exchange of gases becomes easy. varies from crop to crop, soil to soil and
z it increases the number of friendly season to season. In summer, the
microbes. frequency of watering is higher. Why is
z it improves the texture of the soil. it so? Could it be due to the increased
rate of evaporation of water from the soil
1.6 Irrigation
and the leaves?
All living beings need water to live.
Water is important for proper growth
and development of flowers, fruits and I am very careful this
seeds of plants. Water is absorbed by year about watering
the plant roots. Along with water, the plants. Last
minerals and fertilisers are also summer my plants
absorbed. Plants contain nearly 90% dried up and died.
water. Water is essential because
germination of seeds does not take place Sources of irrigation : The sources of
under dry conditions. Nutrients irrigation are— wells, tubewells, ponds,
dissolved in water get transported to lakes, rivers, dams and canals.
Traditional Methods of
Irrigation
The water available in wells,
lakes and canals is lifted up
by different methods in
different regions, for taking it
to the fields.
Cattle or human labour is
used in these methods. So
these methods are cheaper,
but less efficient. The various
traditional ways are:
(i) moat (pulley -system)
(ii) chain pump
Fig. 1.4 (a) : Moat
Fig. 1.4 (b) : Chain pump Fig. 1.4 (c) : Dhekli
(iii) dhekli, and

(iv) rahat (Lever system)
[Figs. 1.4 (a)- (d)].
Pumps are commonly
used for lifting water. Diesel,
biogas, electricity and
solar energy is used to run
these pumps.
Fig. 1.4 (d) : Rahat

8 SCIENCE
Modern Methods of
Irrigation
Modern methods of irrigation
help us to use water
economically. The main
methods used are as follows:
(i) Sprinkler System: This
system is more useful on the
uneven land where sufficient
water is not available. The
perpendicular pipes, having
rotating nozzles on top, are
joined to the main pipeline
at regular intervals. When
Fig. 1.5 (a) : Sprinkler system
water is allowed to flow
through the main pipe under
pressure with the help of a pump, it position of the roots. So it is called drip
escapes from the rotating nozzles. It gets system. It is the best technique for
sprinkled on the crop as if it is raining. watering fruit plants, gardens and trees.
Sprinkler is very useful for sandy soil The system provides water to plants drop
[Fig. 1.5 (a)]. by drop [Fig. 1.5(b)]. Water is not wasted
(ii) Drip system : In this system, the at all. It is a boon in regions where
water falls drop by drop just at the availability of water is poor.
Fig. 1.5 (b) : Drip System

1.7 Protection from Weeds
Boojho and Paheli went to a nearby
wheat field and saw that there were some
other plants in the field.
Have these other

plants been planted
purposely?
In a field many other undesirable

plants may grow naturally along with Fig. 1.6 : Spraying weedicide
the crop. These undesirable plants are
called weeds.
The removal of weeds is called
weeding. Weeding is necessary since Do weedicides have any
weeds compete with the crop plants for effect on the person handling
the weedicide sprayer?
water, nutrients, space and light. Thus,
they affect the growth of the crop. Some
As already mentioned, the weedicides
weeds interfere even in harvesting and
are sprayed during the vegetative growth
may be poisonous for animals and
of weeds before flowering and seed
human beings.
formation. Spraying of weedicides may
Farmers adopt many ways to remove
affect the health of farmers. So they
weeds and control their growth. Tilling
should use these chemicals very carefully.
before sowing of crops helps in
They should cover their nose and mouth
uprooting and killing of weeds, which
with a piece of cloth during spraying of
may then dry up and get mixed with
these chemicals.
the soil. The best time for the removal
of weeds is before they produce flowers
1.8 Harvesting
and seeds. The manual removal includes
physical removal of weeds by uprooting Harvesting of a crop is an important
or cutting them close to the ground, task. The cutting of crop after it is
from time to time. This is done with the mature is called harvesting. In
help of a khurpi. A seed drill [Fig. 1.2(b)] harvesting, crops are pulled out or cut
is also used to uproot weeds. close to the ground. It usually takes 3
Weeds are also controlled by using to 4 months for a cereal crop to mature.
certain chemicals, called weedicides, Harvesting in our
like 2,4-D. These are sprayed in the country is either done
fields to kill the weeds. They do not manually by sickle
damage the crops. The weedicides are (Fig. 1.7) or by a machine
diluted with water to the extent required called harvester. In the
and sprayed in the fields with a sprayer. harvested crop, the grain Fig. 1.7 :
(Fig. 1.6). seeds need to be separated Sickle
10 SCIENCE
from the chaff. This process is called Harvest Festivals
threshing. This is carried out with the
help of a machine called ‘combine’ which After three or four months of hard
work there comes the day of the
is in fact a combined harvester and
harvest. The sight of golden fields
thresher (Fig. 1.8). of standing crop, laden with grain,
fills the hearts of farmers with joy
a n d a s e n s e o f w e l l -b e i n g . T h e
efforts of the past season have
borne fruit and it is time to relax
and enjoy a little. The period of
harvest is, thus, of great joy and
happiness in all parts of India.
Men and women celebrate it with
great enthusiasm. Special
festivals associated with the
h a r v e s t s e a s o n are P o n g a l ,
Baisakhi, Holi, Diwali, Nabanya
Fig. 1.8 : Combine and Bihu.
1.9 Storage
After harvesting, sometimes
Storage of produce is an important task.
stubs are left in the field, which
are burnt by farmers. Paheli is If the crop grains are to be kept for
worried. She knows that it longer time, they should be safe from
causes pollution. It may also moisture, insects, rats and
catch fire and damage the crops microorganisms. The fresh crop has
lying in the fields. more moisture. If freshly harvested
grains (seeds) are stored without drying,
Farmers with small holdings of land
they may get spoilt or attacked by
do the separation of grain and chaff by
organisms, losing their germination
winnowing (Fig. 1.9). You have already
studied this in Class VI. capacity. Hence, before storing them,
the grains are properly dried in the sun
to reduce the moisture in them. This
prevents the attack by insect pests,
bacteria and fungi. Farmers store
I saw my mother putting

some dried neem leaves
in an iron drum
containing wheat.
I wonder why?
Fig. 1.9 : Winnowing machine
Fig. 1.10 (a) : Silos for storage of grains 1.10 Food from Animals
Activity 1.3
Make the following Table in your
note book and complete it.
S.No. Food Sources
1. Milk Cow, Buffalo, She-

goat, She-camel . . .
2.
3.
4.
After completing this Table, you
must have seen that, like plants,
animals also provide us with different
kinds of food. Many people living in the
coastal areas consume fish as a major
part of their diet. In the previous classes
Fig. 1.10 (b) : Storage of grains in granaries you have learnt about the food that we
obtain from plants. We have just seen
grains in jute bags or metallic bins. that the process of crop production
However, large scale storage of grains involves a number of steps like selection
is done in silos and granaries to protect of seeds, sowing, etc. Similarly, animals
them from pests like rats and insects reared at home or in farms, have to be
[Fig. 1.10 (a) and (b)]. provided with proper food, shelter and
Dried neem leaves are used for care. When this is done on a large scale,
storing food grains at home. For storing it is called animal husbandry.
large quantities of grains in big
godowns, specific chemical treatments Fish is good for health.
are required to protect them from pests We get cod liver oil from fish
and microorganisms. which is rich in vitamin D.
12 SCIENCE
KEYWORDS WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT
AGRICULTURAL Â In order to provide food to our growing
PRACTICES population, we need to adopt certain
agricultural practices.
ANIMAL HUSBANDRY
Â Same kind of plants grown and cultivated at
CROP a place constitute a crop.
Â In India, crops can be broadly categorised into
FERTILISER
two types based on seasons - rabi and kharif
GRANARIES crops.
Â It is necessary to prepare soil by tilling and
HARVESTING levelling. Ploughs and levellers are used for
this purpose.
IRRIGATION
Â Sowing of seeds at appropriate depths and
KHARIF distances gives good yield. Good variety of
seeds are sown after selection of healthy seeds.
MANURE Sowing is done by seed drills.
Â Soil needs replenishment and enrichment
PLOUGH
through the use of organic manure and
RABI fertilisers. Use of chemical fertilisers has
increased tremendously with the introduction
SEEDS of new crop varieties.
Â Supply of water to crops at appropriate
SILO
intervals is called irrigation.
SOWING Â Weeding involves removal of unwanted and
uncultivated plants called weeds.
STORAGE Â Harvesting is the cutting of the mature crop
manually or by machines.
THRESHING
Â Separation of the grains from the chaff is called
WEEDS threshing.
Â Proper storage of grains is necessary to protect
WEEDICIDE them from pests and microorganisms.
Â Food is also obtained from animals for which
WINNOWING
animals are reared. This is called animal
husbandry.
Exercises
1. Select the correct word from the following list and fill in the blanks.
float, water, crop, nutrients, preparation
(a) The same kind of plants grown and cultivated on a large scale at a
place is called _____________.
(b) The first step before growing crops is _____________ of the soil.

(c) Damaged seeds would _____________ on top of water.
EXERCISES
(d) For growing a crop, sufficient sunlight and _____________ and
_____________ from the soil are essential.
2. Match items in column A with those in column B.
A B
(i) Kharif crops (a) Food for cattle

(ii) Rabi crops (b) Urea and super phosphate
(iii) Chemical fertilisers (c) Animal excreta, cow dung
urine and plant waste
(iv) Organic manure (d) Wheat, gram, pea
(e) Paddy and maize
3. Give two examples of each.

(a) Kharif crop
(b) Rabi crop
4. Write a paragraph in your own words on each of the following.

(a) Preparation of soil (b) Sowing
(c) Weeding (d) Threshing
5. Explain how fertilisers are different from manure.
6. What is irrigation? Describe two methods of irrigation which conserve water.
7. If wheat is sown in the kharif season, what would happen? Discuss.
8. Explain how soil gets affected by the continuous plantation of crops in

a field.
9. What are weeds? How can we control them?
10. Arrange the following boxes in proper order to make a flow chart of
sugarcane crop production.
Sending crop to
Irrigation Harvesting Sowing
sugar factory
1 2 3 4
Preparation of Ploughing the

Manuring
soil field
5 6 7
14 SCIENCE
11. Complete the following word puzzle with the help of clues given below.
EXERCISES
Down
1. Providing water to the crops.
2. Keeping crop grains for a long time under proper conditions.
5. Certain plants of the same kind grown on a large scale.
Across
3. A machine used for cutting the matured crop.
4. A rabi crop that is also one of the pulses.
6. A process of separating the grain from chaff.
Extended Learning — Activities and Projects

1. Sow some seeds in the soil and arrange to water them by drip
irrigation. Observe daily.
(i) Do you think it can save water?
(ii) Note the changes in the seed.
2. Collect different types of seeds and put them in small bags. Attach
these bags in a herbarium file and label them.
3. Collect new agricultural machine pictures and paste in a file with
their names and uses.
4. Project Work
Visit a farm, nursery or a garden nearby. Gather information about
(i) importance of seed selection.
(ii) method of irrigation.

(iii) effect of extreme cold and extreme hot weather on the plants.
(iv) effect of continuous rain on the plants.
(v) fertilisers/manure used.
For more information, visit :
z www.krishiworld.com/html/balanced fertiliser. htm.
z www.ikis.com/links/ap.cultivation.html
An Example for Field Trip Work

Himanshu and his friends were very anxious and curious to go to Thikri village.
They went to Shri Jiwan Patel’s farmhouse. They had taken bags to collect some
seeds and other things.
Himanshu : Sir namaskar, I am Himanshu. Here are my friends Mohan, David
and Sabiha. We want some information about crops. Please guide
us.
Shri Patel : Namaskar and welcome all of you. What are your queries?
Sabiha : When did you start this work and what are the main crops that
you grow?
Shri Patel : About 75 years ago, my grandfather started this work. The main
crops that we grow are wheat, gram, soyabean and moong.
David : Sir, can you tell us the difference between traditional and modern
agricultural practices?
Shri Patel : Earlier we used traditional tools like sickle, bullock plough, trowel,
etc., and depended on rain water for irrigation. But now we use
modern methods of irrigation. We use implements like tractors,
cultivators, seed drill and harvester. We get good quality seeds.
We carry out soil testing and use manure and fertilisers. New
information about agriculture is obtained through radio, T.V. and
other sources. As a result we are able to get good crops on a large
scale. This year we got 9 to 11 quintals of gram crop/acre and 20
to 25 quintals of wheat/acre. In my opinion awareness of new
technology is important for better crop yield.
Mohan : Sabiha, come here and see some earthworms. Are they helpful to
the farmers?
Sabiha : Oh Mohan! we learnt about it in Class VI.
Shri Patel : Earthworms turn the soil and loosen it for proper aeration, so
they help the farmer.
David : Can we have some seeds of the crops you grow here?
[They put some seeds, fertilisers and soil sample in the bags.]
Himanshu : Sir, we are thankful to you for making this visit pleasant and for
providing useful information.
16 SCIENCE
MICROORGANISMS : FRIEND AND FOE
Y
ou have seen several kinds of These observations show that water
plants and animals. However, and soil are full of tiny organisms,
there are other living organisms though not all of them fall into the
around us which we cannot see with category of microbes. These
eyes alone. These are called microorganisms or microbes are so
microorganisms or microbes. For small in size that they cannot be seen
example, you might have observed that with the unaided eye. Some of these,
during rainy season moist bread gets such as the fungus that grows on bread,
spoilt and its surface gets covered with can be seen with a magnifying glass.
greyish white patches. Observe these Others cannot be seen without the help
patches through a magnifying glass. You of a microscope. That is why these are
will see tiny, black rounded structures. called microorganisms or microbes.
Do you know what these structures are Microorganisms are classified into
and where did these come from? four major groups. These groups are
bacteria, fungi, protozoa and some
2.1 Microorganisms algae. Some of these common
microorganisms are shown in
Activity 2.1 Figs. 2.1 - 2.4.
Viruses are also microscopic. They,
Collect some moist soil from the however, reproduce only inside the cells
field in a beaker and add water to of the host organism, which may be a
it. After soil particles have settled, bacterium, plant or animal. Some of the
observe a drop of water from the viruses are shown in Fig. 2.5. Common
beaker under a microscope. What ailments like cold, influenza (flu) and
do you see ? most coughs are caused by viruses.
Serious diseases like polio and chicken
Activity 2.2 pox are also caused by viruses.
Diseases like dysentery and malaria
Take a few drops of water from a are caused by protozoans whereas
pond. Spread on a glass slide and typhoid and tuberculosis (TB) are
observe through a microscope. bacterial diseases.
You have learnt about some of
Do you find tiny organisms moving these microorganisms in Classes VI
around? and VII.
Spiral bacteria Rod shaped bacteria
Fig. 2.1: Bacteria
Amoeba
Chlamydomonas Spirogyra Paramecium
Fig. 2.2 : Algae Fig. 2.3 : Protozoa
Bread mould Penicillium Aspergillus
Fig. 2.4: Fungi
18 SCIENCE
Friendly Microorganisms
Microorganisms are used for various
purposes. They are used in the
preparation of curd, bread and cake.
Microorganisms have been used for

the production of alcohol since ages.
They are also used in cleaning up

of the environment. For example, the
organic wastes (vegetable peels, remains
of animals, faeces, etc.) are broken
down into harmless and usable
substances by bacteria. Recall that
bacteria are also used in the
preparation of medicines. In agriculture
they are used to increase soil fertility
by fixing nitrogen.
Fig. 2.5 : Viruses
Making of Curd and Bread
2.2 Where do Microorganisms You have learnt in Class VII that milk is
Live? turned into curd by bacteria.
Microorganisms may be single-celled
like bacteria, some algae and protozoa,
or multicellular, such as algae and fungi. I saw that my mother
They can survive under all types of added a little curd to warm
environment, ranging from ice cold milk to set curd for the
climate to hot springs and deserts to next day. I wonder why!
marshy lands. They are also found
inside the bodies of animals including Curd contains several micro-
humans. Some microorganisms grow on organisms. Of these, the bacterium
other organisms while others exist Lactobacillus promotes the formation
freely. Microorganisms like amoeba can of curd. It multiplies in milk and converts
live alone, while fungi and bacteria may it into curd. Bacteria are also involved
live in colonies. in the making of cheese, pickles and
many other food items. An important
2.3 Microorganisms and Us ingredient of rava (sooji ) idlis and
bhaturas is curd. Can you guess why?
Microorganisms play an important role
in our lives. Some of them are beneficial
Activity 2.3
in many ways whereas some others are
harmful and cause diseases. Let us study Take ½ kg flour (atta or maida),
about them in detail. add some sugar and mix with
warm water. Add a small amount yeast powder to the sugar solution.
of yeast powder and knead to Keep it covered in a warm place for
make a soft dough. What do you 4-5 hours. Now smell the solution.
observe after two hours? Did you Could you get a smell?
find the dough rising?
This is the smell of alcohol as sugar
has been converted into alcohol by yeast.
This process of conversion of sugar into
alcohol is known as fermentation.
Maida with Yeast Powder
Louis Pasteur
discovered
fermentation
in 1857.
Raised maida
Medicinal Use of Microorganisms
Fig. 2.6
Whenever you fall ill the doctor may
give you some antibiotic tablets,
Yeast reproduces rapidly and
capsules or injections such as of
produces carbon dioxide during
penicillin. The source of these
respiration. Bubbles of the gas fill the
medicines is microorganisms. These
dough and increase its volume (Fig. 2.6).
This is the basis of the use of yeast in medicines kill or stop the growth of the
the baking industry for making breads, disease-causing microorganisms.
pastries and cakes. Such medicines are called antibiotics.
These days a number of antibiotics are
Commercial Use of Microorganisms being produced from bacteria and
fungi. Streptomycin, tetracycline and
Microorganisms are used for the large
scale production of alcohol, wine and erythromycin are some of the
acetic acid (vinegar). Yeast is used for
commercial production of alcohol
and wine. For this purpose yeast is In 1929, Alexander
grown on natural sugars present in Fleming was working
on a culture of disease-
grains like barley, wheat, rice and
causing bacteria.
crushed fruit juices, etc. Suddenly he found the
spores of a little green mould in one of
Activity 2.4 his culture plates. He observed that
Take a 500 mL beaker filled upto ¾ the presence of mould prevented the
growth of bacteria. In fact, it also killed
with water. Dissolve 2-3 teaspoons
many of these bacteria. From this the
of sugar in it. Add half a spoon of mould penicillin was prepared.
20 SCIENCE
commonly known antibiotics which are we are protected from the disease-
made from fungi and bacteria. The causing microbes. This is how a vaccine
antibiotics are manufactured by works. Several diseases, including
growing specific microorganisms and cholera, tuberculosis, smallpox and
are used to cure a variety of diseases. hepatitis can be prevented by
Antibiotics are even mixed with the vaccination.
feed of livestock and poultry to check
microbial infection in animals. They are Edward Jenner
also used to control many plant discovered the
diseases. vaccine for small-
pox in 1798.
It is important to remember that
antibiotics should be taken only on
the advice of a qualified doctor. Also In your childhood, you must have
you must finish the course been given injections to protect yourself
prescribed by the doctor. If you take against several diseases. Can you
antibiotics when not needed or in prepare a list of these diseases? You
wrong doses, it may make the drug
may take help from your parents.
less effective when you might need
it in future. Also antibiotics taken
It is essential to protect all children
unnecessarily may kill the beneficial against these diseases. Necessary vaccines
bacteria in the body. Antibiotics, are available in the nearby hospitals. You
however, are not effective against might have seen the advertisement on T.V.
cold and flu as these are caused by and newspapers regarding protection of
viruses. children against polio under Pulse Polio
Program. Polio drops given to children are
Vaccine actually a vaccine.
A worldwide campaign against
smallpox has finally led to its
eradication from most parts of the
Why are children/ world.
infants given These days vaccines are made on a
vaccination? large scale from microorganisms to
protect humans and other animals from
When a disease-carrying microbe enters several diseases.
our body, the body produces antibodies
to fight the invader. The body also Increasing Soil Fertility
remembers how to fight the microbe if Some bacteria and blue green algae
it enters again. So, if dead or weakened (Fig. 2.7) are able to fix nitrogen from
microbes are introduced in a healthy the atmosphere to enrich soil with
body, the body fights and kills nitrogen and increase its fertility. These
them by producing suitable antibodies. microbes are commonly called
The antibodies remain in the body and biological nitrogen fixers.
Fig. 2.7 : The Nitrogen fixing blue green algae
Cleaning the Environment released in the process could be used

Boojho and Paheli had observed the by the plants again.
school gardener making manure. Along Did you notice that in pot B, the
with their friends, they collected wastes polythene bags, empty glasses, bottles
of plants, vegetables and fruits from and broken toy parts did not undergo
nearby houses and gardens. They put any such change? The microbes could
them in a pit meant for waste disposal. not ‘act’ on them and convert them into
After some time, it decomposed and got manure.
converted to manure. Boojho and You often see large amounts of dead
Paheli wanted to know how this could organic matter in the form of decaying
happen. plants and sometimes dead animals on
the ground. You find that they
Activity 2.5 disappear after some time. This is
because the microorganisms
Take two pots and fill each pot half
decompose dead organic waste of plants
with soil. Mark them A and B. Put
plant waste in pot A and things like and animals converting them into
polythene bags, empty glass bottles simple substances. These substances
and broken plastic toys in pot B. are again used by other plants and
Put the pots aside. Observe them animals. Thus, microorganisms can
after 3-4 weeks. be used to degrade the harmful and
smelly substances and thereby clean
Do you find any difference in the up the environment.
contents of the two pots? If so, what is
the difference? You will find that plant 2.4 Harmful Microorganisms
waste in pot A, has been decomposed. Microorganisms are harmful in many
How could this happen? The plant waste ways. Some of the microorganisms
has been converted into manure by the cause diseases in human beings, plants
action of microbes. The nutrients and animals. Such disease-causing
22 SCIENCE
microorganisms are called pathogens. There are some insects and animals
Some microorganisms spoil food, which act as carriers of disease-
clothing and leather. Let us study more causing microbes. Housefly is one such
about their harmful activities. carrier. The flies sit on the garbage and
animal excreta. Pathogens stick to their
Disease— causing Microorganisms bodies. When these flies sit on uncovered
in Humans food they may transfer the pathogens.
Pathogens enter our body through the Whoever eats the contaminated food is
air we breathe, the water we drink or likely to get sick. So, it is advisable to
the food we eat. They can also get always keep food covered. Avoid
transmitted by direct contact with an consuming uncovered items of food.
infected person or carried through an Another example of a carrier is the
animal. Microbial diseases that can female Anopheles mosquito (Fig. 2.8),
spread from an infected person to a which carries the parasite of malaria.
healthy person through air, water, food Female Aedes mosquito acts as carrier
or physical contact are called of dengue virus. How can we control the
communicable diseases. Examples of spread of malaria or dengue?
such diseases include cholera, common
cold, chicken pox and tuberculosis.
When a person suffering from
common cold sneezes, fine droplets of
moisture carrying thousands of viruses
are spread in the air. The virus may enter
the body of a healthy person while
breathing. Fig. 2.8 : Female Anopheles mosquito
Then how do you

prevent the spread of Why does the teacher
communicable keep telling us not
diseases? to let water collect
anywhere in the
neighbourhood?
All mosquitoes breed in water. Hence,

one should not let water collect
We should keep a anywhere, in coolers, tyres, flower pot
handkerchief on the etc. By keeping the surroundings clean
nose and mouth while and dry we can prevent mosquitoes from
sneezing. It is better to
breeding. Try to make a list of measures
keep a distance from
which help to avoid the spread of
infected persons.
malaria.
Table 2.1: Some Common Human Diseases caused by Microorganisms
Human Disease Causative Mode of Preventive measures
Microorganism Transmission (General)
Tuberculosis Bacteria Air Keep the patient in complete

isolation. Keep the personal
Measles Virus Air
belongings of the patient away
from those of the others.
Chicken Pox Virus Air/Contact
Vaccination to be given at
Polio Virus Air/Water suitable age.
Cholera Bacteria Water/Food Maintain personal hygiene

and good sanitary habits.
Typhoid Bacteria Water Consume properly cooked food
and boiled drinking water.
Vaccination.
Hepatitis B Virus Water Drink boiled drinking water.

Vaccination.
Use mosquito net and

Malaria Protozoa Mosquito
repellents. Spray insecticides
and control breeding of
mosquitoes by not allowing
water to collect in the
surroundings.
Some of the common diseases in other animals. For example, anthrax

affecting humans, their mode of is a dangerous human and cattle
transmission and few general methods disease caused by a bacterium. Foot
of prevention are given in Table 2.1. and mouth disease of cattle is caused
by a virus.
Disease— causing Microorganisms
in Animals Disease— causing Microorganisms
Several microorganisms not only cause in Plants
diseases in humans and plants, but also Several microorganisms cause
diseases in plants like wheat, rice, potato,
Robert Köch (1876) sugarcane, orange, apple and others.
discovered the bacterium The diseases reduce the yield of crops.
(Bacillus anthracis) which See Table 2.2 for some such plant
causes anthrax disease.
diseases. They can be controlled by the
24 SCIENCE
Table 2.2: Some Common Plant Diseases caused by Microorganisms
Plant Micro- Mode of Figures

Diseases organism Transmission
Citrus Bacteria Air

canker
Rust of Fungi Air,

wheat seeds
Yellow vein Virus Insect

mosaic of
bhindi (Okra)
use of certain chemicals which kill the make the food poisonous causing
microbes. serious illness and even death. So, it
is very important that we preserve
Food Poisoning food to prevent it from being spoilt.
Boojho was invited by his friend to a
party and he ate a variety of foodstuff. 2.5 Food Preservation
On reaching home he started vomiting. In Chapter 1, we have learnt about the
He had to be taken to a hospital. The methods used to preserve and store food
doctor said that this condition could be grains. How do we preserve cooked food
due to food poisoning. at home? You know that bread left
unused under moist conditions is
attacked by fungus. Microorganisms
spoil our food. Spoiled food emits bad
Paheli wonders how smell and has a bad taste and changed
food can become a colour. Is spoiling of food a chemical
‘poison’. reaction?
Paheli bought some mangoes but she
Food poisoning could be due to the could not eat them for a few days. Later
consumption of food spoilt by some she found that they were spoilt and
microorganisms. Microorganisms rotten. But she knows that the mango
that grow on our food sometimes pickle her grandmother makes does not
produce toxic substances. These spoil for a long time. She is confused.
Let us study the common methods Similarly, we keep our food in the
to preserve food in our homes. We have refrigerator. Low temperature inhibits
to prevent it from the attack of the growth of microbes.
microorganisms.
Chemical Method
Salts and edible oils are the common Why does the milk that
chemicals generally used to check the comes in packets not spoil?
growth of microorganisms. Therefore My mother told me that the
they are called preservatives. We add milk is ‘pasteurized’. What
salt or acid preservatives to pickles to is pasteurization?
prevent the attack of microbes. Sodium
benzoate and sodium metabisulphite are Pasteurized milk can be consumed
common preservatives. These are also without boiling as it is free from harmful
used in the jams and squashes to check microbes. The milk is heated to about
their spoilage. 700C for 15 to 30 seconds and then
suddenly chilled and stored. By doing
Preservation by Common Salt so, it prevents the growth of microbes.
Common salt has been used to preserve This process was discovered by Louis
meat and fish for ages. Meat and fish Pasteur. It is called pasteurization.
are covered with dry salt to check the
growth of bacteria. Salting is also used Storage and Packing
to preserve amla, raw mangoes, These days dry fruits and even
tamarind, etc. vegetables are sold in sealed air tight
packets to prevent the attack of
Preservation by Sugar microbes.
Jams, jellies and squashes are preserved
by sugar. Sugar reduces the moisture 2.6 Nitrogen Fixation
content which inhibits the growth of You have learnt about the bacterium
bacteria which spoil food. Rhizobium in Classes VI and VII. It is
Preservation by Oil and Vinegar involved in the fixation of nitrogen in
leguminous plants (pulses). Recall that
Use of oil and vinegar prevents spoilage Rhizobium lives in the root nodules of
of pickles because bacteria cannot live leguminous plants (Fig. 2.9), such as
in such an environment. Vegetables, beans and peas, with which it has a
fruits, fish and meat are often preserved symbiotic relationship. Sometimes
by this method. nitrogen gets fixed through the action
of lightning. But you know that the
Heat and Cold Treatments
amount of nitrogen in the atmosphere
You must have observed your mother remains constant. You may wonder
boiling milk before it is stored or used. how? Let us understand this in the next
Boiling kills many microorganisms. section.
26 SCIENCE
nitrogen cannot be taken directly by
plants and animals. Certain bacteria and
blue green algae present in the soil fix
nitrogen from the atmosphere and
convert into compounds of nitrogen.
Once nitrogen is converted into these
usable compounds, it can be utilised by
plants from the soil through their root
system. Nitrogen is then used for the
synthesis of plant proteins and other
compounds. Animals feeding on plants
get these proteins and other nitrogen
compounds (Fig. 2.10).
When plants and animals die,
Fig. 2.9 : Roots of a leguminous plant with root bacteria and fungi present in the soil
nodules convert the nitrogenous wastes into
nitrogenous compounds to be used by
2.7 Nitrogen cycle plants again. Certain other bacteria
Our atmosphere has 78% nitrogen gas. convert some part of them to nitrogen
Nitrogen is one of the essential gas which goes back into the
constituents of all living organisms as atmosphere. As a result, the percentage
part of proteins, chlorophyll, nucleic of nitrogen in the atmosphere remains
acids and vitamins. The atmospheric more or less constant.
Fig. 2.10 : Nitrogen cycle

ALGAE Microorganisms are too small and are not
ANTIBIOTICS visible to the unaided eye.
They can live in all kinds of environment,
ANTIBODIES ranging from ice cold climate to hot springs
BACTERIA and deserts to marshy lands.

Microorganisms are found in air, water and
CARRIER in the bodies of plants and animals.
They may be unicellular or multicellular.
COMMUNICABLE-
Microorganisms include bacteria, fungi,
DISEASES
protozoa and some algae. Viruses, though
FERMENTATION different from the above mentioned living
organisms, are considered microbes.
FUNGI
Viruses are quite different from other
LACTOBACILLUS microorganisms. They reproduce only inside
the host organism; bacterium, plant or animal
MICROORGANISM
cell.
NITROGEN CYCLE Some microorganisms are useful for
commercial production of medicines and
NITROGEN FIXATION
alcohol.
PASTEURIZATION Some microorganisms decompose the organic

waste and dead plants and animals into simple
PATHOGEN substances and clean up the environment.
Protozoans cause serious diseases like
PRESERVATION
dysentery and malaria.
PROTOZOA Some of the microorganisms grow on our food
and cause food poisoning.
RHIZOBIUM
Some microorganisms reside in the root
VACCINE nodules of leguminous plants. They can fix
nitrogen from air into soil and increase the
VIRUS
soil fertility.
YEAST Some bacteria and blue green algae present
in the soil fix nitrogen from the atmosphere
and convert into nitrogenous compounds.
Certain bacteria convert compounds of
nitrogen present in the soil into nitrogen gas
which is released to the atmosphere.
28 SCIENCE
Exercises
1. Fill in the blanks:
(a) Microorganisms can be seen with the help of a ____________.
(b) Blue green algae fix __________ directly from air to enhance fertility
of soil.
(c) Alcohol is produced with the help of __________.
(d) Cholera is caused by __________.

2. Tick the correct answer:
(a) Yeast is used in the production of
(i) sugar (ii) alcohol (iii) hydrochloric acid (iv) oxygen

(b) The following is an antibiotic
(i) Sodium bicarbonate (ii) Streptomycin (iii) Alcohol (iv) Yeast
(c) Carrier of malaria-causing protozoan is

(i) female Anopheles mosquito (ii) cockroach
(iii) housefly (iv) butterfly
(d) The most common carrier of communicable diseases is

(i) ant (ii) housefly (iii) dragonfly (iv) spider
(e) The bread or idli dough rises because of
(i) heat (ii) grinding (iii) growth of yeast cells (iv) kneading
(f) The process of conversion of sugar into alcohol is called

(i) nitrogen fixation (ii) moulding (iii) fermentation (iv) infection
3. Match the organisms in Column I with their action in
Column II.
Column I Column II
(i) Bacteria (a) Fixing Nitrogen
(ii) Rhizobium (b) Setting of curd
(iii) Lactobacillus (c) Baking of bread
(iv) Yeast (d) Causing Malaria
(v) A protozoan (e) Causing Cholera
(vi) A Virus (f) Causing AIDS
(g) Producing antibodies
4. Can microorganisms be seen with the naked eye? If not, how can they be
seen?
5. What are the major groups of microorganisms?
EXERCISES 6. Name the microorganisms which can fix atmospheric nitrogen in the soil.
7. Write 10 lines on the usefulness of microorganisms in our lives.
8. Write a short paragraph on the harms caused by microorganisms.

9. What are antibiotics? What precautions must be taken while taking
antibiotics?

1. Pull out a gram or bean plant from the field. Observe its roots. You
will find round structures called root nodules on the roots. Draw a
diagram of the root and show the root nodules.
2. Collect the labels from the bottles of jams and jellies. Write down
the list of contents printed on the labels.
3. Visit a doctor. Find out why antibiotics should not be overused.
Prepare a short report.
4. Project : Requirements – 2 test tubes, marker pen, sugar, yeast
powder, 2 balloons and lime water.
Take two test tubes and mark them A and B. Clamp these tubes in
a stand and fill them with water leaving some space at the top. Put
two spoonfuls of sugar in each
of the test tubes. Add a spoonful
of yeast in test tube B. Inflate the
two balloons incompletely. Now
tie the balloons on the mouths
of each test tube. Keep them in
a warm place, away from
sunlight. Watch the setup every
day for next 3-4 days. Record A B
your observations and think of
an explanation.
Now take another test tube

filled 1/4 with lime water.
Remove the balloon from test
tube B in such a manner that
gas inside the balloon does not
escape. Fit the balloon on the
test tube and shake well.
Observe and explain.
30 SCIENCE
5. For more information, visit the following websites:
www.microorganisms
www.biology4kids.com/files/micro_main html
Did You Know?

Bacteria have lived on the earth for much longer than human beings.
They are such hardy organisms that they can live under extreme conditions.
They have been found living in boiling mudpots and extremly cold icy waters.
They have been found in lakes of caustic soda and in pools of concentrated
sulphuric acid. They can survive at depths of several kilometres. They
probably can survive in space, too. A kind of bacterium was recovered
from a camera which stood on the moon for two years.There is probably no
environment in which bacteria cannot survive.

SYNTHETIC FIBRES AND PLASTICS
T
he clothes which we wear are 3.1 What are Synthetic
made of fabrics. Fabrics Fibres?
are made from fibres obtained
from natural or artificial sources. Can Try to recall the uniform pattern found
you name some natural fibres? Fibres in a necklace of beads joined with the
are also used for making a large variety help of a thread [Fig. 3.1(a)]. Or, try to
of household articles. Make a list of some join a number of paper clips together to
common articles made from fibres. Try make a long chain, as in Fig. 3.1 (b). Is
to separate them into those made from there any similarity between the two?
natural fibres and those made from
artificial fibres. Make entries in Table 3.1.
Table 3.1 : Natural and artificial

fibres
S. No. Name of Type of Fibre

Article (Natural/
artificial)
(a) (b)
Fig. 3.1 : (a) Beads and

(b) paper clips joined to
form long chains
Why did you label some fibres as A synthetic fibre is also a chain of
artificial? small units joined together. Each small
You have read in your previous unit is actually a chemical substance.
classes that natural fibres like cotton, Many such small units combine to form
wool, silk, etc., are obtained from plants a large single unit called a polymer. The
or animals. The synthetic fibres, on the word ‘polymer’ comes from two Greek
other hand, are made by human beings. words; poly meaning many and mer
That is why these are called synthetic meaning part/unit. So, a polymer is made
or man-made fibres. of many repeating units.
Polymers occur in nature also. Cotton, B. Nylon
for example, is a polymer called Nylon is another man-made fibre. In
cellulose. Cellulose is made up of a 1931, it was made without using any
large number of glucose units. natural raw material (from plant or
animal). It was prepared from coal, water
3.2 Types of Synthetic Fibres and air. It was the first fully synthetic
A. Rayon fibre.
Nylon fibre was strong, elastic and
You have read in Class VII that silk fibre light. It was lustrous and easy to wash.
obtained from silkworm was discovered So, it became very popular for making
in China and was kept as a closely clothes.
guarded secret for a long time. Fabric We use many articles made from
obtained from silk fibre was very costly. nylon, such as socks, ropes, tents,
But its beautiful texture fascinated toothbrushes, car seat belts, sleeping
everybody. Attempts were made to make bags, curtains etc. (Fig. 3.3). Nylon is
silk artificially. Towards the end of the
nineteenth century, scientists were
successful in obtaining a fibre having
properties similar to that of silk. Such a
fibre was obtained by chemical
treatment of wood pulp. This fibre was
called rayon or artificial silk. Although
rayon is obtained from a natural source,
wood pulp, yet it is a man-made fibre. It
is cheaper than silk and can be woven
like silk fibres. It can also be dyed in a
wide variety of colours. Rayon is mixed
with cotton to make bed sheets or mixed
with wool to make carpets. (Fig. 3.2.) Fig. 3.3: Various Articles
made from Nylon
Is nylon fibre
really so strong
that we can make
nylon parachutes
and ropes for rock
climbing?
Fig. 3.4: Use of Nylon Fibres
a pan so that weights can be placed
in it. Add weights one by one till
the thread breaks. Note down the
total weight required to break the
thread. This weight indicates the
strength of the fibre. Repeat the
same activity with threads of wool,
polyester, silk and nylon. Tabulate
the data as shown in Table 3.2.
Arrange the threads in order of their
increasing strength.
Observation Table 3.2
Fig. 3.4: Use of Nylon Fibres
S. No. Type of Total weight required
also used for making parachutes and thread/fibre to break the thread
ropes for rock climbing (Fig. 3.4). A
1. Cotton
nylon thread is actually stronger than
2. Wool
a steel wire.
3. Silk
Let us find out.
4. Nylon
Activity: 3.1
You may use a hook or a nail on
Take an iron stand with a clamp. the wall for hanging the fibres and
Take a cotton thread of about 60 a polythene bag at the other end.
cm length. Tie it to the clamp so
In place of weights you may use
that it hangs freely from it as shown
marbles (or pebbles) of similar
in Fig. 3.5. At the free end suspand
size.
Precaution : Note that all threads
should be of the same length
and almost of the same
thickness.
C. Polyester and Acrylic

Polyester is another synthetic fibre.
Fabric made from this fibre does not get
wrinkled easily. It remains crisp and is
easy to wash. So, it is quite suitable for
making dress material. You must have
seen people wearing nice polyester shirts
and other dresses. Terylene is a popular
polyester. It can be drawn into very fine
Fig. 3.5: An iron stand with a thread hanging fibres that can be woven like any other
from the clamp.
yarn.
34 SCIENCE
did you observe? When you burn
synthetic fibres you find that their
behaviour is different from that of the
My mother always natural fibres. You must have noticed
buys PET bottles and that synthetic fibres melt on heating.
PET jars for storing This is actually a disadvantage of
rice and sugar. I
synthetic fibres. If the clothes catch fire,
wonder what PET is !
it can be disastrous. The fabric melts
PET is a very familiar form of and sticks to the body of the person
polyester. It is used for making bottles, wearing it. We should, therefore, not
utensils, films, wires and many other wear synthetic clothes while working in
useful products. in the kitchen or in a laboratory.
Look around and make a list of
things made of polyester.
Oh! Now I understand why
Polyester (Poly+ester) is actually made my mother never wears
up of the repeating units of a polyester clothes while
chemical called an ester. Esters are working in the kitchen.
the chemicals which give fruits their
smell. Fabrics are sold by names like
polycot, polywool, terrycot etc. As the All the synthetic fibres are prepared
name suggests, these are made by by a number of processes using raw
mixing two types of fibres. Polycot is materials of petroleum origin, called
a mixture of polyester and cotton. petrochemicals.
Polywool is a mixture of polyester and
wool. 3.3 Characteristics of
Synthetic Fibres
We wear sweaters and use shawls or
blankets in the winter. Many of these Imagine that it is a rainy day. What kind
are actually not made from natural wool, of umbrella would you use and why?
though they appear to resemble wool. Synthetic fibres possess unique
These are prepared from another type characteristics which make them
of synthetic fibre called acrylic. The popular dress materials. They dry up
wool obtained from natural sources is quickly, are durable, less expensive,
quite expensive, whereas clothes made readily available and easy to maintain.
from acrylic are relatively cheap. They Perform the following activity and learn
are available in a variety of colours. for yourself.
Synthetic fibres are more durable and
Activity 3.2
affordable which makes them more
popular than natural fibres. Take two cloth pieces of the same
You have already per formed an size, roughly half a metre square
activity of burning natural and synthetic each. One of these should be from
fibres (Activity 3.6 of Class VII). What natural fibre. The other could be a

Plastic articles are available in all
synthetic fibre. You can take help
of your parents in selecting these possible shapes and sizes as you can
pieces. Soak the pieces in different see in Fig. 3.7. Have you ever
wondered how this is possible? The
mugs each containing the same
fact is that plastic is easily mouldable
amount of water. Take the pieces
i.e. can be shaped in any form. Plastic
out of the containers after five
can be recycled, reused, coloured,
minutes and spread them in the sun
melted, rolled into sheets or made into
for a few minutes. Compare the
wires. That is why it finds such a
volume of the water remaining in
variety of uses.
each container.
Do synthetic fabrics soak less/more

water than the natural fabrics? Do they
take less/more time to dry?
What does this activity tell you about
the characteristics of the synthetic fabrics?
Find out from your parents about the
durability, cost and maintenance of these
fabrics, compared with the natural fabrics.
3.4 Plastics
You must be familiar with many plastic
articles used everyday. Make a list of
such items and their uses.
Plastic is also a polymer like the
synthetic fibre. All plastics do not Fig. 3.7 : Various articles made of plastics
have the same type of arrangement of
units. In some it is linear, whereas in
others it is cross-linked. (Fig. 3.6). Polythene (Poly+ethene) is an
example of a plastic. It is used for
making commonly used polythene
bags.
(a)
Now, try to bend a piece of plastic
yourself. Can all the plastic articles be
bent easily?
You will observe that some plastic
articles can bend easily while some
break when forced to bend. When we
(b) add hot water to a plastic bottle, it gets
Fig. 3.6 : (a) Linear (b) Cross-linked deformed. Such plastic which gets
arrangements deformed easily on heating and can be
36 SCIENCE
bent easily are known as 3.4 Plastics as Materials of
thermoplastics. Polythene and PVC Choice
are some of the examples of
thermoplastics. These are used for Today if we think of storing a food item,
manufacturing toys, combs and water, milk, pickles, dry food, etc.,
various types of containers. plastic containers seem most
On the other hand, there are some convenient. This is because of their light
plastics which when moulded once, can weight, lower price, good strength and
not be softened by heating. These are easy handling. Being lighter as
called thermosetting plastics. Two compared to metals, plastics are used
examples are bakelite and melamine. in cars, aircrafts and spacecrafts, too.
Bakelite is a poor conductor of heat and The list is endless if we start counting
electricity. It is used for making articles like slippers, furniture and
electrical switches, handles of various decoration pieces, etc.
utensils, etc. Melamine is a versatile Now, let us discuss the characteristic
material. It resists fire and can tolerate
properties of plastics.
heat better than other plastics. It is used
for making floor tiles, kitchenware and A. Plastic is non-reactive
fabrics which resist fire. Fig. 3.8 shows
the various uses of thermoplastics and You know that metals like iron get
thermosetting plastics. rusted when left exposed to moisture
and air. But plastics do not react with
water and air. They are not corroded
easily. That is why they are used to store
various kinds of material, including
many chemicals.
B. Plastic is light, strong and durable

Talk to your parents or grandparents
about the types of buckets that were
used in the past. What is the material
of the buckets or mugs you are using
Articles made of thermosetting plastics
today? What are the advantages of using
a plastic container? Since plastic is very
light, strong, durable and can be
moulded into different shapes and sizes,
it is used for various purposes. Plastics
are generally cheaper than metals. They
are widely used in industry and for
household articles. Make a list of
Articles made of thermoplastics different kind of plastic containers that
Fig : 3.8: Some articles made of plastic you use in daily life.
C. Plastics are poor conductors
Fire-proof plastics: Although
You have learnt above that plastics are poor synthetic fibre catches fire easily,
conductors of heat and electricity. That is it is interesting to know that the
why electrical wires have plastic covering, uniforms of firemen have coating
and handles of screw drivers are made of of melamine plastic to make them
plastic. As mentioned above, handles of flame resistant.
frying pans are also made of plastic.
3.7 Plastics and the
Did You Know? Environment
Plastics find extensive use in the
When we go to the market, we get usually
health-care industry. Some
examples of their use are the
things wrapped in plastic or packed in
packaging of tablets, threads used polythene bags. That is one reason why
for stitching wounds, syringes, plastic waste keeps getting accumulated
doctors’ gloves and a number of in our homes. Ultimately, plastic finds
medical instruments. its way in the garbage. Disposal of plastic
Special plastic cookware is used is a major problem. Why?
in microwave ovens for cooking
food. In microwave ovens, the heat A material which gets decomposed
cooks the food but does not affect through natural processes, such as
the plastic vessel. action by bacteria, is called
Teflon is a special plastic on which biodegradable. A material which is not
oil and water do not stick. It is easily decomposed by natural processes
used for nonstick coating on is termed as non-biodegradable.
cookwares.
Look at the Table 3.3.
Table 3.3
Type of waste Approximate time Nature of material

taken to degenerate
Peels of vegetable and fruits, 1 to 2 weeks. Biodegradable
leftover foodstuff, etc.
Paper 10–30 days Biodegradable
Cotton cloth 2 to 5 months Biodegradable
Wood 10 to15 years Biodegradable
Woollen clothes About a year Biodegradable
Tin, aluminium, and other 100 to 500 years Non-biodegradable
metal cans
Plastic bags Several years Non-biodegradable
Source: http://edugreen.teri.res.in/explore/solwaste/types.htm
38 SCIENCE
Since plastic takes several years to Have you ever seen a garbage dump
decompose, it is not environment where animals, especially cows, are
friendly. It causes environmental eating garbage? In the process of
pollution. Besides, the burning process eating the food waste they swallow
in the synthetic material is quite slow materials like polythene bags and
and it does not get completely burnt wrappers of food. Can you imagine the
easily. In the process it releases lots of consequences? The plastic material
poisonous fumes into the atmosphere chokes the respiratory system of these
causing air pollution. How can this animals, or forms a lining in their
problem be solved? stomachs and can be the cause of their
death.
Avoid the use of plastics as far as
possible. Make use of bags made of The polybags carelessly thrown here
cotton or jute when you go for shopping. and there are responsible for clogging
the drains, too. Sometimes we are very
The biodegradable and non-
careless and throw the wrappers of
biodegradable wastes should be
chips, biscuits and other eatables on
collected separately and disposed off the road or in parks or picnic places.
separately. Practise this in your homes. Should we not think twice before doing
Can you suggest some other ways in so ? As a responsible citizen what
which you can contribute towards measures do you suggest to keep public
reducing the use of plastic materials? places clean and free of plastic?
It is better to recycle the plastic waste.
Most of the thermoplastics can be recycled. Fibre-wise
Make a list of items that can be recycled.
However, during recycling certain Do not throw plastic bags in the
colouring agents are added. This limits its water bodies or on the road.
usage especially for storage of food. Take a cotton carry-bag or a jute
bag while going for shopping.
As a responsible citizen remember
Try to minimise the use of plastic
the 4 R principle. Reduce, Reuse,
materials e.g., use a steel lunch
Recycle and Recover. Develop habits
box instead of a plastic one.
which are environment friendly.

ACRYLIC Synthetic fibres and plastics, like natural
fibres, are made of very large units called
ARTIFICIAL SILK
polymers. Polymers are made up of many
NYLON smaller units.
While natural fibres are obtained from plants
PLASTIC
and animals, synthetic fibres are obtained by
POLYESTER chemical processing of petrochemicals. Like
natural fibres, these fibres can also be woven
POLYMER into fabrics.
POLYTHENE Synthetic fibres find uses ranging from many
household articles like ropes, buckets,
RAYON furniture, containers, etc. to highly specialized
uses in aircrafts, ships, spacecrafts,
SYNTHETIC FIBRES
healthcare, etc.
TERYLENE Depending upon the types of chemicals used
for manufacturing synthetic fibres, they are
THERMOPLASTICS
named as Rayon, Nylon, Polyester and Acrylic.
THERMOSETTING- The different types of fibres differ from one
PLASTICS another in their strength, water absorbing
capacity, nature of burning, cost, durability,
etc.
Today, life without plastics cannot be imagined.
Be it home, or outside, plastic is every where.
The waste created by plastics is not
environment friendly. On burning plastics
release poisonous gases. On dumping in the
ground they may take years to degenerate.
This is because of their non-biodegradable
nature.
We need to use synthetic fibres and plastics
in such a manner that we can enjoy their good
qualities and at the same time minimise the
environmental hazards for the living
communities.
40 SCIENCE
Exercises
1. Explain why some fibres are called synthetic.
2. Mark ( ) the correct answer:
Rayon is different from synthetic fibres because
(a) it has a silk like appearance
(b) it is obtained from wood pulp
(c) its fibres can also be woven like those of natural fibres
3. Fill in the blanks with appropriate words:
(a) Synthetic fibres are also called ______ or _______ fibres.
(b) Synthetic fibres are synthesised from raw material called ________.
(c) Like synthetic fibres, plastic is also a __________ .
4. Give examples which indicate that nylon fibres are very strong.
5. Explain why plastic containers are favoured for storing food.
6. Explain the difference between the thermoplastic and thermosetting

plastics.
7. Explain why the following are made of thermosetting plastics.
(a) Saucepan handles
(b) Electric plugs/switches/plug boards
8. Categorise the materials of the following products into ‘can be recycled’

and ‘cannot be recycled’:
Telephone instruments, plastic toys, cooker handles, carry bags, ball point
pens, plastic bowls, plastic covering on electrical wires, plastic chairs,
electrical switches.
9. Rana wants to buy shirts for summer. Should he buy cotton shirts or
shirts made from synthetic material? Advise Rana, giving your reason.
10. Give examples to show that plastics are noncorrosive in nature.
11. Should the handle and bristles of a tooth brush be made of the same
material? Explain your answer.
12. ‘Avoid plastics as far as possible’. Comment on this advice.

13. Match the terms of column I correctly with the phrases given in
EXERCISES
column II.
Column I Column II
(i) Polyester (a) Prepared by using wood pulp
(ii) Teflon (b) Used for making parachutes and stockings
(iii) Rayon (c) Used to make non-stick cookwares
(iv) Nylon (d) Fabrics do not wrinkle easily
14. ‘Manufacturing synthetic fibres is actually helping conservation of forests’.
Comment.
15. Describe an activity to show that thermoplastic is a poor conductor of
electricity.
1. Have you heard of the campaign : ‘‘Say No To Plastics”. Coin a few

more slogans of this kind. There are certain governmental and non-
governmental organisations who educate general public on how to
make a wise use of plastics and develop environment friendly habits.
Find out organisations in your area which are carrying out
awareness programmes. If there is none, form one.
2. Organise a debate in the school. The children may be given an
option to role play as manufacturers of synthetic fabrics or those of
fabrics from natural sources. They can then debate on the topic
‘My Fabric is Superior’.
3. Visit five families in your neighbourhood and enquire about the
kind of clothes they use, the reason for their choice and advantages
of using them in terms of cost, durability and maintenance. Make a
short report and submit it to your teacher.
4. Devise an activity to show that organic waste is biodegradable while
plastic is not.
5. If you wish to know more about fibres and plastics and the products
made from them, you may explore the following web sites:
http://www.pslc.ws/macrog/index.htm
http://www.edugreen.teri.res.in/exploresolwaste/types/htm
http://www.nationalgeographic.com/resources/ngo/education/
plastics
http://www.packagingtoday.com/
http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools.gcsebitesize/design/textiles/fibresrev/
html/
42 SCIENCE
Did You Know
Nylon appears like silk. It is strong and flexible. These endearing qualities of
nylon created a public sensation, or nylon mania, when it was introduced in
1939. Women’s stockings made from this new fibre were in great demand. But,
unfortunately, most of the nylon production had to be diverted to making
parachutes during the Second World War (1939-1945). After the war, when
production of stockings resumed, supply did not match the demand. There was
a huge black market for this product. Women had to wait for hours in queues to
get a pair. Often there were nylon riots.

MATERIALS : METALS AND NON-METALS
Y
ou are familiar with a number of similar change if we try to beat a
materials like iron, aluminium, wood log ?
copper, etc. Some materials have Let us find out.
been given in Table 4.1.
Activity 4.1
Table 4.1 : Appearance and
Hardness of materials Take a small iron nail, a coal piece,
a piece of thick aluminium wire and
Object Appearance Hardness a pencil lead. Beat the iron nail with
/Material (Shiny/Dull) (Very hard/
a hammer (Fig. 4.1). (But take care
Not very
hard) that you don’t hurt yourself in the
process). Try to hit hard. Hit hard
Iron
Coal
Sulphur
Aluminium
Copper
----- Fig. 4.1 : Beating an iron nail with hammer
also the aluminium wire. Then
Can you name the materials which repeat the same kind of treatment
are metals? The rest of the materials in on the coal piece and pencil
Table 4.1 are non-metals. Metals can be lead. Record your observations in
distinguished from non-metals on the Table 4.2.
basis of their physical and chemical
properties. Recall that lustre and Table 4.2 Malleability of Materials
hardness are physical properties. Object/ Change in Shape
Material (Flattens/Breaks
4.1 Physical Properties of into pieces)
Metals and Non-metals Iron nail
Have you ever seen a blacksmith beating Coal piece
an iron piece or an article made up of Aluminium wire
iron, like a spade, a shovel, an axe? Do
you find a change in the shape of these Pencil lead
articles on beating? Would you expect a
You saw that the shape of the iron nail
and the aluminium wire changed on the activity with various objects in
beating. If they were beaten harder these Class VI. Now, repeat the activity
could be changed into sheets. You might with the materials mentioned in
be familiar with silver foil used for Table 4.3. Observe and group these
decorating sweets. You must also be materials into good conductors and
familiar with the aluminium foil used for poor conductors.
wrapping food. The property of metals by Table 4.3 : Electrical
which they can be beaten into thin sheets conductivity of materials
is called malleability. This is a
characteristic property of metals. As you S.No. Materials Good Conductor /
Poor
must have noticed, materials like coal and
Conductor
pencil lead do not show this property. Can
we call these as metals? 1. Iron rod/nail
Can you hold a hot metallic pan which 2. Sulphur
is without a plastic or a wooden handle
and not get hurt? Perhaps not! Why? Try 3. Coal piece
to list some other experiences in which a 4. Copper wire
wooden or plastic handle protects you
from being hurt while handling hot You observe that iron rod, nail and
things. On the basis of these experiences copper wire are good conductors while
what can you say about the conduction rolled sulphur piece and coal piece are
of heat by wood and plastic? poor conductors.
You must have seen an electrician
using his screw driver. What kind of
handle does it have? Why?
Let us find out. Oh! The meaning of recalling
our experiences and then of
Activity 4.2 this activity was to show that
metals are good conductors of
Recall how to make an electric heat and electricity. We learnt
circuit to test whether electricity can this in Class VI.
pass through an object or not
(Fig. 4.2). You might have performed Where do you find the use of
aluminium and copper wires? Have you
seen wires of coal? Definitely not!
The property of metal by which it can
be drawn into wires is called ductility.
Have you ever noticed the difference
in sound on dropping an iron sheet/
plate, a metal coin, and a piece of coal
on the floor? If not, you can try it now.
Do you note any difference in the sound
Fig. 4.2 : Electric tester produced?
Have you seen wooden bells in which rust is formed. You had also
temples? Can you give reason? performed in Class VII an activity of
The things made of metals produce burning a magnesium ribbon in air. You
ringing sound when struck hard. had learnt that in both the processes
Suppose you have two boxes similar in oxide formation takes place. Complete
appearance, one made of wood and the the following reactions of iron and
other of metal. Can you tell which box magnesium with oxygen.
is made of metal by striking both the Iron (Fe) + Oxygen (O2) + Water (H2O) → ?
boxes? Magnesium (Mg) + Oxygen (O2) → ?
Since metals produce ringing
sounds, they are said to be sonorous. Activity 4.3
The materials other than metals are not
sonorous. Let us check the nature of rust
After performing the above activities, formed as a result of the reaction
we can say that some materials are hard, between iron, oxygen and water.
lustrous, malleable, ductile, sonorous Collect a spoonful of rust and
and good conductors of heat and dissolve it in a very little amount of
electricity. The materials which water. You will find that the rust
generally posses these properties are remains suspended in water. Shake
called metals. The examples of metals the suspension well. Test the
are iron, copper, aluminium, calcium, solution with red and blue litmus
magnesium, etc. In contrast, materials papers (Fig. 4.3). What do you
like coal and sulphur are soft and dull observe? Is the solution acidic or
in appearance. They break down into basic?
powdery mass on tapping with hammer.
They are not sonorous and are poor
conductors of heat and electricity. These Rust
materials are called non-metals. The suspension
examples of non-metals are sulphur,
carbon, oxygen, phosphorus, etc.
Red litmus
paper
Metals like sodium and potassium are
soft and can be cut with a knife.
Mercury is the only metal which is
found in liquid state at room
temperature. These are exceptions.
4.2 Chemical Properties of

Metals and Non-metals
Rust
A. Reaction with Oxygen
You are familiar with the phenomenon
Fig. 4.3 : Testing the nature of rust
of rusting of iron. Recall the reaction by
46 SCIENCE
As soon as sulphur starts burning,
Does copper also get
rusted? I have seen
introduce the spoon into a gas jar/
a greenish deposit glass tumbler [Fig. 4.4 (a)]. Cover the
on the surface of tumbler with a lid to ensure that
copper vessels. the gas produced does not escape.
Remove the spoon after some time.
Add a small quantity of water into
When a copper vessel is exposed to the tumbler and quickly replace the
moist air for long, it acquires a dull lid. Shake the tumbler well. Check
green coating. The green material is
the solution with red and blue
a mixture of copper hydroxide
(Cu(OH) 2 ) and copper carbonate
litmus papers [Fig. 4.4 (b)].
(CuCO3). The following is the reaction
2Cu+H2O+CO2+O2→Cu (OH)2 + CuCO3
moist air
Improvised
deflagrating
Now recall the activity of burning spoon
magnesium ribbon. The ash obtained
on burning magnesium ribbon is
dissolved in water and tested for its
acidic / basic nature.
Is the solution acidic or basic? How
do you ascertain this?
You must have observed that the red
litmus turns blue. So, oxide of magnesium Fig. 4.4 (a) : Burning of sulphur powder
is also basic in nature. In general, metallic
oxides are basic in nature.
Let us now observe the reaction of
non-metals with oxygen.
Activity 4.4
(To be demonstrated by the teacher
in the class)
Take a small amount of powdered
sulphur in a deflagrating spoon and
heat it. If deflagrating spoon is not
available, you may take a metallic cap
of any bottle and wrap a metallic wire
around it and give it the shape
shown in Fig. 4.4 (a). Fig. 4.4 (b) : Testing of solution with litmus
papers

Table 4.4 : Metals and Non-metals in Acids and Bases
S.No. Name of the base Metal Name of the acid Non-metal
1. Calcium hydroxide Calcium Sulphuric acid Sulphur
2.
3.
4.
5.
The name of the product formed in

the reaction of sulphur and oxygen is
Activity 4.5
sulphur dioxide gas. When sulphur To be demonstrated by the teacher.
dioxide is dissolved in water sulphurous During demonstration special care
acid is formed. The reaction can be given should be taken that the size of the
as follows: sodium metal piece is roughly the
size of a wheat grain. It should be
Sulphur dioxide (SO2) + Water (H2O) → held with a pair of tongs.)
Sulphurous acid (H2SO3) Take a 250 mL beaker/glass tumbler.
The sulphurous acid turns blue Fill half of it with water. Now
litmus paper red. Generally, oxides of carefully cut a small piece of sodium
metal. Dry it using filter paper and
non-metals are acidic in nature.
wrap it in a small piece of cotton.
Recall the name of some of the Put the sodium piece wrapped in
laboratory acids and bases you have read cotton into the beaker. Observe
in Class VII. Note down their names in carefully. During observation keep
Table 4.4. Identify the metal or non- away from the beaker. When reaction
metal present in them which forms stops touch the beaker. What do you
oxides with oxygen. feel? Has the beaker become hot?
Test the solution with red and blue
B. Reaction with Water litmus papers. Is the solution acidic
Let us see how metals and non-metals or basic?
react with water.
Sodium metal is very reactive. It

reacts vigorously with oxygen and
water. A lot of heat is generated in
the reaction. It is, therefore, stored
in kerosene. Fig. 4.5 : Reaction of sodium with water
48 SCIENCE
You observed that sodium reacts test tubes and label them as A, B,
vigorously with water. Some other metals C, D, E, and F. With the help of a
do not do so. For example, iron reacts dropper add 5 mL of dilute
with water slowly. hydrochloric acid to each test tube
Generally, non-metals do not react one by one. Observe the reactions
with water though they may be very carefully. If no reaction occurs in a
reactive in air. Such non-metals are cold solution, warm the test tube
stored in water. For example, gently. Bring a burning matchstick
phosphorus is a very reactive non-metal. near the mouth of each test tube.
It catches fire if exposed to air. To prevent Repeat the same activity using
the contact of phosphorus with dilute sulphuric acid instead of the
atmospheric oxygen, it is stored in water. dilute hydrocholoric acid. Record
your observations in Table 4.5.
C. Reactions with Acids
Let us see how metals and non-metals Is there a difference in the way metals
behave with acids. and non-metals react with acids? What
could the ‘pop’ sound in some cases be
Activity 4.6 due to when a burning match stick is
brought near the mouth of the test
Warning : Keep the mouth of the
tubes?
test tube away from your face. Use
You must have found that non-
test tube holder to hold the test
metals generally do not react with acids
tube.
but metals react with acids and produce
Take samples of metals and non-
hydrogen gas that burns with a ‘pop’
metals listed in Table 4.5 in separate
sound. You must have noticed that
Table 4.5 : Reaction of metals and non-metals with acids
Test Metal/ Reaction with dilute Reaction with dilute

tube Non-Metal Hydrochloric acid Sulphuric acid
Label room warm room warm
temperature temperature
A Magnesium
(ribbon)
B Aluminium (foil)
C Iron (filings)
D Copper (peeled
flexible wire)
E Charcoal (powder)
F Sulphur (powder)

copper does not react with dilute What does the ‘pop’ sound indicate?
hydrochloric acid even on heating but As before, the ‘pop’ sound indicates the
it reacts with sulphuric acid. presence of hydrogen gas.
Metals react with sodium hydroxide
D. Reactions with Bases to produce hydrogen gas.
Reactions of non-metals with bases
Activity 4.7 are complex.
To be demonstrated by the teacher. E. Displacement Reactions

During the preparation of sodium Recall the activity of the reaction between
hydroxide solution, care should be copper sulphate and iron that you
taken that pellets of sodium performed in Class VII. Let us observe
hydroxide are handled with a some more reactions of that kind.
plastic spatula.
Prepare a fresh solution of sodium Activity 4.8
hydroxide in a test tube by Take five 100 mL beakers and label
dissolving 3-4 pellets of it in 5 mL them A, B, C, D and E. Take about
of water. Drop a piece of aluminium 50 mL of water in each beaker.
foil into it. Bring a burning match Dissolve in each beaker a
stick near the mouth of the test teaspoonful of each substance as
tube. Observe carefully. indicated in Fig. 4.6 (a).
A B C D E Beaker A : Copper sulphate (CuSO4) + Zinc granule (Zn),
(a) Beaker B : Copper sulphate (CuSO4) + Iron nail (Fe)
ZnSO4 FeSO4 Beaker C : Zinc sulphate (ZnSO4) + Copper turnings (Cu),
Beaker D : Iron sulphate (FeSO4) + Copper turnings (Cu)
Beaker E : Zinc sulphate (ZnSO4) + Iron nail (Fe)

A B C D E
Cu Cu
No Change
(b)
Fig. 4.6 (a) and (b) : Displacement reactions

50 SCIENCE
replace copper in beaker ‘A’ why cannot
Keep the beakers undisturbed for copper replace zinc in beaker ‘C’?
some time. Remember that science is not arbitrary.
Record your observations in your It follows definite rules based on facts.
note book. And the rule here is that zinc is more
reactive than copper and iron. A more
What changes do you observe in the
reactive metal can replace a less reactive
various beakers? You have read that one
metal, but a less reactive one cannot
metal displaces another metal from its
replace a more reactive metal. Now you
compound in aqueous solution. In can understand why there are no
beaker ‘A’ zinc (Zn) replaces copper (Cu) displacement reactions in beakers D
from copper sulphate (CuSO4). That is and E also. Can you guess the
why the blue colour of copper sulphate sequence of metals from more reactive
disappears and a powdery red mass of to less reactive among zinc, iron and
copper is deposited at the bottom of the copper?
beaker. The reaction can be represented
as follows: 4.3 Uses of Metals and Non-
Copper Sulphate (CuSO4) + Zinc (Zn) metals
(Blue) You should be able to guess why metals
→ Zinc Sulphate (ZnSO4) + Copper (Cu) are used in making machinery,
(Colourless) (Red) automobiles, aeroplanes, trains,
satellites, industrial gadgets, cooking
You can write down the reaction
utensils, water boilers, etc. You are also
taking place in beaker ‘B’ in a similar
familiar with the uses of some non-
manner.
metals. Here are some interesting ones.
We are sure that you will guess them
right:
Non-metal essential for our life which
I have understood the reactions all living beings inhale during
taking place in beakers ‘A’ and
breathing,
‘B’. But I am still confused why
Non-metals used in fertilisers to
there is no change in beakers
‘C’, ‘D’ and ‘E’? enhance the growth of plants,
Non-metal used in water purification
There could have been displacement process,
of zinc by copper in beaker ‘C’ and by Non-metal used in the purple
iron in beaker ‘E’. Similarly iron could coloured solution which is applied
be displaced by copper in beaker ‘D’. on wounds as an antiseptic,
Since we do not see any change in Non-metals used in crackers.
beaker C, we can infer that copper is You may add some more uses of
not able to replace zinc from zinc metals and non-metals from your
sulphate. But why? When zinc can experiences.

I heard that magnesium is Doctor reported iron
found in plants. In what deficiency in my body.
form is it found in them? Where is iron in my body?
In Class VII, you have learnt that in a chemical reaction, new substances are formed.
These substances are different from those which underwent the reaction. Now, if a
substance cannot be broken down further by chemical reactions, by cooling, heating,
or by electrolysis, it is called ‘element’. Sulphur is an element. So is iron. Carbon, too,
is an element. The smallest unit of an element is atom. A sample of an element
contains only one kind of atoms. The atom of an element remains unaffected by physical
changes in the element. For example, an atom of liquid sulphur would be exactly the
same as the atom of solid or vapour sulphur.
Although we have an infinite variety of substances in the universe, the number of
elements forming these substances is limited. There are no more than 92 naturally
occurring elements. An important classification of elements is in terms of metals and
non-metals. Most of the elements are metals. Less than 20 are non-metals. A few are
metalloids which possess characters of both metals and non-metals.
52 SCIENCE
ATOM Metals are lustrous whereas non-metals have
no lustre.
CONDUCTOR
Generally, metals are malleable and ductile.
DISPLACEMENT Non-metals do not have these properties.
REACTION Generally, metals are good conductors of heat
and electricity but non-metals are poor
DUCTILITY
conductors.
ELEMENTS On burning, metals react with oxygen to
produce metal oxides which are basic in
HARDNESS
nature. Non-metals react with oxygen to
MALLEABILITY produce non- metallic oxides which are acidic
in nature.
METALS
Some metals react with water to produce metal
METALLOIDS hydroxides and hydrogen gas. Generally, non-
metals do not react with water.
NON-METALS
Metals react with acids and produce metal
SONOROUS salts and hydrogen gas. Generally, non-metals
do not react with acids.
Some metals react with bases to produce
hydrogen gas.
More reactive metals displace less reactive
metals from their compounds in aqueous
solutions.
Metals and non-metals are used widely in
every day life.
Exercises
1. Which of the following can be beaten into thin sheets?
(a) Zinc (b) Phosphorus (c) Sulphur (d) Oxygen

2. Which of the following statements is correct?
(a) All metals are ductile.
(b) All non-metals are ductile.

(c) Generally, metals are ductile.
(d) Some non-metals are ductile.
3. Fill in the blanks :
EXERCISES (a) Phosphorus is very non-metal.

(b) Metals are conductors of heat and .
(c) Iron is reactive than copper.
(d) Metals react with acids to produce gas.
4. Mark ‘T’ if the statement is true and ‘F’ if it is false.

(a) Generally, non-metals react with acids. ( )
(b) Sodium is a very reactive metal. ( )
(c) Copper displaces zinc from zinc sulphate solution. ( )
(d) Coal can be drawn into wires. ( )
5. Some properties are listed in the following Table. Distinguish between
metals and non-metals on the basis of these properties.
Properties Metals Non-metals

1. Appearance
2. Hardness
3. Malleability
4. Ductility
5. Heat Conduction
6. Conduction of Electricity
6. Give reasons for the following :

(a) Aluminium foils are used to wrap food items.
(b) Immersion rods for heating liquids are made up of metallic substances.
(c) Copper cannot displace zinc from its salt solution.
(d) Sodium and potassium are stored in kerosene.
7. Can you store lemon pickle in an aluminium utensil? Explain.

8. In the following Table some substances are given in Column I. In Column II
some uses are given. Match the items in column I with those in Column II.
Column I Column II
(i) Gold (a) Thermometers
(ii) Iron (b) Electric wire
(iii) Aluminium (c) Wrapping food
(iv) Carbon (d) Jewellery
(v) Copper (e) Machinary
(vi) Mercury (f) Fuel
54 SCIENCE
9. What happens when
EXERCISES (a) Dilute sulphuric acid is poured on a copper plate?
(b) Iron nails are placed in copper sulphate solution?
Write word equations of the reactions involved.
10. Saloni took a piece of burning charcoal and collected the gas evolved in a
test tube.
(a) How will she find the nature of the gas ?
(b) Write down word equations of all the reactions taking place in this
process.
11. One day Reeta went to a jeweller’s shop with her mother. Her mother gave
old gold jewellery to the goldsmith to polish. Next day when they brought
the jewellery back, they found that there was a slight loss in its weight.
Can you suggest a reason for the loss in weight?

1. Prepare Index Cards for any four metals and four non-metals. The
card should have information like name of metal/non-metal; its
physical properties, chemical properties and its uses.
2. Visit a blacksmith and observe how metals are moulded.
3. Suggest an experiment to compare the conductivity of electricity by

iron, copper, aluminium and zinc. Perform the experiment and
prepare a short report on the results.
4. Find out the locations of the deposits of iron, aluminium and zinc
in India. Mark these in an outline map of India. In which form are
the deposits found? Discuss in the class.
5. Discuss with your parents/neighbours/goldsmiths why gold is

preferred for making jewellery.
6. Visit the following websites and enjoy the quiz on metals and non-
metals:
chemistry.about.com/library/weekly/bl050303a.htm
chemistry.about.com/od/testsquizzes/Chemistry_Tests_
Quizzes.htm
www.syvum.com/cgi/online/mult.cgi/squizzes/science/
metals.tdf?0
www.gcsescience.com/q/qusemet.html
www.corrosionsource.com/handbook/periodic/metals.htm

COAL AND PETROLEUM
W
e use various materials for our Can air, water and soil be exhausted
basic needs. Some of them are by human activities? You have already
found in nature and some studied about water in Class VII. Is water
have been made by human efforts. a limitless resource?
In the light of the availability of
Activity 5.1 various resources in nature, natural
resources can be broadly classified
Make a list of various materials used
into two kinds:
by us in daily life and classify them
as natural and man-made. Inexhaustible Natural Resources
Natural Man-made These resources are present in unlimited

quantity in nature and are not likely to
be exhausted by human activities.
Examples are: sunlight, air.
Exhaustible Natural Resources

The amount of these resources in
nature is limited. They can be
exhausted by human activities.
Examples of these resources are forests,
wildlife, minerals, coal, petroleum,
natural gas etc.
Activity 5.2
Does this list include air, water, soil It is a group activity

and minerals? Since all these are Take some containers. Fill them
obtained from nature, they are called with popcorn/peanuts/roasted
natural resources. gram/toffees. Divide students into
groups of seven each. Further divide
each group into three subgroups
containing 1, 2 and 4 students.
Can we use all our
Label them as first, second and
natural resources
forever ?
third generation respectively. These
sub-groups represent the 5.1 Coal
consumers. As population is You may have seen coal, or heard about
growing, second and third it (Fig. 5.1). It is as hard as stone and is
generations have larger number of black in colour.
consumers.
Put one full container for each
group on a table. Ask consumers of
the first generation from each group
to consume eatables from the
container of their group. Now, ask
the second generation consumers
from each group to do the same. Ask
students to observe carefully the Fig. 5.1: Coal
availability of eatables in each
Coal is one of the fuels used to cook
container. If some thing is left in the
food. Earlier, it was used in railway
containers, ask third generation
engines to produce steam to run the
from each group to consume it. Now,
engine. It is also used in thermal power
finally observe whether all the
plants to produce electricity. Coal is also
consumers of the third generation
used as a fuel in various industries.
got the eatables or not. Also observe
if any thing is still left in any of the Story of Coal
containers.
Assume that the eatables in the Where do we get

coal from and how
container represent the total
is it formed?
availability of an exhausible natural
resource like coal, petroleum or About 300 million years ago the
natural gas. Each group may have earth had dense forests in low lying
different consumption pattern. Are wetland areas. Due to natural processes,
the earlier generations of any group like flooding, these forests got buried
too greedy? It may be that the earlier under the soil. As more soil deposited
generations in some groups were over them, they were compressed. The
concerned about the coming temperature also rose as they sank
generation(s) and left something for deeper and deeper. Under high pressure
them. and high temperature, dead plants got
In this chapter we will learn about slowly converted to coal. As coal
some exhaustible natural resources contains mainly carbon, the slow
like coal, petroleum and natural gas. process of conversion of dead vegetation
These were formed from the dead into coal is called carbonisation. Since
remains of living organisms (fossils). it was formed from the remains of
So, these are all known as fossil vegetation, coal is also called a fossil fuel.
fuels. A coal mine is shown in Fig. 5.2.
Fig. 5.2: A coal mine
When heated in air, coal about 200 substances. Products

burns and produces mainly carbon obtained from coal tar are used as
dioxide gas. starting materials for manufacturing
Coal is processed in industry to get various substances used in everyday life
some useful products such as coke, coal and in industry, like synthetic dyes,
tar and coal gas. drugs, explosives, perfumes, plastics,
paints, photographic materials, roofing
A. Coke
materials, etc. Interestingly,
It is a tough, porous and black naphthalene balls used to repel moths
substance. It is almost pure form of and other insects are also obtained from
carbon. Coke is used in the manufacture coal tar.
of steel and in the extraction of many
metals. These days, bitumen, a petroleum
product, is used in place of coal-tar
B. Coal tar for metalling the roads.
It is a black, thick liquid (Fig. 5.3) with C. Coal gas

unpleasant smell. It is a mixture of
Coal gas is obtained during the
processing of coal to get coke. It is used
Coal gas was used for street lighting

for the first time in London in 1810
and in New York around 1820. Now a
days, it is used as a source of heat
Fig. 5.3: Coal-tar rather than light.
58 SCIENCE
as a fuel in many industries situated Look at Fig. 5.4. It shows the deposits
near the coal processing plants. of petroleum and natural gas. You see
that the layer containing petroleum oil
5.2 Petroleum and gas is above that of water. Why is it
so? Recall that oil and gas are lighter
You know that petrol is used as a fuel in
than water and do not mix with it.
light automobiles such as motor cycles/
scooters and cars. Heavy motor vehicles The world’s first oil well was drilled
like trucks and tractors run on diesel. in Pennsylvania, USA, in 1859. Eight
Petrol and diesel are obtained from a years later, in 1867, oil was stuck at
natural resource called petroleum. Makum in Assam. In India, oil is
Do you know how petroleum is found in Assam, Gujarat, Mumbai
formed? High and in the river basins of
Petroleum was formed from Godavari and Krishna.
organisms living in the sea. As these
organisms died, their bodies settled at Refining of Petroleum
the bottom of the sea and got covered Petroleum is a dark oily liquid. It has
with layers of sand and clay. Over an unpleasant odour. It is a mixture of
millions of years, absence of air, high various constituents such as petroleum
temperature and high pressure gas, petrol, diesel, lubricating oil,
transformed the dead organisms into paraffin wax, etc. The process of
petroleum and natural gas. separating the various constituents/
Wells
Impervious Gas
rock
Oil
Reservoir rock
Water
Fig. 5.4 : Petroleum and natural gas deposits

Many useful substances are obtained
from petroleum and natural gas.
These are termed as ‘Petrochemicals’.
These are used in the manufacture
of detergents, fibres (polyester, nylon,
acrylic etc.), polythene and other
man-made plastics. Hydrogen gas
obtained from natural gas, is used in
the production of fertilisers (urea).
Due to its great commercial
importance, petroleum is also called
‘black gold’.
5.3 Natural Gas

Natural gas is a very important fossil
fuel because it is easy to transport
through pipes. Natural gas is stored
Fig. 5.5: A petroleum refinery under high pressure as compressed
natural gas (CNG). CNG is used for
fractions of petroleum is known as power generation. It is now being used
refining. It is carried out in a petroleum as a fuel for transport vehicles because
refinery (Fig. 5.5). it is less polluting. It is a cleaner fuel.
Various constituents of petroleum The great advantage of CNG is that
and their uses are given in Table 5.1. it can be used directly for burning in
Table 5.1 Various constituents of petroleum and their uses

S.No. Constituents of petroleum Uses
1. Petroleum Gas in Liquid form Fuel for home and industry

(LPG)
2. Petrol Motor fuel, aviation fuel, solvent for

dry cleaning
3. Kerosene Fuel for stoves, lamps and for jet aircrafts
4. Diesel Fuel for heavy motor vehicles, electric

generators
5. Lubricating oil Lubrication
6. Paraffin wax Ointments, candles, vaseline etc.
7. Bitumen Paints, road surfacing
60 SCIENCE
homes and factories where it can be 5.4 Some Natural Resources
supplied through pipes. Such a network are Limited
of pipelines exists in Vadodara (Gujarat),
some parts of Delhi and other places. You have studied in the beginning of
Natural gas is also used as a starting the chapter that some natural resources
material for the manufacture of a are exhaustible like fossil fuels, forests,
number of chemicals and fertilisers. minerals etc.
India has vast reserves of natural gas. You know that coal and petroleum
In our country, natural gas has been are fossil fuels. It required the dead
organisms millions of years to get
found in T ripura, Rajasthan,
converted into these fuels. On the other
Maharashtra and in the Krishna
hand, the known reserves of these will
Godavari delta.
last atmost a few hundred years.
Moreover, burning of these fuels is a
major cause of air pollution. Their use
is also linked to global warming. It is
Can coal, petroleum therefore necessary that we use these
and natural gas be
fuels only when absolutely necessary.
prepared in the
This will result in better environment,
laboratory from dead
smaller risk of global warming and their
organisms?
availability for a longer period of time.
In India, the Petroleum Conservation
Research Association (PCRA) advises
people how to save petrol/diesel while
driving. Their tips are:
No. Their Drive at a constant and moderate speed
formation is a very as far as possible,
slow process and
Switch off the engine at traffic lights or
conditions for
at a place where you have to wait,
their formation
cannot be created
Ensure correct tyre pressure, and
in the laboratory. Ensure regular maintenance of the
vehicle.

COAL Coal, petroleum and natural gas are fossil
COAL GAS fuels.
Fossil fuels were formed from the dead remains
COAL TAR of living organisms millions of years ago.
COKE Fossil fuels are exhaustible resources.
Coke, coal tar and coal gas are the products
FOSSIL FUEL of coal.
NATURAL GAS Petroleum gas, petrol, diesel, kerosene,
paraffin wax, lubricating oil are obtained by
PETROLEUM
refining petroleum.
PETROLEUM- Coal and petroleum resources are limited. We
REFINERY should use them judiciously.
Exercises
1. What are the advantages of using CNG and LPG as fuels?

2. Name the petroleum product used for surfacing of roads.
3. Describe how coal is formed from dead vegetation. What is this process
called?
4. Fill in the blanks :
(a) Fossil fuels are , and .

(b) Process of separation of different constituents from petroleum is
called .
(c) Least polluting fuel for vehicle is .

5. Tick True/False against the following statements :
(a) Fossil fuels can be made in the laboratory. (T/F)
(b) CNG is more polluting fuel than petrol. (T/F)

(c) Coke is almost pure form of carbon. (T/F)
(d) Coal tar is a mixture of various substances. (T/F)
(e) Kerosene is not a fossil fuel. (T/F)

6. Explain why fossil fuels are exhaustible natural resources.
62 SCIENCE
7. Describe characteristics and uses of coke.
EXERCISES 8. Explain the process of formation of petroleum.
9. The following Table shows the total power shortage in India from 1991–
1997. Show the data in the form of a graph. Plot shortage percentage for
the years on the Y-axis and the year on the X-axis.
S. No. Year Shortage (%)

1 1991 7.9
2 1992 7.8
3 1993 8.3
4 1994 7.4
5 1995 7.1
6 1996 9.2
7 1997 11.5

1. Get an outline map of India. Mark the places in the map where
coal, petroleum and natural gas are found. Show the places where
petroleum refineries are situated.
2. Choose any five families of your neighbourhood. Enquire whether
their energy consumption (coal, gas, electricity, petrol, kerosene)
has increased or decreased in the last five years. Enquire also about
the measures they adopt to conserve energy.
3. Find out the location of major thermal power plants in India. What
could be the reasons for their being located at those places?
For more information, visit:
www.energyquest.ca.gov/story/chapter08.html
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-renewable_resources
http://lsa.colorado.edu/summarystreet/texts/coal.htm
http://www.eia.doe.gov/kids/energyfacts/sources/non-
renewable/oil.html

COMBUSTION AND FLAME
W
e use different kinds of fuel for
various purposes at home, in
industry and for running
automobiles. Can you name a few fuels
used in our homes? Name a few fuels
used in trade and industry. What fuels
are used for running automobiles? Your
list will contain fuels like cowdung,
wood, coal, charcoal, petrol, diesel,
compressed natural gas (CNG), etc.
You are familiar with the burning of a
candle. What is the difference between the
burning of a candle and the burning of a
fuel like coal? May be you were able to
guess right: candle burns with a flame
whereas coal does not. Similarly, you will
find many other materials burning
Fig. 6.1 : Burning of magnesium
without a flame. Let us study the chemical
process of burning and the types of flame A chemical process in which a
produced during this process. substance reacts with oxygen to give off
heat is called combustion. The
6.1 What is Combustion? substance that undergoes combustion
Recall the activity of burning of is said to be combustible. It is also called
magnesium ribbon performed in Class a fuel. The fuel may be solid, liquid or
VII. We learnt that magnesium burns to gas. Sometimes, light is also given off
form magnesium oxide and produces during combustion, either as a flame or
heat and light (Fig. 6.1). as a glow.
We can perform a similar activity with In the reactions mentioned above
a piece of charcoal. Hold the piece with magnesium and charcoal are
a pair of tongs and bring it near the combustible substances.
flame of a candle or a Bunsen burner.
What do you observe?
We find that charcoal burns in air.
We know that coal, too, burns in air We were told that
food is a fuel for
producing carbon dioxide, heat and
our body.
light.
Activity 6.2
Caution : Be careful while handling
Rightly so. In our body burning candle.
food is broken down by
Fix a lighted candle on a table. Put
reaction with oxygen and
a glass chimney over the candle and
heat is produced. We
learnt that in Class VII. rest it on a few wooden blocks in
such a way that air can enter the
Activity 6.1
Collect some materials like straw,
matchsticks, kerosene oil, paper,
iron nails, stone pieces, glass, etc.
Under the supervision of your
teacher try to burn each of these
materials one by one. If combustion
takes place mark the material
combustible, otherwise mark it as (a) (b) (c)
Fig. 6.2: Experiment to show that air is
non-combustible (Table 6.1). essential for burning
Table 6.1 Combustible and non- chimney [Fig. 6.2(a)]. Observe what
combustible Substances
happens to the flame. Now remove
Material Combustible Non-
the blocks and let the chimney rest
combustible on the table [Fig. 6.2(b)]. Again
observe the flame. Finally, put a
Wood glass plate over the chimney [Fig.
Paper 6.2(c)]. Watch the flame again. What
happens in the three cases? Does
Iron nails
the flame flicker off? Does it flicker
Kerosene oil and give smoke? Does it burn
Stone piece
unaffected? Can you infer anything
at all about the role played by air in
Straw the process of burning?
Charcoal
We find that for combustion, air is
Matchsticks necessary. The candle burns freely in
Glass case (a) when air can enter the
chimney from below. In case (b), when
Can you name some more air does not enter the chimney from
substances which are combustible? You below, the flame flickers and produces
can add those to Table 6.1. smoke. In case (c), the flame finally
Let us investigate conditions under goes off because the air is not
which combustion takes place. available.
is covered with a blanket to extinguish
fire (Fig. 6.3). Can you guess why?
We have read that the sun
produces its own heat and
light. Is it also some kind of
combustion?
In the sun, heat and light are

produced by nuclear reactions. You
will learn about this process in higher
classes.
Fig. 6.3 : Blanket wrapped around a person
whose clothes caught fire
Activity 6.3 Now recall some of your experiences.
Place a piece of burning wood or Does a matchstick burn by itself?
charcoal on an iron plate or Tawa. How does it burn?
Cover it with a glass jar or a You must have had an experience of
tumbler, or a transparent plastic jar. burning a piece of paper. Does it burn
Observe what happens. Does when a burning matchstick is brought
charcoal stop burning after near it?
sometime? Can you think of the Can you burn a piece of wood by
reason why it stops burning? bringing a lighted matchstick near it?
Why do you have to use paper or
You might have heard that when the kerosene oil to start fire in wood or coal?
clothes of a person catch fire, the person Have you heard of forest fires?
During extreme heat

of summer, at some
places dry grasses
catch fire. From
grasses, it spreads to
trees, and very soon
the whole forest is on
fire (Fig. 6.4). It is
very difficult to
control such fires.
Fig. 6.4 : Forest fire
66 SCIENCE
Do these experiences tell you that We find that a combustible substance
different substances catch fire at cannot catch fire or burn as long as its
different temperatures? temperature is lower than its ignition
The lowest temperature at which a temperature. Have you ever seen
substance catches fire is called its cooking oil catching fire when a frying
ignition temperature. pan is kept for long on a burning stove?
Can you tell now why a matchstick Kerosene oil and wood do not catch fire
does not catch fire on its own at room on their own at room temperature. But,
temperature? Why does the matchstick if kerosene oil is heated a little, it will
start burning on rubbing it on the side catches fire. But if wood is heated a
of the matchbox? little, it would still not catch fire. Does
it mean that ignition temperature of
The history of the matchstick is very kerosene oil is lower than that of wood?
old. More than five thousand years Does it mean that we need to take
ago small pieces of pinewood dipped special care in storing kerosene oil? The
in sulphur were used as matches in following activity shows that it is
ancient Egypt. The modern safety
essential for a substance to reach
match was developed only about two
hundred years ago.
ignition temperature to burn.
A mixture of antimony trisulphide,
potassium chlorate and white Activity 6.4
phosphorus with some glue and
starch was applied on the head of a Caution : Be careful while handling
match made of suitable wood. When burning candle.
struck against a rough surface, white
phosphorus got ignited due to the heat Make two paper cups by folding a
of friction. This started the sheet of paper. Pour about 50 mL of
combustion of the match. However, water in one of the cups. Heat both
white phosphorus proved to be the cups separately with a candle
dangerous both for the workers (Fig. 6.5). What do you observe?
involved in the manufacturing of
matches and for the users.
These days the head of the safety
match contains only antimony
trisulphide and potassium chlorate. water
The rubbing surface has powdered
paper
glass and a little red phosphorus
cups
(which is much less dangerous).
When the match is struck against the
rubbing surface, some red
phosphorus gets converted into white Fig. 6.5 : Heating water in a paper cup
phosphorus. This immediately reacts
with potassium chlorate in the What happens to the empty paper
matchstick head to produce enough cup? What happens to the paper cup
heat to ignite antimony trisulphide with water? Does water in this cup
and start the combustion.
become hot?
If we continue heating
the cup, we can even boil
water in the paper cup.
Can you think of an
explanation for this
phenomenon?
The heat supplied to
the paper cup is
transferred to water by
conduction. So, in the
presence of water, the
ignition temperature of
paper is not reached.
Hence, it does not burn.
The substances which
have very low ignition
temperature and can
easily catch fire with a Fig. 6.6: Firemen extinguish the fire by throwing water under pressure
flame are called
inflammable substances. Examples of Does your city/town have a fire
inflammable substances are petrol, brigade station?
alcohol, Liquified Petroleum Gas (LPG), When a fire brigade arrives, what
etc. Can you list some more inflammable does it do? It pours water on the fire
substances? (Fig. 6.6). Water cools the combustible
material so that its temperature is
6.2 How do We Control Fire? brought below its ignition temperature.
This prevents the fire from spreading.
You must have seen or heard of fire Water vapours also surround the
breaking out in homes, shops and combustible material, helping in cutting
factories. If you have seen such an off the supply of air. So, the fire is
accident, write a short description in extinguished.
your note book. Also, share the You have learnt that there are three
experience with your classmates. essential requirements for producing
fire. Can you list these requirements?
Find out the telephone number of the
These are: fuel, air (to supply oxygen)
fire service in your area. If a fire
breaks out in your house or in your
and heat (to raise the temperature of the
neighbourhood, the first thing to do fuel beyond the ignition temperature).
is to call the fire service. Fire can be controlled by removing one
or more of these requirements. The job
of a fire extinguisher is to cut off the
It is important that all of us supply of air, or to bring down the
know the telephone numbers temperature of the fuel, or both. Notice
of the fire service.
that the fuel in most cases cannot be
68 SCIENCE
The most common fire
extinguisher is water. But
water works only when
things like wood and paper
are on fire. If electrical
equipment is on fire, water
may conduct electricity
and harm those trying to
douse the fire. Water is
also not suitable for fires
involving oil and petrol. Do
you recall that water is
heavier than oil? So, it
sinks below the oil, and oil Fig. 6.7 : Fire extinguisher
keeps burning on top.
For fires involving electrical equipment and inflammable materials like
petrol, carbon dioxide (CO2) is the best extinguisher. CO 2, being heavier than
oxygen, covers the fire like a blanket. Since the contact between the fuel and
oxygen is cut off, the fire is controlled. The added advantage of CO2 is that in
most cases it does not harm the electrical equipment.
How do we get the supply of carbon dioxide? It can be stored at high pressure
as a liquid in cylinders. In what form is the LPG stored in cylinders? When
released from the cylinder, CO2 expands enormously in volume and cools down.
So, it not only forms a blanket around the fire, it also brings down the
temperature of the fuel. That is why it is an excellent fire extinguisher. Another
way to get CO 2 is to release a lot of dry powder of chemicals like sodium
bicarbonate (baking soda) or potassium bicarbonate. Near the fire, these
chemicals give off CO2.
eliminated. If, for instance, a building combustion is known as rapid

catches fire, the whole building is the combustion.
fuel. There are substances like
phosphorus which burn in air at room
6.3 Types of Combustion temperature.
Bring a burning matchstick or a gas The type of combustion in which a
lighter near a gas stove in the kitchen. material suddenly bursts into flames,
Turn on the knob of the gas stove. What without the application of any apparent
do you observe? cause is called spontaneous
combustion.
CAUTION : Do not handle the gas
stove yourself. Ask your parents Spontaneous combustion of coal dust
to help. has resulted in many disastrous fires
in coal mines. Spontaneous forest
We find that the gas burns rapidly fires are sometimes due to the heat
and produces heat and light. Such
of the sun or due to lightning strike.
However, most forest fires are due to
the carelessness of human beings. It
is important to remember that the
campfires must be completely
extinguished before leaving a forest
after a picnic, or a visit.
Fig. 6.8: Colours of a candle flame and the
flame of a kitchen stove
We generally have fireworks on
festival days. When a cracker is ignited,
a sudden reaction takes place with the
evolution of heat, light and sound. A
large amount of gas formed in the
reaction is liberated. Such a reaction is
called explosion. Explosion can also take
place if pressure is applied on the
cracker.
6.4 Flame
Observe an LPG flame. Can you tell the
colour of the flame. What is the colour
of a candle flame? Fig. 6.9 : Flames of kerosene lamp, candle and
Bunsen Burner
Recall your experience of burning a
magnesium ribbon in Class VII. If you 6.5 Structure of a Flame
do not have experience of burning the
Activity 6.6
remaining items in Table 6.2 you can
do that now. Light a candle (Caution : Be careful).
Record your observations and Hold a glass tube with a pair of
mention whether on burning the tongs and introduce its one end in
material forms a flame or not. the dark zone of a non-flickering
Table 6.2 Materials forming Flame on Burning

S.No. Material Forms flame Does not form flame
1. Candle
2. Magnesium
3. Camphor
4. Kerosene Stove
5. Charcoal
70 SCIENCE
candle flame [Fig. 6.10 (a)]. Bring a
lighted matchstick near the other
end of the glass tube. Do you see a
flame? If so, what is it that produces
a flame? Notice that the wax near
the heated wick melts quickly.
Fig. 6.10 (b)
A circular blackish ring is formed on

the glass plate/slide. It indicates the
deposition of unburnt carbon particles
present in the luminous zone of the
flame.
Hold a thin long copper wire just
inside the flame for about 30 seconds
[Fig. 6.10 (c)].
Fig. 6.10 (a)
The substances which vapourise

during burning, give flames. For
example, kerosene oil and molten wax
rise through the wick and are vapourised
during burning and form flames.
Charcoal, on the other hand, does not
vapourise and so does not produce a
Fig. 6.10 (c)
flame. In Activity 6.6, could the vapours
of wax coming out of the glass tube be Notice that the portion of the copper
the cause of the flame produced? wire just outside the flame gets red hot.
When the candle flame is steady, Does it indicate that the non-luminous
introduce a clean glass plate/slide into zone of the flame has a high
the luminous zone of the flame [Fig. 6.10 temperature? In fact, this part of the
(b)]. Hold it there with a pair of tongs flame is the hottest part [Fig. 6.10(d)].
for about 10 seconds. Then remove it. Goldsmiths blow the outermost zone
What do you observe? of a flame with a metallic blow-pipe for
are mainly wood, charcoal, petrol,
outer zone of
hottest complete kerosene, etc. These substances are
part combustion (blue) called fuels. A good fuel is one which is
readily available. It is cheap. It burns
moderately
hot middle zone of
easily in air at a moderate rate. It
partial combustion produces a large amount of heat. It does
least (yellow) not leave behind any undersirable
hot substances.
innermost zone of There is probably no fuel that could
wax candle unburnt wax
be considered as an ideal fuel. We
vapours (black)
should look for a fuel which fulfils most
Fig. 6.10 (d): Different Zones of Candle flame of the requirements for a particular use.
Fuels differ in their cost. Some fuels
melting gold and silver (Fig. 6.11). Why
are cheaper than others.
do they use the outermost zone of the
Make a list of fuels familiar to you.
flame?
Group them as solid, liquid and gaseous
fuels as in Table 6.3.
6.7 Fuel Efficiency

Suppose you were asked to boil a given
quantity of water using cow dung, coal
and LPG as fuel. Which fuel would you
prefer? Give your reason. You may take
the help of your parents. Do these three
fuels produce the same amount of heat?
The amount of heat energy produced on
Fig. 6.11 : Goldsmith blowing through a complete combustion of 1 kg of a fuel is
metallic pipe called its calorific value. The calorific
value of a fuel is expressed in a unit
6.6 What is a Fuel?
called kilojoule per kg (kJ/kg).
Recall that the sources of heat energy Calorific values of some fuels are given
for domestic and industrial purposes in Table 6.4.
Table 6.3 Types of Fuels
S. No. Solid Fuels Liquid Fuels Gaseous fuels

1. Coal Kerosene oil Natural gas
2.
3.
72 SCIENCE
Table 6.4 : Calorific Values of 2. Incomplete combustion of these fuels
Different Fuels gives carbon monoxide gas. It is a
very poisonous gas. It is dangerous
Fuel Calorific Value
to burn coal in a closed room. The
(kJ/kg) carbon monoxide gas produced can
Cow dung cake 6000-8000 kill persons sleeping in that room.
Wood 17000-22000
Coal 25000-33000
Oh! So, that is why we are
Petrol 45000
advised never to sleep in a
Kerosene 45000 room with burning or
Diesel 45000 smouldering coal fire in it.
Methane 50000
CNG 50000 3. Combustion of most fuels releases
carbon dioxide in the environment.
LPG 55000
Increased concentration of carbon
Biogas 35000-40000
dioxide in the air is believed to cause
Hydrogen 150000 global warming.
Burning of Fuels Leads to Harmful
Global warming is the rise in
Products temperature of the atmosphere of the
The increasing fuel consumption has earth. This results, among other
harmful effects on the environment. things, in the melting of polar glaciers,
1. Carbon fuels like wood, coal, which leads to a rise in the sea level,
petroleum release unburnt carbon causing floods in the coastal areas.
Low lying coastal areas may even be
particles. These fine particles are
permanently submerged under water.
dangerous pollutants causing
respiratory diseases, such as asthma.
4. Burning of coal and diesel releases
For centuries, wood was used as sulphur dioxide gas. It is an
domestic and industrial fuel. But now extremely suffocating and corrosive
it has been replaced by coal and other
gas. Moreover, petrol engines give off
fuels like LPG. In many rural parts of
our country, people still use wood as gaseous oxides of nitrogen. Oxides
a fuel because of its easy availability of sulphur and nitrogen dissolve in
and low cost. However, burning of rain water and form acids. Such rain
wood gives a lot of smoke which is is called acid rain. It is very harmful
very harmful for human beings. It for crops, buildings and soil. You have
causes respiratory problem. Also,
already learnt about it in Class VII.
trees provide us with useful
substances which are lost when wood The use of diesel and petrol as fuels
is used as fuel. Moreover cutting of in automobiles is being replaced by
trees leads to deforestation which CNG (Compressed Natural Gas), because
is quite harmful to the environment, CNG produces the harmful products in
as you learnt in Class VII. very small amounts. CNG is a cleaner fuel.
ACID RAIN The substances which burn in air are called
combustible.
CALORIFIC VALUE
Oxygen (in air) is essential for combustion.
COMBUSTION During the process of combustion, heat and
light are given out.
DEFORESTATION Ignition temperature is the lowest temperature
at which a combustible substance catches
EXPLOSION fire.
Inflammable substances have very low
FLAME
ignition temperature.
FIRE EXTINGUISHER Fire can be controlled by removing one or more
requirements essential for producing fire.
FUEL Water is commonly used to control fires.
Water cannot be used to control fires involving
FUEL EFFICIENCY
electrical equipments or oils.
GLOBAL WARMING There are various types of combustions such
as rapid combustion, spontaneous
IDEAL FUEL combustion, explosion, etc.
There are three different zones of a flame -
IGNITION
dark zone, luminous zone and non-luminous
TEMPERATURE
zone.
INFLAMMABLE An ideal fuel is cheap, readily available, readily
SUBSTANCES combustible and easy to transport. It has high
calorific value. It does not produce gases or
residues that pollute the environment.
Fuels differ in their efficiency and cost.
Fuel efficiency is expressed in terms of its
calorific value which is expressed in units of
kilojoule per kg.
Unburnt carbon particles in air are dangerous
pollutants causing respiratory problems.
Incomplete combustion of a fuel gives
poisonous carbon monoxide gas.
Increased percentage of carbon dioxide in air
has been linked to global warming.
Oxides of sulphur and nitrogen produced by
the burning of coal, diesel and petrol cause
acid rain which is harmful for crops, buildings
and soil.
74 SCIENCE
Exercises
1. List conditions under which combustion can take place.

2. Fillin the blanks:
(a) Burning of wood and coal causes of air.
(b) A liquid fuel, used in homes is .
(c) Fuel must be heated to its before it starts
burning.
(d) Fire produced by oil cannot be controlled by .
3. Explain how the use of CNG in automobiles has reduced pollution in our
cities.
4. Compare LPG and wood as fuels.
5. Give reasons:
(a) Water is not used to control fires involving electrical equipment.
(b) LPG is a better domestic fuel than wood.
(c) Paper by itself catches fire easily whereas a piece of paper wrapped
around an aluminium pipe does not.
6. Make a labelled diagram of a candle flame.
7. Name the unit in which the calorific value of a fuel is expressed.
8. Explain how CO2 is able to control fires.
9. It is difficult to burn a heap of green leaves but dry leaves catch fire easily.
Explain.
10. Which zone of a flame does a goldsmith use for melting gold and silver and
why?
11. In an experiment 4.5 kg of a fuel was completely burnt. The heat produced
was measured to be 180,000 kJ. Calculate the calorific value of the fuel.
12. Can the process of rusting be called combustion? Discuss.
13. Abida and Ramesh were doing an experiment in which water was to be
heated in a beaker. Abida kept the beaker near the wick in the yellow part
of the candle flame. Ramesh kept the beaker in the outermost part of the
flame. Whose water will get heated in a shorter time?

1. Survey the availability of various fuels in your locality. Find out
their cost per kg and prepare a tabular chart showing how many
kJ of various fuels you can get for every rupee.
2. Find out the number, type and location of fire extinguishers available
in your school, nearby shops and factories. Write a brief report about
the preparedness of these establishments to fight fire.
3. Survey 100 houses in your area. Find the percentage of households
using LPG, kerosene, wood and cattledung as fuel.
4. Talk to people who use LPG at home. Find out what precautions
they take in using LPG.
5. Make a model of a fire extinguisher. Place a short candle and a
slightly taller candle in a small dish filled with baking soda. Place
the dish at the bottom of a large bowl. Light both the candles. Then
pour vinegar into the dish of baking soda. Take care. Do not pour
vinegar on the candles. Observe the foaming reaction. What happens
to the candles? Why? In what order?
baking soda +
vinegar
Fig. 6.12
For more information, visit:

www.newton.dep.anl.gov/askasci/chem03/chem03767.htm
http://www.einstrumentsgroup.com/gas_analyzers/combustion/
what-is-combustion.php
http://library.kcc.hawaii.edu/external/chemistry/
everyday_combustion.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/combustion
http://wwwchem.csustan.edu/consumer/fuels/heats%20.htm
76 SCIENCE
CONSERVATION OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS
W
e saw in Class VII that Some natural causes of deforestation
Paheli and Boojho had visited are forest fires and severe droughts.
the forest along with Prof.
Ahmad and Tibu. They were eager to Activity 7.1
share their experiences with their
Add more causes of deforestation to
classmates. Other children in the class
your list and classify them into
were also eager to share their experiences
natural and man-made.
as some of them had visited Bharatpur
Sanctuary. Some others had heard
about Kaziranga National Park, 7.2 Consequences of
Lockchao Wildlife Sanctuary, Great Deforestation
Nicobar Biosphere Reserve and Tiger Paheli and Boojho recalled the
Reserve, etc. consequences of deforestation. They
remembered that deforestation increases
the temperature and pollution level on
What is the purpose of the earth. It increases the level of carbon
making national parks, dioxide in the atmosphere. Ground water
wildlife sanctuaries and level also gets lowered. They know that
biosphere reserves?
deforestation disturbs the balance in
nature. They were told by Prof. Ahmad
7.1 Deforestation and Its that if cutting of trees continues, rainfall
Causes and the fertility of the soil will decrease.
A great variety of plants and animals
exists on earth. They are essential for
the wellbeing and survival of mankind. How does deforestation reduce
Today, a major threat to survival of these rainfall on the one hand and
organisms is deforestation. We know lead to floods on the other?
that deforestation means clearing of
forests and using that land for other Moreover, there will be increased
purposes. Trees in the forest are cut for chances of natural calamities such as
some of the purposes mentioned below: floods and droughts.
Procuring land for cultivation. Recall that plants need carbon
Building houses and factories. dioxide for photosynthesis. Fewer trees
Making furniture or using wood as would mean that less carbon dioxide will
fuel. be used up resulting in its increased
amount in the atmosphere. This will lead Prof. Ahmad organises a visit to a
to global warming as carbon dioxide biosphere reserve for Paheli, Boojho and
traps the heat rays reflected by the earth. their classmates. He selects a place
The increase in temperature on the earth named Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserve. He
disturbs the water cycle and may reduce knows that the plants and animals found
rainfall. This could cause droughts. here are similar to those of the upper
Deforestation is a major cause which Himalayan peaks and to those belonging
leads to the change in soil properties. to the lower western ghats. Prof. Ahmad
Physical properties of the soil get affected believes that the biodiversity found here
by plantation and vegetation. Recall is unique. He requests Madhavji, a forest
from Class VII how trees prevent soil employee, to guide the children inside
erosion. Fewer trees result in more soil the biosphere reserve. He explains that
erosion. Removal of the top layer of the preserving areas of such biological
soil exposes the lower, hard and rocky importance make them a part of our
layers. This soil has less humus and is national heritage.
less fertile. Gradually the fertile land Biosphere is that part of the earth in
gets converted into deserts. It is called which living organisms exist or which
desertification. supports life. Biological diversity or
Deforestation also leads to a decrease biodiversity, refers to the variety of
in the water holding capacity of the soil. organisms existing on the earth, their
The movement of water from the soil interrelationships and their
surface into the ground (infiltration rate) relationship with the environment.
is reduced. So, there are floods. The
Madhavji explains to the children
other properties of the soil like nutrient
that apart from our personal efforts and
content, texture, etc., also change
efforts of the society, government
because of deforestation.
agencies also take care of the forests and
We have studied in Class VII that we
animals. The government lays down
get many products from forests. List these rules, methods and policies to protect
products. Will we face the shortage of these and conserve them. Wildlife sanctuaries,
products if we continue cutting trees? national parks, biosphere reserves, etc.,
are protected areas for conservation of
Activity 7.2 plants and animals present in that area.
Animal life is also affected by
deforestation. How? List the points To protect our flora and fauna and
and discuss them in your class. their habitats, protected areas
called sanctuaries, national parks and
biosphere reserves have been
7.3 Conservation of Forest earmarked. Plantation, cultivation,
and Wildlife grazing, felling trees, hunting and
poaching are prohibited there.
Having become aware of the effects of
Sanctuary : Areas where animals are
deforestation, Paheli and Boojho are
protected from any disturbance to
worried. They go to Prof. Ahmad and ask them and their habitat.
him how forests and wildlife can be saved.
78 SCIENCE
National Park : Areas reserved for 7.4 Biosphere Reserve
wild life where they can freely use Children along with Prof. Ahmad and
the habitats and natural resources. Madhavji enter the biosphere reserve
Biosphere Reserve : Large areas of
area. Madhavji explains that biosphere
protected land for conservation of wild
life, plant and animal resources and
reserves are the areas meant for
traditional life of the tribals living in conservation of biodiversity. As you are
the area. aware that biodiversity is the variety of
plants, animals and microorganisms
Activity 7.3 generally found in an area. The
biosphere reserves help to maintain the
Find out the number of national biodiversity and culture of that area. A
parks, wildlife sanctuaries and biosphere reserve may also contain
biosphere reserves in your district, other protected areas in it. The
state and country. Record in Table Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserve consists
of one national park named Satpura and
7.1. Show these areas in an outline
two wildlife sanctuaries named Bori and
map of your state and India.
Pachmarhi (Fig. 7.1).
Table 7.1 : Protected areas for conservation.
Protected Areas — National Park Wildlife Sanctuary Biosphere Reserve
In my district
In my state
In my country
↑N PACHMARHI SANCTUARY
TAWA
TO PIPARIYA
RESERVIOR
NEEMGHAN
PANARPANI GATE
SATPURA NATIONAL PARK
CHURNA PACHMARHI
DHAIN BORI
BORI SANCTUARY
Fig. 7.1 : Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserve

Activity 7.4 a rabbit and wants to catch it. She
starts running after it. Prof. Ahmad
List the factors disturbing the stops her. He explains that animals are
biodiversity of your area. Some of comfortable and happy in their own
these factors and human activities
habitat. We should not disturb them.
may disturb the biodiversity
Madhavji explains that some animals
unknowingly. List these human
and plants typically belong to a
activities. How can these be checked?
particular area. The plants and animals
Discuss in your class and write a
found in a particular area are termed
brief report in your notebook.
flora and fauna of that area.
7.5 Flora and Fauna Sal, teak, mango, jamun, silver ferns,
As the children walk around the arjun, etc are the flora and chinkara,
biosphere reserve they appreciate the blue-bull, barking deer, cheetal,
green wealth of the forest. They are very leopard, wild dog, wolf, etc. are
happy to see tall teak trees and animals examples of the fauna of the
inside the forest. Suddenly, Paheli finds Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserve
(Fig. 7.2).
(a) (b) (c)
(d) (e) (f)

Fig. 7.2 : (a) Wild dog (b) Cheetal (c) Wolf (d) Leopard (e) Fern (f) Jamun
80 SCIENCE
Activity 7.5
Try to identify the flora and fauna
of your area and list them.
I have heard that some of the
endemic species may vanish.
7.6 Endemic Species Is it true?
Soon the group quietly enters the deep
endemic flora of the Pachmarhi
forest. Children are surprised to see a
very big squirrel. This squirrel has a big Biosphere Reserve. Bison, Indian giant
fluffy tail. They are very curious to know squirrel [Fig. 7.3 (b)] and flying squirrel
about it. Madhavji tells them that this are endemic fauna of this area. Prof.
is known as the giant squirrel and is Ahmad explains that the destruction of
endemic to this area. their habitat, increasing population and
Endemic species are those species introduction of new species may affect
of plants and animals which are found the natural habitat of endemic species
exclusively in a particular area. They are and endanger their existence.
not naturally found anywhere else. A
particular type of animal or plant may
be endemic to a zone, a state or a country.
Madhavji shows sal and wild mango
(Fig. 7.3 (a)] as two examples of the
Fig. 7.3 : (b) Giant squirrel
Species is a group of populations

which are capable of interbreeding.
This means that the members of a
species can reproduce fertile offspring
only with the members of their own
species and not with members of
other species. Members of a species
have common characteristics.
Activity 7.6
Find out the endemic plants and
animals of the region where you live.
Fig. 7.3 : (a) Wild Mango
7.7 Wildlife Sanctuary instead of their natural habitat? In
Soon Paheli sees a board with ‘Pachmarhi your opinion, will the animals be
Wildlife Sanctuary’ written on it. comfortable in a zoo or in their
Prof. Ahmad explains that, like natural habitat?
reserve forests, wildlife sanctuaries
provide protection and suitable living 7.8 National Park
conditions to wild animals. Madhavji On the roadside there was another
further explains that sanctuaries are board on which was written ‘Satpura
places where killing (poaching) or National Park’.
capturing of animals is strictly Children are now eager to go there.
prohibited. Madhavji tells them that these reserves
are large and diverse enough to protect
Some of the threatened wild animals
whole sets of ecosystems. They
like black buck, white eyed buck,
elephant, golden cat, pink headed preserve flora, fauna, landscape and
duck, gharial, marsh crocodile, historic objects of an area. Satpura
python, rhinoceros, etc. are protected National Park is the first Reserve Forest
and preserved in our wild life of India. The finest Indian teak is
sanctuaries. Indian sanctuaries have found in this forest.
unique landscapes—broad level
forests, mountain forests and bush Rock shelters are also found inside
lands in deltas of big rivers. the Satpura National Park. These are
the prehistoric evidences of human
It is a pity that even protected forests life in these jungles. They give us an
are not safe because people living in the idea of the life of the primitive people.
neighbourhood encroach upon them Rock paintings are found in these
shelters. A total of 55 rock shelters
and destroy them.
have been identified in Pachmarhi
Children are reminded of their visit
Biosphere Reserve.
to the zoo. They recall that zoos are also Figures of animals and men fighting,
places where animals receive protection. hunting, dancing, and playing
musical instruments are depicted in
these paintings. Many tribals still
live in the area.
What is the difference
between a zoo and a As children move ahead, they see a
wildlife sanctuary? board with ‘Satpura Tiger Reserve’
written on it. Madhavji explains that
Activity 7.7 Project Tiger was launched by the
Visit a nearby zoo. Observe the government to protect the tigers in the
conditions provided to the animals. country. The objective of this project
Were they suitable for the animals? was to ensure the survival and
Can animals live in artificial setting maintenance of the tiger population in
the country.
82 SCIENCE
Fig. 7.4 : Tiger Fig. 7.5 : Wild buffalo Fig. 7.6 : Barasingha
Madhavji tells Paheli that small

animals are much more in danger of
becoming extinct than the bigger
animals. At times, we kill snakes,
Are tigers still found in frogs, lizards, bats and owls ruthlessly
this forest? I hope that I without realising their importance in
can see a tiger! the ecosystem. By killing them we are
harming ourselves. They might be
Tiger (Fig. 7.4) is one of the many small in size but their role in the
species which are slowly disappearing ecosystem cannot be ignored. They
from our forests. But, the Satpura Tiger form part of food chains and food
Reserve is unique in the sense that a webs, about which you learnt in
significant increase in the population Class VII.
of tigers has been seen here. Once upon An ecosystem is made of all the
a time, animals like lions, elephants, plants, animals and microorganisms in
wild buffaloes (Fig. 7.5) and barasingha an area along with non-living
(Fig. 7.6) were also found in the Satpura components such as climate, soil,
National Park. Animals whose numbers river deltas, etc.
are diminishing to a level that they might
face extinction are known as the
endangered animals. Boojho is
reminded of the dinosaurs which
became extinct a long time ago. Survival I wonder if there is
of some animals has become difficult any record of the
because of disturbances in their natural endangered species!
habitat.
7.9 Red Data Book
Prof. Ahmad explains about Red Data
Book to the children. He tells them that
Red Data Book is the source book
Are only big animals
which keeps a record of all the
facing the extinction?
endangered animals and plants. There
are different Red Data Books for plants, 7.11 Recycling of Paper
animals and other species. (For further
Prof. Ahmad draws the attention of
details about Red Data Book, you can
the children to another cause of
log on to www.wil.gov.in/envis/
deforestation. He tells them that it
primates/page102htm/new/nwdc/
takes 17 full grown trees to make one
plants.htm)
tonne of paper. Therefore, we should
7.10 Migration save paper. Prof. Ahmad also tells that
paper can be recycled five to seven
The excursion party then enters deeper times for use. If each student saves at
into the forest under the guidance of least one sheet of paper in a day, we
Madhavji. They sit near the Tawa can save many trees in a year. We
Reservoir to relax for some time. Paheli should save, reuse used paper and
observes some of the birds near the recycle it. By this we not only save
river. Madhavji tells the children that trees but also save energy and water
these are the migratory birds. These needed for manufacturing paper.
birds have flown here from other parts Moreover, the amount of har mful
of the world. chemicals used in paper making will
Migratory birds fly to far away areas also be reduced.
every year during a particular time
because of climatic changes. They fly
for laying eggs as the weather in their
natural habitat becomes very cold and
inhospitable. Birds who cover long Is there any permanent
distances to reach another land are solution to the problem
known as the migratory birds as Paheli of deforestation?
learnt in Class VII.
7.12 Reforestation
Prof. Ahmad suggests that the answer
to deforestation is reforestation.
What would happen if we Reforestation is restocking of the
had no wood? Is there destroyed forests by planting new trees.
any alternative The planted trees should generally be
available for wood? of the same species which were found
I know that paper is one
in that forest. We should plant at least
of the important products
as many trees as we cut. Reforestation
we get from forests.
I wonder whether can take place naturally also. If the
there are any alternatives deforested area is left undisturbed, it re-
available for paper! establishes itself. In natural reforestation
there is no role of human beings. We
84 SCIENCE
have already made a tremendous meeting the basic needs of the people
damage to our forests. If we have to living in or near the forests.
retain our green wealth for generations, After some rest Madhavji asks
plantation of more trees is the only children to start moving back because
option. it is not advisable to stay back in the
Prof. Ahmad told them that in India jungle after sunset. On getting back,
we have the Forest (Conservation) Act. Prof. Ahmad and the children thank
This act is aimed at preservation and Madhavji for guiding them through this
conservation of natural forests and exciting experience.

BIODIVERSITY Wildlife sanctuary, national park and
BIOSPHERE RESERVE biosphere reserve are names given to the
areas meant for conservation and preservation
DEFORESTATION of forest and wild animals.
DESERTIFICATION Biodiversity refers to the variety of living
organisms in a specific area.
ECOSYSTEM
Plants and animals of a particular area are
ENDANGERED known as the flora and fauna of that area.
SPECIES Endemic species are found only in a particular
area.
ENDEMIC SPECIES
Endangered species are those which are facing
EXTINCT the danger of extinction.
Red Data Book contains a record of the
FAUNA
endangered species.
FLORA Migration is the phenomenon of movement of
MIGRATORY BIRDS a species from its own habitat to some other

habitat for a particular time period every year
NATIONAL PARK for a specific purpose like breeding.
RED DATA BOOK We should save, reuse and recycle paper to

save trees, energy and water.
REFORESTATION Reforestation is the restocking of destroyed
forests by planting new trees.
SANCTUARY
Exercises

(a) A place where animals are protected in their natural habitat is
called .
(b) Species found only in a particular area is known as .
(c) Migratory birds fly to far away places because of changes.
2. Differentiate between the following:

(a) Wildlife sanctuary and biosphere reserve
(b) Zoo and wildlife sanctuary
(c) Endangered and extinct species
(d) Flora and fauna
86 SCIENCE
3. Discuss the effects of deforestation on the following:
EXERCISES
(a) Wild animals
(b) Environment
(c) Villages (Rural areas)
(d) Cities (Urban areas)
(e) Earth
(f) The next generation
4. What will happen if:
(a) we go on cutting trees.
(b) the habitat of an animal is disturbed.
(c) the top layer of soil is exposed.
5. Answer in brief:
(a) Why should we conserve biodiversity?
(b) Protected forests are also not completely safe for wild animals. Why?
(c) Some tribals depend on the jungle. How?
(d) What are the causes and consequences of deforestation?
(e) What is Red Data Book?
(f) What do you understand by the term migration?
6. In order to meet the ever-increasing demand in factories and for shelter,

trees are being continually cut. Is it justified to cut trees for such projects?
Discuss and prepare a brief report.
7. How can you contribute to the maintenance of green wealth of your locality?
Make a list of actions to be taken by you.
8. Explain how deforestation leads to reduced rainfall.
9. Find out the information about the national parks in your state. Identify
and show their location on the outline map of India.
10. Why should paper be saved? Prepare a list of ways by which you can save
paper.

11. Complete the word puzzle:
EXERCISES
Down
1. Species on the verge of extinction.
2. A book carrying information about endangered species.
5. Consequence of deforestation.
Across
1. Species which have vanished.
3. Species found only in a particular habitat.
4. Variety of plants, animals and microorganisms found in an area.
Extended Learning - Activities and Projects

1. Plant at least five different plants in your locality during this
academic year and ensure their maintenance till they grow.
2. Promise yourself that this year you will gift at least 5 plants to your
friends and relatives on their achievements, or on occasions like
birthdays. Ask your friends to take proper care of these gifted plants
and encourage them to gift five plants to their friends on such
occasions. At the end of the year count the plants that have been
gifted through this chain.
88 SCIENCE
3. Is it justifiable to prevent tribals from staying in the core area of the
forest? Discuss the matter in your class and note down the points for
and against the motion in your notebook.
4. Study the biodiversity of a park nearby. Prepare a detailed report with
photographs and sketches of flora and fauna.
5. Make a list of the new information you have gathered from this chapter.
Which information did you like the most and why?
6. Make a list of various uses of papers. Observe currency notes carefully.
Do you find any difference between a currency paper and paper of your
notebook? Find out where currency paper is made.
7. Karnataka Government had launched ‘Project Elephant’ to save Asian
elephants in the state. Find out about this and other such campaigns
launched to protect threatened species.
Did You Know?

1. India has more than half of the world’s wild tigers, 65% of the Asian
elephants, 85% of the great one-horned rhinoceros and 100% of the
Asian lions.
2. India is sixth on a list of 12 mega-biodiversity countries in the world. It

contains two of the 13 biodiversity hot spots of the world – North-East
India and the Western Ghats. These areas are very rich in biodiversity.
3. One of the most important factors that threatens wildlife today is habitat
destruction due to encroachment.
4. India contains 172 species of animals considered globally threatened
or 2.9% of the worlds total number of threatened species. This includes
53 species of mammals, 69 of birds, 23 of reptiles and 3 species of
amphibians. India contains globally important population of some of
Asia’s rarest animals such as the Bengal fox, Marbled cat, Asiatic lion,
Indian elephant, Asiatic wild ass, Indian rhinoceros, gaur, Wild asiatic
water buffalo, etc.
For knowing more, you may contact:
Ministry of Environment and Forests, Govt. of India

Environment, Forest and Wildlife Department
Paryavaran Bhavan, CGO Complex, Block – B,
Lodhi Road, New Delhi – 110003,
Website : http:/envfor.nic.in
Project Tiger : www.kidsfortigers.org/raisingtigers/projecttiger.php
Biodiversity Hotspots : www.biodiversityhotspots.org

CELL — STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS
Y
ou have already learnt that things These boxes appeared like a honey-
around us are either living or comb.
non-living. Further, you may He also noticed that one box was
recall that all living organisms carry out separated from the other by a wall or
certain basic functions. Can you list partition. Hooke coined the term ‘cell’
these functions? for each box. What Hooke observed as
Different sets of organs perform the boxes or cells in the cork were actually
various functions you have listed. In this dead cells.
chapter, you shall learn about the basic Cells of living organisms could be
structural unit of an organ, which is the observed only after the discovery of
cell. Cells may be compared to bricks. improved microscopes. Very little was
Bricks are assembled to make a building. known about the cell for the next 150
Similarly, cells are assembled to make years after Robert Hooke’s observations.
the body of every organism. Today, we know a lot about cell
structure and its functions because of
8.1 Discovery of the Cell improved microscopes having high
magnification.
Robert Hooke in 1665 observed slices of
cork under a simple magnifying device.
Cork is a part of the bark of a
8.2 The Cell
tree. He took thin slices of cork and Both, bricks in a building and cells in
observed them under a microscope. He the living organisms, are basic
noticed partitioned boxes or structural units [Fig. 8.2(a), (b)]. The
compartments in the cork slice (Fig. 8.1). buildings, though built of similar bricks,
have different designs, shapes and sizes.
Similarly, in the living world, organisms
differ from one another but all are made
up of cells. Cells in the living organisms
are complex living structures unlike
non-living bricks.
A hen’s egg can be seen

easily. Is it a cell or a
Fig. 8.1: Cork cells as observed by group of cells?
Robert Hooke
(a) Brick wall (b) Onion peel
Fig. 8.2 : Brick wall and onion peel
The egg of a hen represents a single Organisms made of more than one
cell and is big enough to be seen by the cell are called multicellular (multi :
unaided eye. many; cellular : cell) organisms. The
number of cells being less in smaller
8.3 Organisms show Variety organisms does not, in any way, affect
in Cell Number, Shape and the functioning of the organisms. You
Size will be surprised to know that an
How do scientists observe and study the organism with billions of cells begins
living cells? They use microscopes which life as a single cell which is the fertilised
magnify objects. Stains (dyes) are used egg. The fertilised egg cell multiplies and
to colour parts of the cell to study the the number of cells increase as
detailed structure. development proceeds.
There are millions of living Look at Fig 8.3 (a) and (b). Both
organisms. They are of different shapes organisms are made up of a single cell.
and sizes. Their organs also vary in The single-celled organisms are called
shape, size and number of cells. Let us unicellular (uni : one; cellular : cell)
study about some of them.
Number of Cells
Can you guess the number of cells in a
tall tree or in a huge animal like the
elephant? The number runs into
billions and trillions. Human body has
trillions of cells which vary in shapes
and sizes. Different groups of cells
perform a variety of functions.
A billion is a thousand million. A (a) (b)
trillion is a thousand billion.
Fig. 8.3 : (a) Amoeba (b) Paramecium
organisms. A single-celled organism
performs all the necessary functions
The change in shape is due to
that multicellular organisms perform.
formation of pseudopodia which
A single-celled organism, like facilitates movement and help
amoeba, captures and digests food, in capturing food.
respires, excretes, grows and
reproduces. Similar functions in A white blood cell (WBC) in human
multicellular organisms are carried out blood is another example of a single cell
by groups of specialised cells forming which can change its shape. But while
different tissues. Tissues, in turn, form WBC is a cell, amoeba is a full fledged
organs. organism capable of independent
existence.
Activity 8.1 What shape would you expect in
organisms with millions of cells? Fig.
The teacher may show a permanent 8.4 (a, b, c) shows different cells such
slide of Amoeba and Paramecium as blood, muscle and nerve cells of
under a microscope. Alternatively, human beings. The different shapes are
the teacher can collect pond water related to their specific functions.
and show these organisms by Generally, cells are round, spherical
preparing the slides. or elongated [Fig. 8.4(a)]. Some cells are
long and pointed at both ends. They
Shape of Cells exhibit spindle shape [Fig. 8.4(b)]. Cells
sometimes are quite long. Some are
Refer to Fig, 8.3 (a). How do you define branched like the nerve cell or a neuron
the shape of Amoeba in the figure? You [Fig. 8.4(c)]. The nerve cell receives and
may say that the shape appears transfers messages, thereby helping to
irregular. Infact, Amoeba has no control and coordinate the working of
definite shape, unlike other organisms. different parts of the body.
It keeps on changing its shape.
Observe the projections of varying
lengths protruding out of its body.
These are called pseudopodia (pseudo
: false; podia : feet), as you learnt
in Class VII. These projections appear (a)
and disappear as Amoeba moves or
feeds.
(c)
(b)
What advantage does

Fig. 8.4 :(a) Spherical red blood cells
Amoeba derive by of humans, (b) Spindle shaped muscle
changing shape? cells, (c) Long branched nerve cell
94 SCIENCE
Can you guess, which part of the cell in the elephant be much bigger than
gives it shape? Components of the cell those in a rat. The size of the cell is
are enclosed in a membrane. This related to its function. For example,
membrane provides shape to the cells nerve cells, both in the elephant and
of plants and animals. Cell wall is an rat, are long and branched. They
additional covering over the cell perform the same function, that of
membrane in plant cells. It gives shape transferring messages.
and rigidity to these cells (Fig. 8.7).
Bacterial cell also has a cell wall. 8.4 Cell Structure and
Function
Size of Cells
You have lear nt that each living
The size of cells in living organisms may organism has many organs. You have
be as small as a millionth of a metre studied in Class VII about the digestive
(micrometre or micron) or may be as organs which together constitute the
large as a few centimetres. However, most digestive system. Each organ in the
of the cells are microscopic in size and system performs different functions
are not visible to the unaided eye. They such as digestion, assimilation and
need to be enlarged or magnified by a absorption. Similarly, different organs
microscope. The smallest cell is 0.1 to of a plant perform specific/specialised
0.5 micrometre in bacteria. The largest functions. For example, roots help in the
cell measuring 170 mm ×130 mm, is absorption of water and minerals.
the egg of an ostrich. Leaves, as you have learnt in Class VII,
are responsible for synthesis of food.
Activity 8.2 Each organ is further made up of
smaller parts called tissues. A tissue is
Boil a hen’s egg. Remove the shell.
a group of similar cells performing a
What do you observe? A white
specific function.
material surrounds the yellow part.
Paheli realised that an organ is made
White material is albumin which
up of tissues which in turn, are made
solidifies on boiling. The yellow part up of cells. The cell in a living organism
is yolk. It is part of the single cell. is the basic structural unit.
You can observe this single cell
without any magnifying device. 8.5 Parts of the Cell
Cell Membrane
The basic components of a cell are cell
Are the cells in an membrane, cytoplasm and nucleus
elephant larger than the (Fig. 8.7). The cytoplasm and nucleus
cells in a rat? are enclosed within the cell membrane,
also called the plasma membrane. The
The size of the cells has no relation membrane separates cells from one
with the size of the body of the animal another and also the cell from the
or plant. It is not necessary that the cells surrounding medium. The plasma
membrane is porous and allows the between the nucleus and the cell
movement of substances or materials membrane is called cytoplasm.
both inward and outward.
Activity 8.3
I want to know why plant
In order to observe the basic cells need cell walls?
components of the cell, take an
onion bulb. Remove the dry pink You have learnt earlier that the cell
coverings (peels). You can easily membrane gives shape to the cell. In
separate these from the fleshy white addition to the cell membrane, there is
layers of the bulb with the help of an outer thick layer in cells of plants
forceps or even with your hand. You called cell wall. This additional layer
can also break the onion bulb and surrounding the cell membrane is
separate out thin layers. Place a required by the plants for protection.
small piece of the thin onion peel Plant cells need protection against
in a drop of water on a glass slide. variations in temperature, high wind
The thin layer can be cut into speed, atmospheric moisture, etc. They
smaller pieces with the help of a are exposed to these variations because
blade or forceps. Add a drop of they cannot move. Cells can be
methylene blue solution to the layer observed in the leaf peel of
and place a coverslip on it. While Tradescantia, Elodea or Rhoeo. You
placing the coverslip ensure that can prepare a slide as in the case
there are no air bubbles under the of onion.
coverslip. Observe the slide under Paheli asks Boojho if he can also
the microscope. Draw and label. You observe animal cells.
may compare it with Fig. 8.5.
Activity 8.4
The boundary of the onion cell is the
cell membrane covered by another thick Take a clean tooth pick, or a
covering called the cell wall. The central matchstick with the tip broken.
dense round body in the centre is called Scrape inside of your cheek without
the nucleus. The jelly-like substance hurting it. Place it in a drop of water
on a glass slide. Add a drop of iodine
and place a coverslip over it.
nucleus Alternatively, add 1-2 drops of
methylene blue solution. Observe it
under the microscope. You may
notice several cells in the scraped
cytoplasm material (Fig. 8.6). You can identify
the cell membrane, the cytoplasm
and nucleus. A cell wall is absent
in animal cells.
Fig. 8.5 : Cells observed in an onion peel
96 SCIENCE
Gene
nuclear cytoplasm
membrane Gene is a unit of inheritance in living
organisms. It controls the transfer of
a hereditary characteristic from
parents to offspring. This means that
your parents pass some of their
characteristics on to you. If your father
nucleus has brown eyes, you may also have
cell
membrane brown eyes. If your mother has curly
hair, you might also end up having
curly hair. However, the different
Fig. 8.6 : Human cheek cells combination of genes from parents
result in different characteristics.
Cytoplasm
Nucleus, in addition to its role in
It is the jelly-like substance present inheritance, acts as control centre of the
between the cell membrane and the activities of the cell. The entire content
nucleus. Various other components, or of a livinhg cell is known as protoplasm.
organelles, of cells are present in the It includes the cytoplasm and the
cytoplasm. These are mitochondria, golgi nucleus. Protoplasm is called the living
bodies, ribosomes, etc. You will learn
substance of the cell.
about them in later classes.
Nucleus
Paheli wants to know if the
It is an important component of the structure of the nucleus is
living cell. It is generally spherical and the same in cells of plants,
located in the centre of the cell. It can animals and bacteria.
be stained and seen easily with the help
of a microscope. Nucleus is separated The nucleus of the bacterial cell is
from the cytoplasm by a membrane not well organised like the cells of
called the nuclear membrane. This multicellular organisms. There is no
membrane is also porous and allows the nuclear membrane. The cells having
movement of materials between the nuclear material without nuclear
cytoplasm and the inside of the nucleus. membrane are termed prokaryotic
cells. The organisms with these kinds
With a microscope of higher
of cells are called prokaryotes (pro :
magnification, we can see a smaller primitive; karyon : nucleus). Examples
spherical body in the nucleus. It is called are bacteria and blue green algae. The
the nucleolus. In addition, nucleus cells, like onion cells and cheek cells
contains thread-like structures called having well organised nucleus with
chromosomes. These carry genes and a nuclear membrane are designated
help in inheritance or transfer of as eukaryotic cells. All organisms
characters from the parents to the other than bacteria and blue green
algae are called eukaryotes. (eu :
offspring. The chromosomes can be seen
true; karyon: nucleus).
only when the cell divides.
While observing the onion cells called chloroplasts. They provide green
under the microscope, did you notice colour to the leaves. You may recall that
any blank-looking structures in the chlorophyll in the chloroplasts of leaves,
cytoplasm? It is called vacuole. It could is essential for photosynthesis.
be single and big as in an onion cell.
Cheek cells have smaller vacuoles. Large 8.6 Comparison of Plant and
vacuoles are common in plant cells. Animal Cells
Vacuoles in animal cells are much
smaller. If you recall Activities 8.3 and 8.4, you
You might have noticed several small should be able to compare plant and
coloured bodies in the cytoplasm of the animal cells. Observe the plant and
cells of T radescantia leaf. They are animal cell carefully in Fig. 8.7 (a), (b).
scattered in the cytoplasm of the leaf Let us tabulate the similarities and
cells. These are called plastids. They are disinguishing features of plant and
of different colours. Some of them animal cells. Only a few features are
contain green pigment called mentioned. You may add more in
chlorophyll. Green coloured plastids are Table 8.1.
cell membrane
cell wall
vacuole
nucleus
cell membrane
chloroplast
cytoplasm
(b)
(a)
Fig. 8.7 : (a) Plant cell (b) Animal cell
Table 8.1 : Comparison of Plant Cell and Animal Cell
Sl. No. Part Plant Cell Animal Cell
1. Cell membrane Present Present

2. Cell wall Present Absent
3. Nucleus
4. Nuclear membrane
5. Cytoplasm
6. Plastids
7. Vacuole
98 SCIENCE
CELL All organisms are made of smaller parts called
CELL MEMBRANE organs.
Organs are made of still smaller parts. The
CELL WALL smallest living part of an organism is a ‘cell’.
CHLOROPLAST Cells were first observed in cork by Robert
Hooke in 1665.
CHROMOSOME
Cells exhibit variety of shapes and sizes.
CYTOPLASM Number of cells also varies from organism to
organism.
EUKARYOTES
Some cells are big enough to be seen with the
GENE unaided eye. Hen’s egg is an example.
Some organisms are single-celled, while others
MULTICELLULAR
contain large number of cells.
NUCLEAR MEMBRANE The single cell of unicellular organisms
performs all the basic functions performed by
NUCLEOLUS
a variety of cells in multicellular organisms.
NUCLEUS The cell has three main parts, (i) the cell
membrane, (ii) cytoplasm which contains
ORGAN
smaller components called organelles, and (iii)
ORGANELLES the nucleus.
Nucleus is separated from cytoplasm by a
PLASMA MEMBRANE
nuclear membrane.
PLASTID Cells without well organised nucleus, i.e.
lacking nuclear membrane, are called
PROKARYOTES
prokaryotic cells.
PSEUDOPODIA Plant cells differ from animal cells in having
an additional layer around the cell membrane
TISSUE
termed cell wall.
UNICELLULAR Coloured bodies called plastids are found in
the plant cells only. Green plastids containing
VACUOLE
chlorophyll are called chloroplasts.
WHITE BLOOD CELL Plant cell has a big central vacuole unlike a
(WBC) number of small vacuoles in animal cells.

Exercises
1. Indicate whether the following statements are True (T) or False (F).
(a) Unicellular organisms have one-celled body. (T/F)
(b) Muscle cells are branched. (T/F)
(c) The basic living unit of an organism is an organ. (T/F)
(d) Amoeba has irregular shape. (T/F)
2. Make a sketch of the human nerve cell. What function do nerve cells
perform?.
3. Write short notes on the following:
(a) Cytoplasm
(b) Nucleus of a cell
4. Which part of the cell contains organelles?
5. Make sketches of animal and plant cells. State three differences between
them.
6. State the difference between eukaryotes and prokaryotes.
7. Where are chromosomes found in a cell? State their function.
8. ‘Cells are the basic structural units of living organisms’. Explain.
9. Explain why chloroplasts are found only in plant cells?
10. Complete the crossword with the help of clues given below:
Across
1. This is necessary for
photosynthesis.
3. Term for component present
in the cytoplasm.
6. The living substance in the
cell.
8. Units of inheritance present
on the chromosomes.
Down
1. Green plastids.
2. Formed by collection of
tissues.
4. It separates the contents of
the cell from the surrounding
medium.
5. Empty structure in the cytoplasm.
7. A group of cells.
100 SCIENCE
1. Visit a laboratory for senior secondary students in your school or
in a neighbouring school. Learn about the functioning of a
microscope in the laboratory. Also observe how a slide is observed
under the microscope.
2. Talk to the senior biology teacher in your school or a neighbouring
school. Find out if there are diseases which are passed on from
parents to the offspring. Find out how these are carried and also if
these diseases can be treated. For this you can also visit a doctor.
3. Visit an agriculture extension centre in your area. Find out about

genetically modified (GM) crops. Prepare a short speech for your
class on this topic. You may visit www.usc.ernet.in/currsci/
sep252001/655.pdf
4. Find out about Bt cotton from an agriculture expert (or from
envfor.nic.in/divisions/csnrv/btcotton/bgnote.pdf). Prepare a short
note on its advantages/disadvantages.
For more on cell, visit :
www.enchatedbearning.com/subjects/plants/cell/
Did You Know?

The cells in the outermost layer of our skin are dead. An average
adult carries around about 2 kg of dead skin. Billions of tiny
fragments of the skin are lost every day. Every time you run your
finger on a dusty table, you shed a lot of old skin.

REPRODUCTION IN ANIMALS
D
o you recall the processes of Table 9.1
digestion, circulation and
respiration which you have S. No. Animal Young one
studied in your previous classes? These 1. Human Baby
processes are essential for the survival
of every individual. You have also learnt 2. Cat
about the process of reproduction in 3. Dog
plants. Reproduction is essential for the
continuation of a species. Imagine what 4. Butterfly
would have happened if organisms had 5. Hen Chick
not reproduced. You will realise that
reproduction is very important as it 6. Cow
ensures the continuation of similar 7. Frog
kinds of individuals, generation after
generation. Just as in plants, there are two modes
You have already learnt in your by which animals reproduce. These are:
previous class about reproduction in (i) Sexual reproduction, and (ii) Asexual
plants. In this chapter, we shall learn reproduction.
how reproduction takes place in
animals. 9.2 Sexual Reproduction
9.1 Modes of Reproduction Try to recall reproduction in plants
which you studied in Class VII. You will
Have you seen the young ones of remember that plants that reproduce
different animals? Try to name some of sexually have male and female
the young ones by completing Table 9.1 reproductive parts. Can you name these
as shown in examples at S. No. 1 parts? In animals also, males and
and 5. females have different reproductive parts
You must have also seen the young or organs. Like plants, the reproductive
ones of various animals being born. parts in animals also produce gametes
Can you tell how chicks and that fuse to form a zygote. It is the zygote
caterpillars are born? How are kittens which develops into a new individual.
and puppies born? Do you think that This type of reproduction beginning
these young ones looked the same from the fusion of male and female
before they were born as they do now? gametes is called sexual reproduction.
Let us find out. Let us find out the reproductive parts
in humans and study the process of sperm is a single cell with all the usual
reproduction in them. cell components.
Male Reproductive Organs

Head
The male reproductive organs include a
pair of testes (singular, testis), two sperm
ducts and a penis (Fig. 9.1). The testes Middle piece
produce the male gametes called
sperms. Millions of sperms are produced
by the testes. Look at Fig. 9.2 which
shows the picture of a sperm. Though
sperms are very small in size, each has
Tail
a head, a middle piece and a tail. Does
it appear to be a single cell? Indeed, each
Fig. 9.2 : Human sperm
What purpose does the

tail in a sperm serve?
Sperm
Female Reproductive Organs
The female reproductive organs are a pair
of ovaries, oviducts (fallopian tubes) and
the uterus (Fig. 9.3). Ovary produces
Oviduct
Penis
Ovary
Uterus
Testis
Fig. 9.1: Male reproductive Fig. 9.3 : Female reproductive organs in

organs in humans humans
female gametes called ova (eggs)
(Fig. 9.4). In human beings, a single Sperms
matured egg is released into the oviduct
by one of the ovaries every month.
Uterus is the part where development of
the baby takes place. Like the sperm,
an egg is also a single cell.
Nucleus Ovum
Fig. 9.5 : Fertilization
Fusing
nuclei
Fig. 9.4 : Human Ovum
Boojho recalls that the size

of eggs in animals varies.
The egg may be very small Fig. 9.6 : Zygote
as in humans, much larger
as in hens. Ostrich egg is you know that the zygote is the
the largest! beginning of a new individual?
The process of fertilization is the
meeting of an egg cell from the mother
Fertilization
and a sperm cell from the father. So,
The first step in the process of the new individual inherits some
reproduction is the fusion of a sperm characteristics from the mother and
and an ovum. When sperms come in some from the father. Look at your
contact with an egg, one of the sperms brother or sister. See if you can recognise
may fuse with the egg. Such fusion of some characters in them similar to those
the egg and the sperm is called of your mother or your father.
fertilization (Fig. 9.5). During Fertilization which takes place inside
fertilization, the nuclei of the sperm and the female body is called internal
the egg fuse to form a single nucleus. fertilization. Internal fertilization
This results in the formation of a occurs in many animals including
fertilized egg or zygote (Fig. 9.6). Did humans, cows, dogs and hens.
104 SCIENCE
Have you heard of female lays hundreds of eggs. Unlike
test tube babies? hen’s egg, frog’s egg is not covered by a
shell and it is comparatively very
Boojho and Paheli’s teacher once told
delicate. A layer of jelly holds the eggs
them in the class that in some women
oviducts are blocked. These women together and provides protection to the
are unable to bear babies because eggs (Fig. 9.7).
sperms cannot reach the egg for
fertilization. In such cases, doctors
collect freshly released egg and
sperms and keep them together for a
few hours for IVF or in vitro
fertilization (fertilization outside the
body). In case fertilization occurs, the
zygote is allowed to develop for about
a week and then it is placed in the
mother’s uterus. Complete
development takes place in the uterus
and the baby is born like any other
baby. Babies born through this
technique are called test-tube
babies. This term is actually Fig. 9.7 : Eggs of frog
misleading because babies cannot
grow in test tubes. As the eggs are laid, the male
deposits sperms over them. Each
You will be surprised to know that sperm swims randomly in water with
in many animals fertilization takes the help of its long tail. The sperms
place outside the body of the female. come in contact with the eggs. This
In these animals, fertilization takes results in fertilization. This type of
place in water. Let us find out how fertilization in which the fusion of a
this happens. male and a female gamete takes place
outside the body of the female is called
Activity 9.1 external fertilization. It is very
Visit some ponds or slow-flowing common in aquatic animals such as
streams during spring or rainy fish, starfish, etc.
season. Look out for clusters of
fr og’s eggs floating in water.
Write down the colour and size of
the eggs.
Why do fish and
During spring or rainy season, frogs frogs lay eggs in
hundreds whereas a
and toads move to ponds and slow-
hen lays only one
flowing streams. When the male and
egg at a time?
female come together in water, the

How could a single cell
Though these animals lay become such a big
hundreds of eggs and release individual?
millions of sperms, all the eggs
do not get fertilized and develop
Development of Embryo
into new individuals. Fertilization results in the formation of
This is because the eggs and zygote which begins to develop into an
sperms get exposed to water embryo [Fig. 9.8(a)]. The zygote divides
movement, wind and rainfall. repeatedly to give rise to a ball of cells
Also, there are other animals in [Fig. 9.8(b)]. The cells then begin to form
the pond which may feed groups that develop into different tissues
on eggs. Thus, production and organs of the body. This developing
of large number of eggs and structure is termed an embryo. The
sperms is necessary to embryo gets embedded in the wall of the
ensure fertilization uterus for further development
of at least [Fig. 9.8(c)].
a few of them. The embryo continues to develop in
the uterus. It gradually develops the
Uterus
Ovary
Zygote
(b)
Embedding
embryo
Uterus
Ovulation wall
(a)
Developing
embryo
(c)
Fig. 9.8 : (a) Zygote formation and development of an embryo from the zygote; (b) Ball of cells
(enlarged); (c) Embedding of the embryo in the uterus (enlarged)
106 SCIENCE
body parts such as hands, legs, head, period? After the chick is completely
eyes, ears, etc. The stage of the embryo developed it bursts open the egg shell.
in which all the body parts can be In animals which undergo external
identified is called a foetus (Fig. 9.9). fertilization, development of the embryo
When the development of the foetus is takes place outside the female body. The
complete, the mother gives birth to embryos continue to grow within their
the baby. egg coverings. After the embryos develop,
the eggs hatch. You must have seen
numerous tadpoles swimming in ponds
and streams.
Uterus
Viviparous and Oviparous Animals
We have learnt that some animals give
birth to young ones while some animals
lay eggs which later develop into young
ones. The animals which give birth to
young ones are called viviparous
animals. Those animals which lay eggs
are called oviparous animals. The
following activity will help you
understand better and differentiate
between viviparous and oviparous
Fig. 9.9 : Foetus in the uterus animals.
Internal fertilization takes place in
Activity 9.2
hens also. But, do hens give birth to
babies like human beings and cows? You Try to collect eggs of the following
know that they do not. Then, how are organisms – frog, lizard, butterfly
chicks born? Let us find out. or moth, hen and crow or any other
Soon after fertilization, the zygote bird. Were you able to collect eggs
divides repeatedly and travels down the of all of them? Make drawings of the
oviduct. As it travels down, many eggs that you have collected.
protective layers are formed around it.
The eggs of a few animals are easy
The hard shell that you see in a hen’s to collect because their mothers lay
egg is one such protective layer. them outside their bodies. These
After the hard shell is formed around animals from which you have collected
the developing embryo, the hen finally the eggs are examples of oviparous
lays the egg. The embryo takes about 3 animals. But you would not be able to
weeks to develop into a chick. You must collect the eggs of a dog, cow or cat.
have seen the hen sitting on the eggs to This is because they do not lay eggs.
provide sufficient warmth. Did you know The mother gives birth to the young
that development of the chick takes ones. These are examples of viviparous
place inside the egg shell during this animals.
Can you now give some more features that are present in the adult are
examples of viviparous and oviparous not found in these young ones. Then what
animals? happens to the tadpoles or caterpillars
thereafter?
Young Ones to Adults You must have seen a beautiful moth
The new individuals which are born or emerging out of the cocoon. In the case of
hatched from the eggs continue to grow tadpoles, they transform into adults
till they become adults. In some capable of jumping and swimming. The
animals, the young ones may look very transformation of the larva into an adult
different from the adults. Recall the life through drastic changes is called
cycle of the silkworm (egg → larva or metamorphosis. What about the changes
caterpillar → pupa → adult) you studied that we observe in our body as we grow?
in Class VII. Frog is another such Do you think we too undergo
example (Fig. 9.10). metamorphosis? In human beings, body
Observe the different stages of frog parts similar to those present in the adults
starting from the egg to the adult stage. are present from the time of the birth.
We find that there are three distinct
stages, that is, egg → tadpole (larva) → 9.3 Asexual Reproduction
adult. Don’t the tadpoles look so So far, we have learnt about reproduction
different from the adults? Can you in some familiar animals. But what
imagine that these tadpoles would some about very small animals like hydra and
day become frogs? Similarly, the microscopic organisms like amoeba? Do
caterpillar or the pupa of silkworm looks you know how they reproduce? Let us
very different from the adult moth. The find out.
(b) Early tadpole
(a) Eggs
(c) Late tadpole
(d) Adult frog
Fig. 9.10 : Life cycle of frog
108 SCIENCE
Activity 9.3
Get permanent slides of
hydra, Observe them using
hand lens or a microscope.
Look out for any bulges
from the parent body.
Count the number of
bulges that you see in
different slides. Also, note
the size of the bulges. Draw
the diagram of hydra, as
you see it. Compare it with
Fig. 9.11 : Budding in Hydra
the Fig. 9.11.
In each hydra, there may be one or

more bulges. These bulges are the
developing new individuals and they are
called buds. Recall the presence of buds
in yeast. In hydra too the new individuals
develop as outgrowths from a single a
parent. This type of reproduction in
which only a single parent is involved is
called asexual reproduction. Since new
individuals develop from the buds in Dividing nucleus
hydra, this type of asexual reproduction
is called budding. b
Another method of asexual
reproduction is observed in the
microscopic organism, amoeba. Let us
see how this happens.
You have already learnt about the
structure of amoeba. You will recall that c
amoeba is a single-celled organisms [Fig.
9.12(a)]. It begins the process of
reproduction by the division of its
nucleus into two nuclei [Fig. 9.12(b)]. Daughter amoebae
This is followed by division of its body
into two, each part receiving a nucleus
[Fig. 9.12(c)]. Finally, two amoebae are
produced from one parent amoeba [Fig. d
9.12(d)]. This type of asexual
Fig. 9.12 : Binary fission in Amoeba
reproduction in which an animal there are other methods by which a
reproduces by dividing into two single parent reproduces the young
individuals is called binary fission. ones. You will study about these in your
Apart from budding and binary fission, higher classes.
Story of Dolly, the Clone
Cloning is the production of an exact copy of a cell, any other living part, or a
complete organism. Cloning of an animal was successfully performed for the first
time by Ian Wilmut and his colleagues at the Roslin Institute in Edinburgh,
Scotland. They cloned successfully a sheep named Dolly [Fig. 9.13 (c)]. Dolly was
born on 5th July 1996 and was the first mammal to be cloned.
(a) Finn Dorsett sheep (b) Scottish blackface ewe (c) Dolly
Fig. 9.13
During the process of cloning Dolly, a cell was collected from the mammary gland
of a female Finn Dorsett sheep [Fig. 9.13 (a)]. Simultaneously, an egg was obtained
from a Scottish blackface ewe [Fig. 9.13 (b)]. The nucleus was removed from the
egg. Then, the nucleus of the mammary gland cell from the Finn Dorsett sheep
was inserted into the egg of the Scottish blackface ewe whose nucleus had been
removed. The egg thus produced was implanted into the Scottish blackface ewe.
Development of this egg followed normally and finally Dolly was born. Though
Dolly was given birth by the Scottish blackface ewe, it was found to be absolutely
identical to the Finn Dorsett sheep from which the nucleus was taken. Since the
nucleus from the egg of the Scottish blackface ewe was removed, Dolly did not
show any character of the Scottish blackface ewe. Dolly was a healthy clone of
the Finn Dorsett sheep and produced several offspring of her own through normal
sexual means. Unfortunately, Dolly died on 14th February 2003 due to a certain
lung disease.
Since Dolly, several attempts have been made to produce cloned mammals.
However, many die before birth or die soon after birth. The cloned animals are
many-a-time found to be born with severe abnormalities.
110 SCIENCE
ASEXUAL There are two modes by which animals
REPRODUCTION reproduce. These are: (i) Sexual reproduction,
and (ii) Asexual reproduction.
BINARY FISSION Reproduction resulting from the fusion of male
and female gametes is called sexual
BUDDING reproduction.
The reproductive organs in the female include
EGGS ovaries, oviducts and uterus.
The reproductive organs in male include
EMBRYO testes, sperm ducts and penis.
The ovary produces female gametes called ova
EXTERNAL
and the testes produce male gametes called
FERTILIZATION sperms.
The fusion of ovum and sperm is called
FERTILIZATION fertilization. The fertilized egg is called a zygote.
Fertilization that takes place inside the female
FOETUS
body is called internal fertilization. This is
observed in human beings and other animals
INTERNAL
such as hens, cows and dogs.
FERTILIZATION Fertilization that takes place outside the female
body is called external fertilization. This is
METAMORPHOSIS observed in frogs, fish, starfish, etc.
The zygote divides repeatedly to give rise to an
OVIPAROUS ANIMALS
embryo.
The embryo gets embedded in the wall of the
SEXUAL
uterus for further development.
REPRODUCTION The stage of the embryo in which all the body
parts are identifiable is called foetus.
SPERMS
Animals such as human beings, cows and
dogs which give birth to young ones are called
VIVIPAROUS ANIMALS
viviparous animals.
ZYGOTE Animals such as hen, frog, lizard and butterfly
which lay eggs are called oviparous animals.
The transformation of the larva into adult
through drastic changes is called
metamorphosis.
The type of reproduction in which only a single
parent is involved is called asexual
reproduction.
In hydra, new individuals develop from buds.
This method of asexual reproduction is called
budding.
Amoeba reproduces by dividing itself into two.
This type of asexual reproduction is called
binary fission.

Exercises
1. Explain the importance of reproduction in organisms.
2. Describe the the process of fertilization in human beings.

3. Choose the most appropriate answer:
(a) Internal fertilization occurs
(i) in female body.

(ii) outside female body.
(iii) in male body.
(iv) outside male body.

(b) A tadpole develops into an adult frog by the process of
(i) fertilization. (ii) metamorphosis. (iii) embedding. (iv) budding.
(c) The number of nuclei present in a zygote is

(i) none. (ii) one. (iii) two. (iv) four.
4. Indicate whether the following statements are True (T) or False (F):
(a) Oviparous animals give birth to young ones. ( )

(b) Each sperm is a single cell. ( )
(c) External fertilization takes place in frog. ( )
(d) A new human individual develops from a cell called gamete. ( )
(e) Egg laid after fertilization is made up of a single cell. ( )

(f) Amoeba reproduces by budding. ( )
(g) Fertilization is necessary even in asexual reproduction. ( )
(h) Binary fission is a method of asexual reproduction. ( )

(i) A zygote is formed as a result of fertilization. ( )
(j) An embryo is made up of a single cell. ( )
5. Give two difference between a zygote and a foetus.

6. Define asexual reproduction. Describe two methods of asexual reproduction
in animals.
7. In which female reproductive organ does the embryo get embedded?

8. What is metamorphosis? Give examples.
9. Differentiate between internal fertilization and external fertilization.
112 SCIENCE
10. Complete the cross-word puzzle using the hints given below
EXERCISES Across
1. The process of the fusion of the gametes.

6. The type of fertilization in hen.
7. The term used for bulges observed on the sides of the body of Hydra.
8. Eggs are produced here.

Down
2. Sperms are produced in these male reproductive organs.
3. Another term for the fertilized egg.

4. These animals lay eggs.
5. A type of fission in amoeba.
1. Visit a poultry farm. Talk to the manager of the farm and try to find
out the answers to the following:
(a) What are layers and broilers in a poultry farm?

(b) Do hens lay unfertilized eggs?
(c) How can you obtain fertilized and unfertilized eggs?
(d) Are the eggs that we get in the stores fertilized or unfertilized?
(e) Can you consume fertilized eggs?
(f) Is there any difference in the nutritional value of the fertilized
and unfertilized eggs?

2. Observe live hydra yourself and learn how they reproduce by doing
the following activity:
During the summer months collect water weeds from ponds or ditches
along with the pond water and put them in a glass jar. After a day or
so you may see several hydra clinging to the sides of the jar.
Hydra is transparent, jelly-like and with tentacles. It clings to the
jar with the base of its body. If the jar is shaken, the hydra will
contract instantly into a small blob, at the same time drawing its
tentacles in.
Now take out few hydras from the jar and put them on a watch
glass. Using a hand lens or a binocular or dissection microscope,
observe the changes that are taking place in their body. Note down
your observations.
3. The eggs we get from the market are generally the unfertilized ones.
In case you wish to observe a developing chick embryo, get a fertilized
egg from the poultry or hatchery which has been incubated for 36
hours or more. You may then be able to see a white disc-like structure
on the yolk. This is the developing embryo. Sometimes if the heart
and blood vessels have developed you may even see a red spot.
4. Talk to a doctor. Find out how twinning occurs. Look for any twins
in your neighbourhood, or among your friends. Find out if the twins
are identical or non-identical. Also find out why identical twins are
always of the same sex? If you know of any story about twins, write
it in your own words. You could visit the following website for
information on twins: www.keepkidshealthy.com/twins/
expecting_twins.html.
For more information on animal reproduction, you can visit :
www.saburchill.com/chapters/chap0031.html
healthhowstuffworks.com/human-reproduction.htm
www.teenshealth.org/teen/sexual_health
Did You Know?

An interesting organisation is observed in a honey bee hive, a colony of several
thousand bees. Only one bee in the colony lays eggs. This bee is called the
queen bee. All other female bees are worker bees. Their main job is to build the
hive, look after the young and feed the queen bee adequately to keep her
healthy so that she could lay eggs. A queen bee lays thousands of eggs. The
fertilized eggs hatch into females, while the unfertilized eggs give rise to males,
called drones. It is the job of the worker bees to maintain the temperature of
the hive around 35ºC to incubate the eggs.
114 SCIENCE
REACHING THE AGE OF ADOLESCENCE
I
n the previous chapter, you have no longer a child but are on the way to
learnt how animals reproduce. It is becoming an adult.
only after ‘growing up’ to a certain
age that human beings and many other
animals can reproduce. Why can I wonder how long this
humans reproduce only after a certain period marked by changes
age? in the body will last!
In this chapter, you will learn about
changes that take place in the human
body after which a person becomes
capable of reproduction. It is a strange period of life
In Chapter 9, you have learnt about when you are neither a child nor
human reproductive organs. Here, we an adult. I wonder whether this
shall discuss the role that hormones play period between childhood and
in bringing about changes that make a adulthood had a special name!
child grow into an adult.
Growing up is a natural process. The
10.1 Adolescence and Puberty period of life, when the body undergoes
changes, leading to reproductive
Boojho was celebrating his 12th
maturity, is called adolescence.
birthday. After his friends left, Boojho
Adolescence begins around the age of
and Paheli began chatting with their
11 and lasts upto 18 or 19 years of age.
parents. Paheli studies in an all-girls
Since this period covers the ‘teens’ (13
school. She started laughing. She to 18 or 19 years of age), adolescents
remarked that many of Boojho’s school are also called ‘teenagers’. In girls,
friends, whom she met after a year, had adolescence may begin a year or two
suddenly shot up in height. Some of earlier than in boys. Also, the period of
them were looking very funny with a adolescence varies from person to person.
hairy line above their lips. Her mother The human body undergoes several
explained that the boys had grown up. changes during adolescence. These
Growth begins from the day one is changes mark the onset of puberty. The
born. But upon crossing the age of 10 most important change which marks
or 11, there is a sudden spurt in growth puberty is that boys and girls become
which becomes noticeable. The changes capable of reproduction. Puberty ends
taking place in the body are part of when an adolescent reaches reproductive
growing up. They indicate that you are maturity.
the tallest and who might be the
shortest in your class.
Paheli and Boojho
realised that sudden
Age in % of full height
increase in height and
hairy line above the lips Years Boys Girls
in boys were signs of
adolescence. They 8 72% 77%
wanted to know more
about other changes at 9 75% 81%
puberty.
10 78% 84%
11 81% 88%
12 84% 91%
10.2 Changes at Puberty
13 88% 95%
Increase in Height
The most conspicuous change during 14 92% 98%
puberty is the sudden increase in 15 95% 99%
height. At this time the long bones, that
is, the bones of the arms and the legs 16 98% 99.5%
elongate and make a person tall.
17 99% 100%
Activity 10.1
18 100% 100%
The following chart gives the
average rate of growth in height of
boys and girls with age. The figures
in columns 2 and 3, give the Calculation for full height (cm)
percentage of the height a person Present height (cm)
has reached at the age given in × 100
% of full height at this age
column 1. For example, by the age (as given in the chart)
11, a boy has reached 81% of his
probable full height, while a girl Example:
has reached 88% of her full
height. These figures are only A boy is 9 years old and 120 cm
representative and there may be tall. At the end of the growth period
individual variations. he is likely to be
Use the Table for your friends
and work out how tall they are likely 120
× 100 cm = 160 cm tall
to be. Find out who is likely to be 75
114 SCIENCE
Activity 10.2 There is no need for Paheli to worry.
All parts of the body do not grow at the
Use the data given in Activity 10.1 same rate. Sometimes the arms and legs
to draw a graph. Take age on the X-
or hands and feet of adolescents look
axis and per cent growth in height
oversized and out of proportion with the
on the Y-axis. Highlight the point
body. But soon the other parts catch
representing your age on the graph.
up and result in a proportionate body.
Find out the percentage of height
You must have noticed that height
you have already reached. Calculate
the height you might eventually of an individual is more or less similar
reach. Tally your graph with the one to that of some family member. This is
given here (Fig. 10.1). because height depends on the genes
inherited from parents. It is, however,
very important to eat the right kind of
food during these growing years. This
helps the bones, muscles and other
parts of the body get adequate
nourishment for growth. You will find
nutritional needs of adolescents
discussed later in the lesson.
Change in Body Shape

Have you noticed that boys in your class
have broader shoulders and wider chests
than boys in junior classes? This is
Fig. 10.1 : Graph showing percentage of height because they have entered the age of
with age puberty when shoulders generally
broaden as a result of growth. In girls,
Initially, girls grow faster than boys the region below the waist becomes
but by about 18 years of age, both reach wider.
their maximum height. The rate of In boys, the muscles of the body grow
growth in height varies in different more prominently than in the girls.
individuals. Some may grow suddenly
Thus, changes occurring in adolescent
at puberty and then slow down, while
boys and girls are different.
others may grow gradually.
Voice Change
Did you notice that sometimes the voice
of some of the boys in your class cracks?
I am worried. Though I
At puberty, the voice box or the larynx
have become taller, my
face looks much smaller
begins to grow. Boys develop larger voice
compared to my body. boxes. The growing voice box in boys can
be seen as a protruding part of the throat
called Adam’s apple (Fig. 10.2). In girls, and pimples on the face at this time
the larynx is hardly visible from the because of the increased activity of these
outside because of its small size. glands in the skin.
Generally, girls have a high pitched voice,
whereas boys have a deep voice. In Development of Sex Organs
adolescent boys, sometimes, the muscles Look up Fig. 9.1 and 9.3 of the
of the growing voice box go out of control previous lesson which shows sex
and the voice becomes hoarse. This state organs of humans. At puberty, male
may remain for a few days or weeks after sex organs like the testes and penis
which the voice becomes normal. develop completely. The testes also
begin to produce sperms. In girls, the
ovaries enlarge and eggs begin to
Adam’s mature. Also ovaries start releasing
apple mature eggs.
Reaching Mental, Intellectual and

Emotional Maturity
Adolescence is also a period of change
in a person’s way of thinking.
Adolescents are more independent than
before and are also self conscious.
Intellectual development takes place and
Fig. 10.2 : Adam’s apple in a grown up boy
they tend to spend considerable time
thinking. In fact, it is often the time in
one’s life when the brain has the
greatest capacity for learning.
Many of my classmates Sometimes, however, an adolescent may
have a hoarse voice. Now I feel insecure while trying to adjust to
know why? the changes in the body and mind. But
as adolescent learners, you should know
Increased Activity of Sweat and
that there is no reason to feel insecure.
Sebaceous Glands
These changes are a natural part of
During puberty the secretion of sweat growing up.
glands and sebaceous glands (oil glands)
increases. Many young people get acne 10.3 Secondary Sexual
A few glands such as sweat glands,
Characters
oil glands and salivary glands release You have learnt in Chapter 9, that
their secretions through ducts. testes and ovaries are the reproductive
Endocrine glands release hormones organs. They produce the gametes,
directly into the bloodstream. So, they that is, sperms and ova. In girls,
are also termed ductless glands.
breasts begin to develop at puberty
116 SCIENCE
and boys begin to grow facial hair, that The testes and ovaries secrete sex
is, moustaches and beard. As these hormones. You have just learnt that
features help to distinguish the male these hormones are responsible for the
from the female they are called male and female secondary sexual
secondary sexual characters. Boys characters. Further, the sex hormones
also develop hair on their chest. In are under the control of hormones from
both, boys and girls, hair grows under the pituitary gland (Fig. 10.3). The
the arms and in the region above the pituitary secretes many hormones, one
thighs or the pubic region. of which makes ova mature in the
ovaries and sperms form in the testes.
Both Boojho and Paheli wish to know
what initiates changes at puberty.
The changes which occur at

adolescence are controlled by
hormones. Hormones are chemical
substances. These are secretions from
endocrine glands, or endocrine system.
The male hormone or testosterone
begins to be released by the testes at
the onset of puberty. This causes
changes in boys about which you have
just learnt, for example, the growth of
facial hair. Once puberty is reached in
girls, ovaries begin to produce the female
hormone or estrogen which makes the
breasts develop. Milk secreting glands
or mammary glands develop inside the
breasts. The production of these
hormones is under the control of
another hormone secreted from an
endocrine gland called pituitary gland.
Fig. 10.3 : The onset of puberty is controlled by
10.4 Role of Hormones in hormones
Initiating Reproductive
Function
Paheli and Boojho have now
Endocrine glands release hormones understood that puberty marks the
into the bloodstream to reach a beginning of the reproductive period
particular body part called target site. when one becomes capable of
The target site responds to the reproduction. But they want to know
hormone. There are many endocrine if reproductive life, once begun,
glands or ductless glands in the body. continues, or it ends some time.

10.5 Reproductive Phase of Menstrual cycle is controlled by
Life in Humans hormones. The cycle includes the
maturation of the egg, its release,
Adolescents become capable of thickening of uterine wall and its
reproduction when their testes and breakdown if pregnancy does not
ovaries begin to produce gametes. The occur. In case the egg is fertilised it
capacity for maturation and production begins to divide and then gets
of gametes lasts for a much longer time embedded in the uterus for further
in males than in females. development as you have learnt in
In females, the reproductive phase of Chapter 9 (Fig. 9.8).
life begins at puberty (10 to 12 years of
age) and generally lasts till the age of 10.6 How is the Sex of the
approximately 45 to 50 years. The ova Baby Determined?
begin to mature with the onset of
puberty. One ovum matures and is
released by one of the ovaries once in
about 28 to 30 days. During this I heard my mother and my
period, the wall of the uterus becomes aunt talking about my cousin
thick so as to receive the egg, in case who is going to have a baby.
it is fertilised and begins to develop. They were discussing whether
This results in pregnancy. If she would give birth to a boy
fertilisation does not occur, the or a girl. I wonder what makes
released egg, and the thickened lining the fertilised egg develop
either into a boy or a girl!
of the uterus along with its blood
vessels are shed off. This causes
Boy or Girl?
bleeding in women which is called
menstruation. Menstruation occurs Inside the fertilised egg or zygote is the
once in about 28 to 30 days. The first instruction for determining the sex of
menstrual flow begins at puberty and the baby. This instruction is present in
is termed menarche. At 45 to 50 years the thread-like structures, called
of age, the menstrual cycle stops. chromosomes in the fertilised egg.
Stoppage of menstruation is termed Recall from Chapter 8, that
menopause. Initially, menstrual cycle chromosomes are present inside the
may be irregular. It take some time to nucleus of every cell. All human beings
become regular. have 23 pairs of chromosomes in the
nuclei of their cells. Two chromosomes
out of these are the sex chromosomes,
named X and Y. A female has two X
Paheli says that the chromosomes, while a male has one X
reproductive life of a and one Y chromosome. The gametes
woman lasts from (egg and sperm) have only one set of
menarche to menopause. chromosomes. The unfertilised egg
Is she right?
always has one X chromosome. But
118 SCIENCE
sperms are of two kinds. One kind has and ovaries to produce their hormones.
an X chromosome, and the other kind You have already lear nt that the
has a Y chromosome. pituitary gland is an endocrine gland.
See Fig. 10.4. When a sperm It is attached to the brain.
containing X chromosome fertilises the Apart from the pituitary, the testes
egg, the zygote would have two X and the ovaries, there are other
chromosomes and develop into a female endocrine glands in the body such as
child. If the sperm contributes a Y thyroid, pancreas and adrenals
chromosome to the egg (ovum) at (Fig. 10.5).
fertilisation, the zygote would develop
into a male child.
pituitary
gland
sperm thyroid gland
adrenal
gland
eggs
pancreas
position of
the ovary in
the female
boy girl testis

Fig. 10.4 : Sex determination in humans
Now you know that the sex

chromosomes of the father determine the Fig. 10.5 : Position of endocrine glands in the
sex of an unborn baby. The belief that human body
the mother is responsible for the sex of
Boojho and Paheli had once visited
her baby is completely wrong and to
their aunt who was a doctor and
blame her for this is totally unjustified.
remembered that a boy named Kaka had
10.7 Hormones other than a very big and bulging throat. Their aunt
had told them that Kaka was suffering
Sex Hormones from ‘goitre’, a disease of the thyroid
Look at Fig. 10.3 again. The hormones gland. Kaka’s thyroid gland was not
secreted by the pituitary stimulate testes producing the hormone thyroxine.
Their aunt also told them that their This change from larva to adult is
uncle was suffering from ‘diabetes’ called metamorphosis (Fig. 9.10).
because his pancreas was not producing Metamorphosis in insects is controlled
the hormone insulin in sufficient by insect hormones. In a frog, it is
quantities. Boojho and Paheli then controlled by thyroxine, the hormone
asked their aunt about the adrenal produced by thyroid. Thyroxine
glands, which are also shown in the production requires the presence of
chart hung on the wall of her clinic. The iodine in water. If the water in which
aunt told them that adrenal glands the tadpoles are growing does not
secrete hormones which maintain the contain sufficient iodine, the tadpoles
correct salt balance in the blood. cannot become adults.
Adrenals also produce the hormone
adrenalin. It helps the body to adjust
to stress when one is very angry, If people do not have
embarrassed or worried. enough iodine in their diet,
Thyroid and adrenals secrete their will they get goitre caused
hormones when they receive orders from by lack of thyroxine?
the pituitary through its hormones.
Pituitary also secretes growth hormone Activity 10.3
which is necessary for the normal
growth of a person. Collect information from magazines
or from doctors and prepare a note
on the importance of consuming
iodised salt. You can also look for
this information on the internet.
Are there hormones in
other animals also? Have
they any role to play in 10.9 Reproductive Health
reproduction? The physical and mental well being of
an individual is regarded as an
10.8 Role of Hormones in individual’s health. To keep the body
healthy, every human being, at any age,
completing the Life needs to have a balanced diet. The
History of Insects and person must also observe personal
Frogs hygiene and undertake adequate
You have already learnt about the life physical exercise.
history of the silk moth and the frog. During adolescence, however, these
The caterpillar has to pass through become even more essential as the body
various stages to become an adult moth. is growing.
Recall from Class VII the stages of the
life history of the silk moth. Similarly, Nutritional Needs of the Adolescents
the tadpole passes through certain Adolescence is a stage of rapid growth
stages to become a frog (Chapter 9). and development. Hence the diet for an
120 SCIENCE
adolescent has to be carefully planned. Activity 10.5
You have already learnt what a balanced
Get ideas from the pictures given in
diet is. Recall that a balanced diet means
Fig.10.6. Prepare charts or posters
that the meals include proteins,
and paste them in the class so that
carbohydrates, fats and vitamins in you are aware of the diet for
requisite proportions. Our Indian meal adolescents. You may use your
of roti/rice, dal (pulses) and vegetables creative ideas and present it like an
is a balanced meal. Milk is a balanced advertisement. You may even
food in itself. Fruits also provide organise a competition on this topic.
nourishment. For infants, mother’s milk
provides all the nourishment that they
need.
Iron builds blood and iron-rich food
meat
such as leafy vegetables, jaggery, meat,
vegetables
citrus, Indian gooseberry (amla) are good
for adolescents.
milk and
Check items for lunch and dinner in eggs
your meal. Is the meal balanced and
nutritious? Does it include cereals
which give energy and milk, meat, nuts
and pulses which provide proteins for
growth? Also, does it include fats and
fruits
sugar that give energy? What about
fruits and vegetables which are
protective foods? Chips and packed or
tinned snacks, though very tasty
should never replace regular meals as
they do not have adequate nutritional
value.
grains
Activity 10.4
Fig. 10.6 : Nutritious items of food
Make a group with your friends.
Write down the items of food in your Personal Hygiene
breakfast, lunch and dinner you
Everyone should have a bath at least
had on the previous day. Identify
once everyday. It is more necessary for
the items responsible for proper
teenagers because the increased activity
growth. Also identified the junk
of sweat glands sometimes makes the
food that you consumed the
body smelly. All parts of the body should
previous day.
be washed and cleaned everyday. If

cleanliness is not maintained there are Activity 10.6
chances of catching bacterial infection.
Girls should take special care of Collect data on the number of
cleanliness during the time of menstrual children in your class who exercise
flow. They should keep track of their regularly and who do not exercise
menstrual cycle and be prepared for the regularly. Did you notice any
onset of menstruation. difference in their fitness and
health? Prepare a report on the
Physical exercise benefits of regular exercise.
Walking and playing in fresh air keeps
the body fit and healthy. All young boys
Say “NO” to Drugs
and girls should take walks, exercise Adolescence is a period of much
and play outdoor games. activity in the body and mind which
is a normal part of growing up. So do
Myths, Taboos, Do’s and Don’ts not feel confused or insecure. If
You have lear nt here and from anybody suggests that you will get
Chapter 9 the scientific facts related relief if you take some drugs, just say
to human reproduction. There are ‘No’ unless prescribed by the doctor.
many wrong notions which you should
Drugs are addictive. If you take them
now be able to discard as informed
adolescents. For example, there are once, you feel like taking them again
myths and taboos regarding bodily and again. They harm the body in the
changes that adolescents experience. long run. They ruin health and
Some of these are given below and happiness.
you can now argue why these are You must have heard about AIDS
myths and not facts. which is caused by a dangerous virus,
1. A girl becomes pregnant if HIV. This virus can pass on to a
she looks at boys during
normal person from an infected
menstruation.
2. The mother is responsible for the person by sharing the syringes used
sex of her child. for injecting drugs. It can also be
3. A girl should not be allowed to transmitted to an infant from the
work in the kitchen during infected mother through her milk. The
menstruation. virus can also be transmitted through
You may come across many other myths sexual contact with a person infected
and taboos. Discard them. with HIV.
Adolescent Pregnancy
You might be knowing that in our country, the legal age for marriage is 18 years
for girls and 21 years for boys. This is because teenage mothers are not prepared
mentally or physically for motherhood. Early marriage and motherhood cause
health problems in the mother and the child. It also curtails employment
opportunities for the young woman and may cause mental agony as she is not
ready for responsibilities of motherhood.
122 SCIENCE
ADAM’S APPLE Humans become capable of reproduction af-
ADOLESCENCE ter puberty sets in. Between the ages of 11

years and 19 years children are called ado-
ADRENALIN lescents.
The onset of puberty brings about growth of
BALANCED DIET
the reproductive organs. Hair grow at various
ENDOCRINE GLANDS places on the body. Breasts develop in girls
and facial hair (moustache and beard) appear
ESTROGEN
in boys. Voice of boys becomes hoarse as voice
HORMONES box enlarges during adolescence.
Children gain height during adolescence.
INSULIN
The onset of puberty and maturity of
PITUITARY GLAND reproductive parts are controlled by hormones.
Hormones are secretions of endocrine glands
PUBERTY
which pour them directly into the blood stream.
REPRODUCTIVE Pituitary gland secretes hormones which in-
HEALTH clude growth hormone and hormones that
make other glands such as the testes, ovaries,
SECONDARY SEXUAL thyroids and adrenals, secrete hormones.
CHARACTERS Pancreas secretes insulin, thyroid produces
SEX CHROMOSOMES thyroxine and adrenals produce adrenalin.

Testosterone is the male hormone and
TARGET SITE estrogen, the female hormone. The uterine wall
in females prepares itself to receive the
TESTOSTERONE
developing fertilised egg. In case there is no
THYROXINE fertilisation, the thickened lining of the uterine
wall breaks down and goes out of the body
VOICE BOX
along with blood. This is called menstruation.
Sex of the unborn child depends on whether
the zygote has XX or XY chromosomes.
It is important to eat balanced food and
maintain personal hygiene during
adolescence.

Exercises
1. What is the term used for secretions of endocrine glands responsible for
changes taking place in the body?
2. Define adolescence.
3. What is menstruation? Explain.

4. List changes in the body that take place at puberty.
5. Prepare a Table having two columns depicting names of endocrine glands

and hormones secreted by them.
6. What are sex hormones? Why are they named so? State their function.
7. Choose the correct option.
(a) Adolescents should be careful about what they eat, because

(i) proper diet develops their brains.
(ii) proper diet is needed for the rapid growth taking place in their
body.
(iii) adolescents feel hungry all the time.
(iv) taste buds are well developed in teenagers.
(b) Reproductive age in women starts when their

(i) menstruation starts.
(ii) breasts start developing.
(iii) body weight increases.

(iv) height increases.
(c) The right meal for adolescents consists of
(i) chips, noodles, coke.

(ii) chapati, dal, vegetables.
(iii) rice, noodles and burger.
(iv) vegetable cutlets, chips and lemon drink.

8. Write notes on—
(a) Adam’s apple.
(b) Secondary sexual characters.

(c) Sex determination in the unborn baby.
124 SCIENCE
9. Word game : Use the clues to work out the words.
EXERCISES Across
3. Protruding voice box in boys
4. Glands without ducts
7. Endocrine gland attached to brain
8. Secretion of endocrine glands
9. Pancreatic hormone
10. Female hormone
Down
1. Male hormone
2. Secretes thyroxine
3. Another term for teenage
5. Hormone reaches here through blood stream
6. Voice box
7. Term for changes at adolescence

10. The table below shows the data on likely heights of boys and girls as they
grow in age. Draw graphs showing height and age for both boys and
girls on the same graph paper. What conclusions can be drawn from
these graphs?
Age Height (cm)

(Years) Boys Girls
0 53 53
4 96 92
8 114 110
12 129 133
16 150 150
20 173 165

1. Find out from your elder relatives about their awareness of the
legal status of early marriage. You yourself may get information on
it from your teacher, parents, a doctor or the internet. Write a two-
minute speech explaining why early marriage is not good for the
couple.
2. Collect newspaper cuttings and information in magazines about HIV/
AIDS. Write a one page article of 15 to 20 sentences on HIV/AIDS.
3. In our country, according to a census, there are 882 adolescent
females for every 1000 males. Find out.
(a) the concerns of the community regarding this low ratio.
Remember that the chance of having a boy or a girl is equal.
(b) what amniocentesis is and how useful this technique is. Why
is its use for identification of sex of the unborn child banned
in India?
4. Put your ideas together and write a short note on the importance of
knowing facts about reproduction.
For more information, visit :
www.teenshealth.org/teen/sexual_health/
www.ama_assn.org/ama/pub/category/1947.html
www.adolescenthealth.com
126 SCIENCE
FORCE AND PRESSURE
I
n Class VII, you have learnt how a flick of the stick (Fig. 11.1). In all
objects move. Do you recall how we these situations the ball is either
can decide whether an object is made to move faster or slower or its
moving faster than the other? What does direction of motion is changed.
the distance moved by an object in unit We often say that a force has been
time indicate? You also know that a applied on a ball when it is kicked,
moving object like a ball rolling on the pushed, thrown or flicked. What is a
ground slows down. Sometimes it may force? What can it do to bodies on which
change its direction of motion. It is also it is applied? We shall seek answers to
possible that the ball may slow down such questions in this chapter.
and also change its direction. Did you
ever wonder what makes an object to 11.1 Force – A Push or a Pull
slow down or go faster, or change its
direction of motion? Actions like picking, opening,
Let us recall some of our everyday shutting, kicking, hitting, lifting,
experiences. What do you do to make flicking, pushing, pulling are often
a football move? What do you do to used to describe certain tasks. Each
make a moving ball move faster? How of these actions usually results in
does a goalkeeper stop a ball? How some kind of change in the motion of
do fielders stop a ball hit by a an object. Can these terms be
batsman? A hockey player changes replaced with one or more terms? Let
the direction of the moving ball with us find out.
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 11.1 : (a) A goal keeper saving a goal (b) A hockey player flicking a ball
(c) A fielder stopping a ball
Activity 11.1
Table 11.1 gives some examples of familiar situations involving motion of objects.
You can add more such situations or replace those given here. Try to identify
action involved in each case as a push and/or a pull and record your observations.
One example has been given to help you.
Table 11.1 : Identifying Actions as Push or Pull
S. Description of Action : (pushing/ pulling/picking/ Action can be

No the situation hitting/lifting/ lowering/flying/ grouped as a
kicking/ throwing/shutting/
flicking ) Push Pull
1. Moving a book Pushing Pulling Lifting — Yes Yes

placed on a table
2. Opening or
shutting a door
3. Drawing a bucket
of water from a
well
4. A football player
taking a penalty
kick
5. A cricket ball hit

by a batsman
6. Moving a loaded
cart
7. Opening a
drawer
Do you notice that each of the actions
can be grouped as a pull or a push or
both? Can we infer from this, that to move
an object, it has to be pushed or pulled? I learnt in Class VI that a
In science, a push or a pull on an magnet attracts a piece of
object is called a force. Thus, we can iron towards it. Is attraction
say that the motion imparted to objects also a pull? What about
was due to the action of a force. When repulsion between similar
poles of two magnets? Is it a
does a force come into play? Let us
pull or a push?
find out.
128 SCIENCE
11.2 Forces are due to an Fig. 11.3 shows three situations that
Interaction may be familiar to you. Can you decide
who is pulling and who is pushing in
Suppose a man is standing behind a
stationary car (Fig.11.2). Will the car these cases? In Fig. 11.3 (a), both the
move due to his presence? Suppose the girls appear to push each other while
man now begins to push the car, that the pair of girls in Fig. 11.3 (b) are trying
is, he applies a force on it. The car may to pull each other. Similarly, the cow
begin to move in the direction of the and the man in Fig. 11. 3(c) appear to
applied force. Note that the man has to pull each other. The girls in the two
push the car to make it move. situations shown here are applying force
Fig.11.2 : A car being pushed by a man
Fig11.3 (a) : Who is pushing whom? Fig 11.3 (b) : Who is pulling whom ?
Fig 11.3 (c) : Who is pulling whom?

on each other. Is it also true for the man Have you ever seen a game of tug-of
and the cow? war? In this game two teams pull at a
From these examples, we can infer that rope in opposite directions (Fig. 11.5).
at least two objects must interact for a force Members of both the teams try to pull
to come into play. Thus, an interaction of the rope in their direction. Sometimes
one object with another object results in a the rope simply does not move. Is it not
force between the two objects. similar to the situation shown in Fig.
11.3 (b)? The team that pulls harder,
11.3 Exploring Forces that is, applies a larger force, finally wins
Let us try to learn more about forces. the game.
Activity 11.2
Choose a heavy object like a table or a box,
which you can move only by pushing
hard. Try to push it all by yourself. Can
(a)
you move it? Now ask one of your friends
to help you in pushing it in the
same direction [Fig.11.4(a)]. Is it
easier to move it now? Can you
explain why?
Next push the same object, but ask
your friend to push it from the (b)
opposite side [Fig.11.4 (b)]. Does the
object move? If it does, note the
direction in which it moves. Can you
guess which one of you is applying a Fig. 11.4 : Two friends pushing a heavy load
larger force? (a) in the same direction, (b) in opposite direction
Fig. 11.5 : The rope may not move if the two teams pull at it with equal force
130 SCIENCE
What do these examples suggest Activity 11.3
about the nature of force?
Forces applied on an object in the Take a rubber ball and place it on a
same direction add to one another. Now level surface such as a table top or
recall what happened when you and a concrete floor. Now, gently push
your friend pushed the heavy box in the the ball along the level surface
same direction in Activity 11.2. (Fig. 11.6). Does the ball begin to
If the two forces act in the opposite move? Push the ball again while it
directions on an object, the net force is still moving. Is there any change
acting on it is the difference between in its speed? Does it increase or
the two forces. What did you observe decrease?
in Activity 11.2 when both of you were Next, place your palm in front of the
pushing the heavy box from opposite moving ball. Remove your palm as
directions? soon as the moving ball touches it.
Does your palm apply a force on the
ball? What happens to the speed of
the ball now? Does it increase or
Does it mean that the net decrease? What would happen if you
force on an object is zero if the let your palm hold the moving ball?
two forces acting on it in
opposite directions are equal?
Recall that in the tug-of-war when

two teams pull equally hard, the rope
does not move in any direction.
So, we learn that a force could be
larger or smaller than the other. The
strength of a force is usually expressed
by its magnitude. We have also to Fig. 11.6 : A ball at rest begins to move
when a force is applied on it
specify the direction in which a force
acts. Also, if the direction or the
You might recall similar situations.
magnitude of the applied force changes,
For example, while taking a penalty kick
its effect also changes.
in football, the player applies a force on
In general, more than one force may the ball. Before being hit, the ball was
be acting on an object. However, the at rest and so its speed was zero. The
effect on the object is due to the net applied force makes the ball move
force acting on it. towards the goal. Suppose, the
goalkeeper dives or jumps up to save
11.4 A Force can Change the the goal. By his action the goalkeeper
tries to apply a force on the moving ball.
State of Motion
The force applied by him can stop or
Let us now find out what happens when deflect the ball, saving a goal being
a force acts on an object. scored. If the goalkeeper succeeds in
stopping the ball, its speed decreases to Activity 11.4
zero.
These observations suggest that a Take a ball and place it on a level
force applied on an object may change surface as you did in Activity 11.3.
its speed. If the force applied on the Make the ball move by giving it a
object is in the direction of its motion, push. Now place the ruler from your
the speed of the object increases. If the geometry box in its path as shown
force is applied in the direction opposite in Fig. 11.8. In doing so, you would
to the direction of motion, then it results apply a force on the moving ball.
in a decrease in the speed of the object. Does the ball continue to move in
the same direction after it strikes
the ruler? Repeat the activity and
try to obstruct the moving ball by
placing the ruler such that it makes
different angles to its path. In each
I have seen case note your observations about
children competing with one
the direction of motion of the ball
another in moving a rubber tyre
or a ring by pushing it
after it strikes the ruler.
(Fig. 11.7). I now understand
why the speed of the tyre
increases whenever it is
pushed.
(a)
Fig. 11.7 : To move a tyre faster it has to be (b)

pushed repeatedly
Fig. 11.8 : (a) A ball set in motion by pushing it
Paheli is curious to know whether along a level surface and (b) the
application of a force can only change direction of motion of the ball after it
strikes the ruler placed in its path
the speed of an object. Let us find out.
132 SCIENCE
Let us consider some more 11.5 Force can Change the
examples. In a game of volleyball, Shape of an Object
players often push the moving ball to
their teammates to make a winning Activity 11.5
move. Sometimes the ball is returned
Some situations have been given in
to the other side of the court by
Column 1 of Table 11.2 on page 134
pushing or smashing it. In cricket, a
in which objects are not free to move.
batsman plays his or her shot by
Column 2 of the Table suggests the
applying a force on the ball with the
manner in which a force can be
bat. Is there any change in the
applied on each object while Column
direction of motion of the ball in these
3 shows a diagram of the action. Try
cases? In all these examples the speed
to observe the effect of force in as
and the direction of the moving ball
many situations as possible. You can
change due to the application of a
also add similar situations using
force. Can you give a few more
available material from your
examples of this kind?
environment. Note your observations
A change in either the speed of an
in Columns 4 and 5 of the Table.
object, or its direction of motion, or both,
is described as a change in its state of
What do you conclude from the
motion. Thus, a force may bring a
observations noted in Table 11.2?
change in the state of motion of an
What happens when you apply a force
object.
on an inflated balloon by pressing it
State of Motion between your palms? What happens
to the shape of a ball of dough when it
The state of motion of an object is is rolled to make a chapati? What
described by its speed and the
direction of motion. The state of rest
happens when you press a rubber ball
is considered to be the state of zero placed on a table? In all these
speed. An object may be at rest or examples you saw that the application
in motion; both are its states of of force on an object may change its
motion. shape.
Having performed all the above
Does it mean that the application of activities, you would have realised that
a force would always result in a change a force
in the state of motion of the object? Let
may make an object move from rest.
us find out.
may change the speed of an object
It is common experience that many
a time application of force does not result if it is moving.
in a change in the state of motion. For may change the direction of motion
example, a heavy box may not move at of an object.

all even if you apply the maximum force may bring about a change in the
that you can exert. Again, no effect of shape of an object.
force is observed when you try to push may cause some or all of these
a wall. effects.
Table 11.2 : Studying the Effect of Force on Objects
Description of How to apply Diagram Action of force

situation force
Change in Change in
state of shape
motion
Yes No Yes No
A lump of dough on Pressing it down
a plate with your hands
Spring fixed to the By sitting on the

seat of a bicycle seat
A rubber band By hanging a

suspended from a weight or by
hook/nail fixed on a pulling its free end
wall
A plastic or metal By putting a weight

scale placed at the centre of the
between two bricks scale
While a force may cause one or more Generally, to apply a force on an object,
of these effects, it is important to your body has to be in contact with the
remember that none of these actions can
take place without the action of a force. It is the muscular force that enables
us to perform all activities involving
Thus, an object cannot move by itself, movement or bending of our body. In
it cannot change speed by itself, it Class VII you have learnt that in the
cannot change direction by itself and process of digestion the food gets
its shape cannot change by itself. pushed through the alimentary canal.
Could it be a muscular force that does
it? You also know that lungs expand
11.6 Contact Forces and contract while we inhale and
Muscular Force exhale air during breathing. Where
are these muscles located which
Can you push or lift a book lying on a make breathing possible? Can you list
table without touching it? Can you lift a few more examples of the force
a bucket of water without holding it? exerted by the muscles in our body?
134 SCIENCE
object. The contact may also be with the we stop pedalling a bicycle, it gradually
help of a stick or a piece of rope. When slows down and finally comes to a stop.
we push an object like a school bag or A car or a scooter also comes to rest once
lift a bucket of water, where does the its engine is switched off. Similarly, a
force come from? This force is caused boat comes to rest if we stop rowing it.
by the action of muscles in our body. Can you add some more such
The force resulting due to the action of experiences?
muscles is known as the muscular In all these situations no force
force. appears to be acting on the objects, yet
their speed gradually decreases and
Animals also make use of muscular
they come to rest after some time. What
force to carry out their physical activities
causes a change in their state of motion?
and other tasks. Animals like bullocks, Could some force be acting on them!
horses, donkeys and camels are used to Can you guess the direction in which
per for m various tasks for us. In the force must be acting in each case?
per for ming these tasks they use The force responsible for changing the
muscular force (Fig. 11.9). state of motion of objects in all these
Since muscular force can be applied examples is the force of friction. It is the
only when it is in contact with an object, force of friction between the surface of
it is also called a contact force. Are the ball and the ground that brings the
there other types of contact forces? Let moving ball to rest. Similarly, friction
us find out. between water and the boat brings it to
a stop once you stop rowing.
Friction
The force of friction always acts on
Recall some of your experiences. A ball all the moving objects and its direction
rolling along the ground gradually slows is always opposite to the direction of
down and finally comes to rest. When motion. Since the force of friction arises
Fig.11.9 : Muscular force of animals is used to carry out many difficult tasks
due to contact between surfaces, it is Does the magnet on the rollers begin
also an example of a contact force. You to move when the other magnet is brought
will learn more about this force in near it? Does it always move in the
Chapter 12. direction of the approaching magnet?
You may be wondering whether it is What do these observations suggest? Does
essential for the agent applying a force it mean that some force must be acting
on an object to be always in contact with between the two magnets?
it. Let us find out. You have learnt in Class VI that like
poles of two magnets repel each other and
11.7 Non-contact Forces unlike poles attract each other. Attraction
or repulsion between objects can also be
Magnetic Force
seen as another form of pull or push. Do
Activity 11.6 you have to bring the magnets in contact
for observing the force between them? A
Take a pair of bar magnets. Place magnet can exert a force on another
the longer side of one of the magnets magnet without being in contact with it.
over three round shaped pencils or The force exerted by a magnet is an
wooden rollers as shown in example of a non-contact force.
Fig.11.10. Now bring one end of the Similarly, the force exerted by a
other magnet near the end of the magnet on a piece of iron is also a non-
magnet placed on the rollers. Make contact force.
sure that the two magnets do not
touch each other. Observe what Electrostatic Force
happens. Next, bring the other end
Activity 11.7
of the magnet near the same end of
the magnet placed on the rollers Take a plastic straw and cut it into
(Fig.11.10). Note what happens to nearly two equal pieces. Suspend one
the magnet placed on the rollers of the pieces from the edge of a table
every time another magnet is with the help of a piece of thread (Fig.
brought near it. 11.11). Now hold the other piece of
straw in your hand and rub its free
end with a sheet of paper. Bring the
rubbed end of the straw near the
suspended straw. Make sure that the
two pieces do not touch each other.
What do you observe?
Next, rub the free end of the
suspended piece of straw with a
sheet of paper. Again, bring the piece
of straw that was rubbed earlier with
paper near the free end of the
Fig.11.10 : Observing attraction and repulsion suspended straw. What do you
between two magnets
observe now?
136 SCIENCE
Objects or things fall towards the
earth because it pulls them. This force
is called the force of gravity, or just
gravity. This is an attractive force. The
force of gravity acts on all objects. The
force of gravity acts on all of us all the
time without our being aware of it. Water
begins to flow towards the ground as
soon as we open a tap. Water in rivers
flows downward due to the force of
gravity.
Fig.11.11 : A straw rubbed with paper attracts Gravity is not a property of the earth
another straw but repels it if it has alone. In fact, every object in the
also been rubbed with a sheet of
universe, whether small or large,
paper.
exerts a force on every other object.
This force is known as the
A straw is said to have acquired gravitational force.
electrostatic charge after it has been
rubbed with a sheet of paper. Such a 11.8 Pressure
straw is an example of a charged body.
The force exerted by a charged body You have learnt in Class VII that strong
on another charged or uncharged body winds during a storm or a cyclone can
is known as electrostatic force. This blow away even the roof-tops. You also
force comes into play even when the learnt that winds and cyclones are
bodies are not in contact. The caused by the differences in air
pressure. Is there any relation between
electrostatic force, therefore, is another
pressure and force? Let us find out.
example of a non-contact force. You will
Try to push a nail into a wooden
learn more about electric charges in
plank by its head. Did you succeed? Try
Chapter 15.
now to push the nail by the pointed end
C. Gravitational Force (Fig. 11.12). Could you do it this time?
You know that a coin or a pen falls to the

ground when it slips off your hand. The
leaves or fruits also fall to the ground
when they get detached from the plant.
Have you ever wondered why it is so?
When the coin is held in your hand it
is at rest. As soon as it is released, it
begins to move downwards. It is clear that
the state of motion of the coin undergoes
a change. Can this happen without a
force acting on it? Which is this force? Fig. 11.12 : Pushing a nail into a wooden plank
Try cutting vegetables with a blunt and
a sharp knife. Which is easier?
Do you get the feeling that the area
over which the force is applied (for
example, the pointed end of the nail)
plays a role is making these tasks easier?
The force acting on a unit area of a
surface is called pressure.
pressure = force / area on which it acts
At this stage we consider only those

forces which act perpendicular to the
surface on which the pressure is to
be computed.
Note that the area is in the

denominator in the above expression. Fig. 11.13 : A porter carrying a heavy load
So, the smaller the area, larger the Do liquids and gases also exert
pressure on a surface for the same force. pressure? Does it also depend on the
The area of the pointed end of the nail area on which the force acts? Let us
is much smaller than that of its head. find out.
The same force, therefore, produces a
pressure sufficient to push the pointed 11.9 Pressure exerted by
end of the nail into the wooden plank. Liquids and Gases
Can you explain now why shoulder
bags are provided with broad straps and Activity 11.8
not thin strap? And, why the tools
meant for cutting and piercing always Take a transparent glass tube or a
have sharp edges? plastic pipe. The length of the pipe/
tube should be about 15 cm and its
diameter should be 5-7.5 cm. Also
take a piece of thin sheet of a good
I now understand why quality rubber, say, a rubber
porters place on their heads balloon. Stretch the rubber sheet
a round piece of cloth, when tightly over one end of the pipe.
they have to carry heavy Hold the pipe at the middle, keeping
loads (Fig. 11.13). By this it in a vertical position (Fig.11.14).
they increase the area of Ask one of your friends to pour some
contact of the load with
water in the pipe. Does the rubber
their head. So, the pressure
on their head is reduced sheet bulge out? Note also the
and they find it easier to height of the water column in the
carry the load. pipe. Pour some more water.
138 SCIENCE
Observe again the bulge in the sheet fixed to the glass tube bulge
rubber sheet and the height of the this time? Pour some more water in
water column in the pipe. Repeat the bottle. Is there any change in
this process a few more times. Can the bulge of the rubber sheet?
you see any relation between the
amount of the bulge in the rubber
sheet and the height of the water
column in the pipe?
Fig.11.15 : A liquid exerts pressure on the walls

of the container
Fig.11.14 : Pressure exerted by water at the Note that the rubber sheet has been
bottom of the container depends on fixed on the side of the container and
the height of its column not at the bottom. Does the bulging of
the rubber sheet in this case indicate
Activity 11.9 that water exerts pressure on the sides
of the container as well? Let us
Take a plastic bottle. You can take investigate further.
a discarded water or soft drink
bottle. Fix a cylindrical glass tube, Activity 11.10
a few cm long near its bottom as
shown in Fig. 11.15. You can do so Take an empty plastic bottle or a
by slightly heating one end of the cylindrical container. You can take
glass tube and then quickly a used tin of talcum powder or a
inserting it near the bottom of the plastic bottle. Drill four holes all
bottle. Make sure that the water around near the bottom of the
does not leak from the joint. If there bottle. Make sure that the holes are
is any leakage, seal it with molten at the same height from the bottom
wax. Cover the mouth of the glass (Fig. 11.16). Now fill the bottle with
tube with a thin rubber sheet as you water. What do you observe?
did in Activity 11.8. Now fill the Does the water coming out of the
bottle upto half with water. What do holes falls at the same distance from
you observe? Why does the rubber the bottle? What does this indicate?

Do you recall what happens to the
air in the bicycle tube when it has a
puncture? Do these observations
suggest that air exerts pressure on the
inner walls of an inflated balloon or a
tube? So, we find that gases, too, exert
pressure on the walls of their
container.
11.10 Atmospheric Pressure

You know that there is air all around
us. This envelop of air is known as the
atmosphere. The atmospheric air
extends up to many kilometres above
the surface of the earth. The pressure
exerted by this air is known as
atmospheric pressure. We know that
Fig. 11.16 : Liquids exert equal pressure at the pressure is force per unit area. If we
same depth imagine a unit area and a very long
cylinder standing on it filled with air,
Can you now say that liquids exert
then the weight of the air in this cylinder
pressure on the walls of the container?
is the atmospheric pressure (Fig. 11.17).
Do gases also exert pressure? Do
But, how large or small is the
they also exert pressure on the walls of
atmospheric pressure? Let us get an
their containers? Let us find out.
idea about its magnitude.
I have seen fountains of water

coming out of the leaking joints
or holes in pipes supplying
water. Is it not due to the
pressure exerted by water on the
walls of the pipes?
When you inflate a balloon, why do

you have to close its mouth? What
happens when you open the mouth of
an inflated balloon? Suppose you have
Unit area
a balloon which has holes. Would you
be able to inflate it? If not, why? Can we
say that air exerts pressure in all Fig. 11.17 : Atmospheric pressure is the weight
directions? of air in a column of unit area
140 SCIENCE
Activity 11.11
Take a good quality rubber sucker.
It looks like a small rubber cup (Fig. If the area of my head
11.18). Press it hard on a smooth were 10 cm × 10 cm, how
plane surface. Does it stick to the much weight of air would I
be carrying on my head?
surface? Now try to pull it off the
surface. Can you do it?
The weight of air in a column of the
height of the atmosphere and area
10 cm × 10 cm (Fig. 11.19) is as large
as 1000 kg. The reason we are not
crushed under this weight is that the
pressure inside our bodies is also equal
to the atmospheric pressure and cancels
the pressure from outside.
Fig.11.18 : A rubber sucker pressed on a sur-

face.
When you press the sucker, most of

the air between its cup and the surface
escapes out. The sucker sticks to the
sur face because the pressure of
atmosphere acts on it. To pull the sucker
off the surface, the applied force should
be large enough to overcome the
atmospheric pressure. This activity
might give you an idea about the
magnitude of atmospheric pressure. In
fact, it would not be possible for any
human being to pull the sucker off the
surface if there were no air at all between
the sucker and the surface. Does it give
you an idea how large the atmospheric Fig. 11.19 : Pressure of atmosphere on your
pressure is? head
Did you know?
Otto von Guericke, a German scientist of 17th century, invented a pump to
extract air out of the vessel. With the help of this pump, he demonstrated
dramatically the force of the air pressure. He joined two metallic hemispheres
of 51 cm diameter each and pumped air out of them. Then he employed eight
horses on each hemisphere to pull them apart (Fig. 11.20). So great is the
force of air pressure that the hemispheres could not be pulled apart.
Fig. 11.20 : Horses pulling the hemispheres
142 SCIENCE
ATMOSPHERIC Force could be a push or a pull.
PRESSURE A force arises due to the interaction between
CONTACT FORCE two objects.

Force has magnitude as well as direction.
ELECTROSTATIC A change in the speed of an object or the
FORCE direction of its motion or both implies a change
FORCE in its state of motion.

Force acting on an object may cause a change
FRICTION in its state of motion or a change in its shape.
A force can act on an object with or without
GRAVITATIONAL
being in contact with it.
FORCE
Force per unit area is called pressure.
GRAVITY Liquids and gases exert pressure on the walls
of their containers.
MAGNETIC FORCE
The pressure exerted by air around us is
MUSCULAR FORCE known as atmospheric pressure.
NON-CONTACT
FORCE
PRESSURE
PULL
PUSH
Exercises
1. Give two examples each of situations in which you push or pull to change
the state of motion of objects.
2. Give two examples of situations in which applied force causes a change in

the shape of an object.
3. Fill in the blanks in the following statements:
(a) To draw water from a well we have to ——— at the rope.

(b) A charged body ———— an uncharged body towards it.
(c) To move a loaded trolley we have to ———— it.
(d) The north pole of a magnet ———— the north pole of another magnet.

4. An archer stretches her bow while taking aim at the target. She then
EXERCISES
releases the arrow, which begins to move towards the target. Based on
this information fill up the gaps in the following statements using the
following terms:
muscular, contact, non-contact, gravity, friction, shape, attraction
(a) To stretch the bow, the archer applies a force that causes a change
in its ——.
(b) The force applied by the archer to stretch the bow is an example of —
—— force.
(c) The type of force responsible for a change in the state of motion of the
arrow is an example of a ———— force.
(d) While the arrow moves towards its target, the forces acting on it are
due to ———— and that due to ———— of air.
5. In the following situations identify the agent exerting the force and the
object on which it acts. State the effect of the force in each case.
(a) Squeezing a piece of lemon between the fingers to extract its juice.
(b) Taking out paste from a toothpaste tube.
(c) A load suspended from a spring while its other end is on a hook fixed
to a wall.
(d) An athlete making a high jump to clear the bar at a certain height.
6. A blacksmith hammers a hot piece of iron while making a tool. How does
the force due to hammering affect the piece of iron?
7. An inflated balloon was pressed against a wall after it has been rubbed
with a piece of synthetic cloth. It was found that the balloon sticks to the
wall. What force might be responsible for the attraction between the balloon
and the wall?
8. Name the forces acting on a plastic bucket containing water held above
ground level in your hand. Discuss why the forces acting on the bucket do
not bring a change in its state of motion.
9. A rocket has been fired upwards to launch a satellite in its orbit. Name
the two forces acting on the rocket immediately after leaving the launching
pad.
10. When we press the bulb of a dropper with its nozzle kept in water, air in
the dropper is seen to escape in the form of bubbles. Once we release the
pressure on the bulb, water gets filled in the dropper. The rise of water in
the dropper is due to
(a) pressure of water
(b) gravity of the earth
(c) shape of rubber bulb
(d) atmospheric pressure
144 SCIENCE
1. Make a 50 cm × 50 cm bed of dry sand about 10 cm in thickness.

Make sure that its top surface is levelled. Take a wooden or a plastic
stool. Cut two strips of graph paper each with a width of 1 cm.
Paste them vertically on any leg of the stool - one at the bottom and
the other from the top. Now gently put the stool on the sand bed
with its legs resting on the sand. Increase the size of sand bed if
required. Now put a load, say a school bag full of books, on the seat
of the stool. Mark the level of sand on the graph strip. This would
give you the depth, if any, to which the legs of stool sink in sand.
Next, turn the stool upside down so that now it rests on its seat on
the sand bed. Note the depth to which the stool sinks now. Next,
put the same load on the stool and note the depth to which it sinks
in the sand. Compare the pressure exerted by the stool in the two
situations.
2. Take a tumbler and fill it with water. Cover the mouth of the tumbler
with a thick card similar to that of a postcard. Hold the tumbler
with one hand while keeping the card pressed to its mouth with
your other hand. Turn the tumbler upside down while keeping the
card pressed to its mouth. Make sure that the tumbler is held
vertical. Gently remove the hand pressing the card. What do you
observe? Does the card get detached allowing the water to spill?
With a little practice you will find that the card continues to hold
water in the tumbler even after it is not supported by your hand.
Also try this activity by using a piece of cloth to hold the tumbler in
an upside down position (Fig. 11.21).
Fig. 11.21

3. Take 4-5 plastic bottles of different shapes and sizes. Join them
together with small pieces of glass or rubber tube as shown in
Fig. 11.22. Keep this arrangement on a level surface. Now pour
water in any one of the bottles. Note whether the bottle in which
water is poured gets filled first or all the bottles get filled up
simultaneously. Note the level of water in all the bottles from time
to time. Try to explain your observations.
Fig. 11.22
For more information on force and pressure visit:

www.glenbrook.k12.il.us/gbssci/phys/class/newtlauws/
u2l2a.html
www.hatesville.k12.in.us/physics/phyNet/Mechanics/
Newton2/Pressure.html
kids.earth.nasa.gov/archive/air_pressure/
146 SCIENCE
FRICTION
Y
ou might have seen a driver of a 12.1 Force of Friction
car or a truck slowing down the
vehicle at a traffic signal. You, too, Activity 12.1
slow down your bicycle whenever Gently push a book on a table [Fig.
needed by applying brakes. Have you 12.2(a)]. You observe that it stops
ever thought why a vehicle slows after moving for some distance.
down when brakes are applied? Not Repeat this activity pushing the
only vehicles, any object, moving over book from the opposite direction
the surface of another object slows [Fig. 12.2, (b)]. Does the book stop
down when no external force is this time, too? Can you think of an
applied on it. Finally it stops. Have explanation? Can we say that a force
you not seen a moving ball on the must be acting on the book
ground stopping after some time? opposing its motion? This force is
Why do we slip when we step on a called the force of friction.
banana peel (Fig. 12.1)? Why is it
difficult to walk on a smooth and wet
floor?
(a)
Fig. 12.1 : A boy falls down when he steps on a (b)

banana peel Fig. 12.2 (a), (b) : Friction opposes relative motion
between the surfaces of the
You will find the answers to such
book and the table
questions in this chapter.
You saw that if you apply the force
for this difference? Repeat this
along the left, friction acts along the
activity by wrapping a piece of jute
right. If you apply the force along the
bag around the brick. What do you
right, the friction acts along the left
observe?
direction. In both cases the force opposes
the motion of the book. The force of
Spring Balance
friction always opposes the applied force.
In the above activity, the force of Spring balance is a device used for
friction acts between the surface of the measuring the force acting on an
book and the surface of the table. object. It consists of a coiled spring
Is the friction the same for all the which gets stretched when a force is
applied to it. Stretching of the spring
sur faces? Does it depend on the
is measured by a pointer moving on
smoothness of the surfaces? Let us find a graduated scale. The reading on the
out. scale gives the magnitude of the force.
12.2 Factors affecting

Friction
Activity 12.2
Tie a string around a brick. Pull the
brick by a spring balance (Fig.
12.3). You need to apply some force.
Note down the reading on the
spring balance when the brick just
begins to move. It gives you a
measure of the of force of friction
between the surface of the brick and
the floor.
Activity 12.3
Make an inclined plane on a smooth
Fig. 12.3 : A brick is being pulled by spring floor, or on a table. You may use a
balance. wooden board supported by bricks,
Now wrap a piece of polythene or books. [Fig. 12.4 (a)]. Put a mark
with a pen at any point A on the
around the brick and repeat the
inclined plane. Now let a pencil cell
activity. Do you observe any
move down from this point. How far
difference in the readings of the
does it move on the table before
spring balance in the above two coming to rest? Note down the
cases? What might be the reason distance. Now spread a piece of cloth
148 SCIENCE
Does the distance covered depend on
over the table. Make sure that there
the nature of the surface on which the
are no wrinkles in the cloth. Try the
cell moves?
activity again [Fig. 12.4 (b)].
Could the smoothness of the surface
of the cell also affect the distance
travelled by it?
Mark A
I shall try the activity

by wrapping a piece of
sandpaper around
the cell.
Friction is caused by the

irregularities on the two surfaces in
(a) contact. Even those surfaces which
appear very smooth have a large number
of minute irregularities on them (Fig.
12.5). Irregularities on the two surfaces
lock into one another. When we attempt
Mark A to move any surface, we have to apply a
force to overcome interlocking. On
rough surfaces, there are a larger
number of irregularities. So the force of
friction is greater if a rough surface is
involved.
(b)
Fig. 12.4 : The pencil cell covers different

distances on different surfaces
Repeat this activity by spreading

a thin layer of sand over the table.
Maintain the same slope
throughout the activity.
In which case is the distance covered

the minimum? Why is the distance
covered by the pencil cell different every
time. Try to reason why? Discuss the
result. Fig. 12.5 : Surface irregularities
FRICTION 149
We see that the friction is caused by friction and you find it somewhat easier
the interlocking of irregularities in the to move the box already in motion than
two surfaces. It is obvious that the force to get it started.
of friction will increase if the two
surfaces are pressed harder. You can 12.3 Friction : A Necessary
experience it by dragging a mat when Evil
nobody is sitting on it, and when a
Recall now some of your experiences. Is
preson is sitting on it.
it easier to hold a kulhar (earthen pot)
Recall your experience when last time or a glass tumbler? Suppose the outer
you moved a heavy box from one place surface of the tumbler is greasy, or has
to another. If you have no such a film of cooking oil on it; would it
experience, get that experience now. become easier or more difficult to hold
What is easier — to move the box from it? Just think : would it be possible to
rest, or to move it when it is already in hold the glass at all if there is no
motion? friction?
The force required to overcome Recall also how difficult it is to move
friction at the instant an object starts on a wet muddy track, or wet marble
moving from rest is a measure of static floor. Can you imagine being able to walk
friction. On the other hand, the force at all if there were no friction?
required to keep the object moving with
the same speed is a measure of sliding
friction.
Fig. 12.6 : You have to push on the box to keep it Fig. 12.7 : A nail is fixed in the wall due to
moving friction
When the box starts sliding, the You could not write with pen or
contact points on its surface, do not get pencil if there were no friction. When
enough time to lock into the contact your teacher is writing with chalk on
points on the floor. So, the sliding the blackboard, its rough surface rubs
friction is slightly smaller than the static off some chalk particles which stick to
150 SCIENCE
the black board. Could it happen if there
were no friction between the chalk and
the board?
If an object started moving, it would
never stop if there were no friction. Had
there been no friction between the tyres
of the automobiles and the road, they
could not be started or stoped or turned
to change the direction of motion. You
could not fix a nail in the wall (Fig. 12.7)
or tie a knot. Without friction no building
could be constructed.
Fig. 12.9 : Rubbing of your palms makes you feel

warm
for a few minutes. You can cite various

other examples in which friction
Fig. 12.8 : Soles of shoes wear out due to

friction
On the other hand, friction is an evil,

too. It wears out the materials whether
they are screws, ball bearings or soles
of shoes (Fig. 12.8). You must have seen
worn-out steps of foot over-bridges at
railway stations.
Friction can also produce heat.
Vigorously rub your palms together for Fig. 12.10 : Stricking a match stick produces fire
a few minutes (Fig. 12.9). How do you by friction
feel? When you strike a matchstick produces heat. In fact, when a machine
against the rough surface, it catches fire is operated, heat generated causes much
(Fig. 12.10). wastage of energy. We shall discuss the
You might have observed that the jar ways of minimising friction in the
of a mixer becomes hot when it is run following section.
FRICTION 151
12.4 Increasing and Reducing In some situations, however, friction
Friction is undesirable and we would want to
minimize it.
As you have seen in the previous section, Why do you sprinkle fine powder on
friction is desirable in some situations. the carrom board? You might have
Have you ever thought why the sole noticed that when a few drops of oil are
of your shoes is grooved [Fig. 12.11 (a)]? poured on the hinges of a door, the door
It is done to provide the shoes better moves smoothly. A bicycle and a motor
grip on the floor, so that you can move mechanic uses grease between the
safely. Similarly, the treaded tyres of moving parts of these machines. In all
cars,trucks and bulldozers provide better the above cases, we want to reduce
grip with the ground.
Fig. 12.12 : Powder is sprinkled on the carrom

board to reduce friction
friction in order to increase efficiency.

When oil, grease or graphite is applied
between the moving part of a machine,
(a) (b)
a thin layer is formed there and moving
surfaces do not directly rub against each
Fig. 12.11 : Soles of shoes and tyres are treaded
other (Fig. 12.13). Interlocking of
to increase friction
irregularities is avoided to a great extent.
We deliberately increase friction by Movement becomes smooth. The
using brake pads in the brake system substances which reduce friction are
of bicycles and automobiles. When you called lubricants. In some machines, it
are riding a bicycle, the brake pads do may not be advisable to use oil as
not touch the wheels. But when you lubricant. An air cushion between the
press the brake lever, these pads arrest moving parts is used to reduce friction.
the motion of the rim due to friction.
Lubricant
The wheel stops moving. You might have
seen that kabaddi players rub their
hands with soil for a better grip of their
opponents. Gymnasts apply some coarse
substance on their hands to increase
friction for better grip. Fig. 12.13 : Action of lubricant
152 SCIENCE
Activity 12.4
Take a few pencils which are
Can we reduce friction to cylindrical in shape. Place them
zero by polishing surfaces parallel to each other on a table.
or using large amount of Place a thick book over it (Fig.
lubricants? 12.15). Now push the book. You
observe the pencils rolling as the
book moves. Do you feel it easier to
move the book in this way than to
Friction can never be slide it? Do you think that
entirely eleminated. No resistance to the motion of the book
surface is perfectly smooth. has been reduced? Have you seen
Some irregularities are heavy machinary being moved by
always there. placing logs under it?
12.5 Wheels Reduce Friction

You must have seen attaches and other
pieces of luggage fitted with rollers. Even
a child can pull such pieces of luggage
(Fig. 12.14). Why is it so? Let us find
out.
Fig. 12.15 : Motion of the book on rollers
When one body rolls over the surface

of another body, the resistance to its
motion is called the rolling friction.
Rolling reduces friction. It is always
easier to roll than to slide a body over
another. That is the reason it is
convenient to pull the luggages fitted
with rollers. Can you now understand
why wheel is said to be one of the
greatest inventions of mankind?
Since the rolling friction is smaller
than the sliding friction, sliding is
replaced in most machines by rolling
by the use of ball bearings. Common
examples are the use of ball bearings
between hubs and the axles of ceiling
Fig. 12.14 : Rolling reduces friction fans and bicycles (Fig. 12.16).
FRICTION 153
is fluids. So we can say that fluids exert
force of friction on objects in motion
through them.
The frictional force exerted by fluids

is also called drag.
The frictional force on an object in a

fluid depends on its speed with respect
to the fluid. The frictional force also
depends on the shape of the object and
the nature of the fluid.
It is obvious that when objects move
through fluids, they have to overcome
friction acting on them. In this process
they lose energy. Efforts are, therefore,
made to minimize friction. So, objects
are given special shapes. Where do you
think the scientists get hints for these
special shapes? From nature, of course.
Birds and fishes have to move about in
fluids all the time. Their bodies must
Fig. 12.16 : Ball bearings reduce friction
have evolved to shapes which would
12.6 Fluid Friction make them not to lose much energy in
overcoming friction. You read about
You know that air is very light and thin. these shapes in Class VI. Look carefully
Yet it exerts frictional force on objects at the shape of an aeroplanes (Fig.
moving through it. Similarly, water and 12.17). Do you find any similarity in its
other liquids exert force of friction when shape and that of a bird? In fact, all
objects move through them. In science, vehicles are designed to have shapes
the common name of gases and liquids which reduce fluid friction.
Fig. 12.17 : Similarity in shapes of an aeroplane and a bird
154 SCIENCE
BALL BEARING Friction opposes the relative motion between
two surfaces in contact. It acts on both the
DRAG
surfaces.
FLUID FRICTION Friction depends on the nature of surfaces in
contact.
FRICTION For a given pair of surfaces friction depends
upon the state of smoothness of those
INTERLOCKING
surfaces.
LUBRICANTS Friction depends on how hard the two surfaces
press together.
ROLLING FRICTION Static friction comes into play when we try to
move an object at rest.
SLIDING FRICTION
Sliding friction comes with play when an
STATIC FRICTION object is sliding over another.
Sliding friction is smaller than static friction.
Friction is important for many of our activities.
Friction can be increased by making a surface
rough.
The sole of the shoes and the tyres of the
vehicle are treaded to increase friction.
The friction is sometimes undesirable.
Friction can be reduced by using lubricants.
When one body rolls over another body, rolling
friction comes into play. Rolling friction is
smaller than the sliding friction.
In many machines, friction is reduced by
using ball bearings.
Fluid friction can be minimised by giving
suitable shapes to bodies moving in fluids.
Exercises
(a) Friction opposes the _____________ between the surfaces in contact

with each other.
(b) Friction depends on the _____________ of surfaces.
FRICTION 155
(c) Friction produces __________.
EXERCISES (d) Sprinkling of powder on the carrom board ________ friction.
(e) Sliding friction is ___________ than the static friction.
2. Four children were asked to arrange forces due to rolling, static and sliding
frictions in a decreasing order. Their arrangements are given below.
Choose the correct arrangement.
(a) Rolling, static, sliding
(b) Rolling, sliding, static
(c) Static, sliding, rolling
(d) Sliding, static, rolling
3. Alida runs her toy car on dry marble floor, wet marble floor, newspaper
and towel spread on the floor. The force of friction acting on the car on
different surfaces in increasing order will be :
(a) Wet marble floor, dry marble floor, newspaper and towel.
(b) Newspaper, towel, dry marble floor, wet marble floor.
(c) Towel, newspaper, dry marble floor, wet marble floor.
(d) Wet marble floor, dry marble floor, towel, newspaper

4. Suppose your writing desk is tilted a little. A book kept on it starts sliding
down. Show the direction of frictional force acting on it.
5. You spill a bucket of soapy water on a marble floor accidently. Would it
make it easier or more difficult for you to walk on the floor? Why?
6. Explain why sportsmen use shoes with spikes.
7. Iqbal has to push a lighter box and Seema has to push a similar heavier
box on the same floor. Who will have to apply a larger force and why?
8. Explain why the sliding friction is less than the static friction.
9. Give examples to show that friction is both a friend and a foe.
10. Explain why objects moving in fluids must have special shapes.
156 SCIENCE
1. What role does friction play in the sport of your choice? Collect
some pictures of that sport in action where friction is either
supporting it or opposing it. Display these pictures with proper
captions on the bulletin board of your classroom.
2. Imagine that friction suddenly vanishes. How would the life be
affected. List ten such situations.
3. Visit a shop which sells sports shoes. Observe the soles of shoes
meant for various sports. Describe your deservations.
4. A toy to play with:
Take an empty match box. Take out its tray. Cut a used refill of a ball
pen of the same width as the tray as shown in the figure below. Fix
the refill with two pins on the top of the tray as shown in Fig. 12.18.
Make two holes on the opposite sides of the tray. Make sure that the
holes are large enough to allow a thread to pass through them easily.
Take a thread about a metre long and pass it through the holes as
shown. Fix beads at the two ends of the thread so that it does not
come out. Insert the tray in the outer cover of the matchbox.
Suspend the match box by the thread. Leave the thread loose.
The match box will start falling down due to gravity. Tighten the
thread now and observe what happens.
Explain your observation. Can you relate it to friction?
Fig. 12.18
You can read more on the related topic on the following websites :
http://www.school-for-champions.com/science/friction.htm
http//hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/firct2.html
FRICTION 157
A riddle for you
In some situations, I oppose the motion
in other situations, I facilitate the motion
but, I always oppose
the relative motion
between two moving surfaces.
Put some lubricant, and
I become small there.
Make the moving surfaces rough
I make the movement tough.
I may be—
static, sliding or rolling
but whenever two surfaces are in motion
I am always there,
Tell me who I am!
158 SCIENCE
SOUND
H
ow do you come to know that a Sound plays an important role in our
‘period’ is over in your school? life. It helps us to communicate with one
You come to know easily that another. We hear a variety of sounds in
someone is at your door when he knocks our surroundings.
or you hear the sound of the doorbell. Make a list of sounds you hear in
Most of the time you can make out that your surroundings.
someone is approaching you by just In the music room of your school you
hear the sounds made by musical
hearing the foot steps.
instruments like flute, tabla,
You might have played a game called
harmonium etc. (Fig 13.1).
hide and seek. In this game a person is How is sound produced? How does it
blind-folded and has to catch the travel from one place to another ? How
remaining players. How is the blind- do we hear sound? Why are some sounds
folded person able to guess which player louder than others? We shall discuss
is closest to her? such questions in this chapter.
Tabla
Sitar
Flute
Harmonium
Fig. 13.1 : Some musical instruments

13.1 Sound is Produced by a Activity 13.2
Vibrating Body Take a rubber band. Put it around
Touch the school bell when not in use. the longer side of a pencil box
What do you feel? Again touch it when (Fig. 13.3). Insert two pencils
producing sound. Can you feel it between the box and the stretched
vibrating? rubber. Now, pluck the rubber band
somewhere in the middle. Do you
Activity 13.1 hear any sound? Does the band
vibrate?
Take a metal plate (or a shallow
frying pan). Hang it at a convenient
place in such a way that it does not
touch any wall. Now strike it with a
stick (Fig.13.2). Touch the plate or
pan gently with your finger. Do you
feel the vibrations?
Fig. 13.3 : Plucking the rubber band
The to and fro or back and forth

motion of an object is termed as
vibration as you learnt in Class VII.
When a tightly stretched band is
plucked, it vibrates and produces
sound. When it stops vibrating, it does
not produce any sound.
Activity 13.3
Take a metal dish. Pour water in it.
Strike it at its edge by a spoon (Fig.
13.4). Do you hear a sound? Again
strike the plate and then touch it.
Can you feel the dish vibrating?
Strike the dish again. Look at the
Fig. 13.2 : Striking a frying pan
surface of water. Do you see any
Again strike the plate with the stick waves there? Now hold the dish.
and hold it tightly with your hands What change do you observe on the
immediately after striking. Do you surface of water? Can you explain
still hear the sound? Touch the the change? Is there a hint to
plate after it stops producing sound. connect sound with the vibrations
Can you feel the vibrations now? of a body?
160 SCIENCE
Table 13.1 : Musical instruments and
their Vibrating Parts.
S.No. Musical Vibrating part

Instrument producing sound
1. Ve e n a Stretched string
2. Tabla Stretched
membrane
3. Flute Air -column
Fig. 13.4 : Vibrating plate produces waves
4. _________ _________
in water
5. _________ _________
We see that a vibrating object 6. _________ _________
produces sound. In some cases, the
7. _________ _________
vibrations are easily visible to us. But
in most cases, their amplitude is so small
that we cannot see them. However, we Many of you might have seen the
can feel them. manjira (cymbals), the ghatam, and the
noot (mudpots) and the kartal. These
Activity 13.4 instruments are commonly used in
many parts of our country. These
Take a hollow coconut shell and musical instruments are simply beaten
make a musical instrument Ektara. or struck. Can you name a few other
You can also make it with the help musical instruments of this type?
of an earthen pot (Fig. 13.5). Play You, too can make a musical
this instrument and identify its instrument.
vibrating part. Ghatam
Fig. 13.5 : Ektara
Make a list of familiar musical

instruments and identify their vibrating
Manjira
parts. A few examples are given in Table
13.1. Complete the rest of the Table. Fig. 13.6 : A few more musical instruments
SOUND 161
Activity 13.5
Take 6-8 metal bowls or tumblers.
Fill them with water up to different
When we speak, does
levels, increasing gradually from any part of our body
one end to the other. Now take vibrate?
a pencil and strike the bowls gently.
Strike all of them in succession. You
will hear a pleasant sound. This is
13.2 Sound Produced by
your Jaltrang (Fig.13.7). Humans
Speak loudly for a while or sing a song,
or buzz like a bee. Put your hand on
your throat as shown in Fig. 13.8. Do
you feel any vibrations?
In humans, the sound is produced
by the voice box or the larynx. Put your
fingers on the throat and find a hard
bump that seems to move when you
swallow. This part of the body is known
as the voice box. It is at the upper end
of the windpipe. Two vocal cords, are
stretched across the voice box or larynx
in such a way that it leaves a narrow
slit between them for the passage of air
(Fig.13.8).
Fig. 13.7 : Jaltrang
When we pluck the string of an

instrument, like the sitar, the sound
that we hear is not only that of the
string. The whole instrument is forced
Fig.13.8 : Voice box in humans
to vibrate, and it is the sound of the
vibration of the instrument that we When the lungs force air through the
hear. Similarly, when we strike the slit, the vocal cords vibrate, producing
membrane of a mridangam, the sound sound. Muscles attached to the vocal
that we hear is not only that of the cords can make the cords tight or loose.
membrane but of the whole body of When the vocal cords are tight and thin,
the instrument.
the type or quality of voice is different
162 SCIENCE
from that when they are loose and The vocal cords in men are about
thick. Let us see how the vocal cords 20mm long. In women these are about
function. 5mm shorter. Children have very
short vocal cords. This is the reason
Activity 13.6 why the voices of men, women and
children are different.
Take two rubber strips of the same
size. Place these two pieces one
13.3 Sound Needs a Medium
above the other and stretch them
tight. Now blow air through the gap for Propagation
between them [Fig. 13.9(a)]. As the When you call up your friend who is
air blows through the stretched standing at a distance, your friend is
rubber strips, a sound is produced. able to hear your voice. How does the
You can also take a piece of paper sound travel to her?
with a narrow slit and hold it
between your fingers as shown in Activity 13.7
Fig. 13.9 (b). Now blow through the
slit and listen to the sound. Our Take a metal glass tumbler. Make
vocal cords produce sound in a sure that it is dry. Place a cell phone
similar manner. in it. (Remember that the cell phone
must not be kept in water.) Ask your
friend to give a ring on this cell
phone from another cell phone.
Listen to the ring carefully.
Now, surround the rim of the
tumbler with your hands (Fig.
13.10). Put your mouth on the
(a)
(b)
Fig. 13.9 (a), (b) : Working of vocal cords Fig. 13.10 : Sound needs a medium to travel
SOUND 163
opening between your hands. Place your ear gently on the water
Indicate to your friend to give a ring surface (Fig. 13.11). (Be careful :
again. Listen to the ring while water should not enter in your ear).
sucking air from the tumbler. Can you hear the sound of the bell?
Does the sound become fainter Does it indicate that sound can
as you suck? travel through liquids?
Remove the tumbler from your
mouth. Does the sound become
loud again?
Oh ! That is how whales
Can you think of an explanation? Is and dolphins might be
it possible that the decreasing amount communicating under
of air in the tumbler had something to water.
do with decreasing loudness of the ring?
Let us find out if sound can travel
Indeed, if you had been able to suck
through solids also.
all the air in the tumbler, the sound would
stop completely. Actually, sound needs a
Activity 13.9
medium to travel. When air has been
removed completely from a vessel, it is said Take a metre scale or a long metal
that there is vacuum in the vessel. The rod and hold its one end to your
sound cannot travel through vacuum. ear. Ask your friend to gently
Does sound travel in liquids? Let us scratch or tap the other end of the
find out. scale (Fig. 13.12).
Activity 13.8
Take a bucket or a bathtub. Fill it
with clean water. Take a small bell
in one hand. Shake this bell inside
the water to produce sound. Make
sure that the bell does not touch
the body of the bucket or the tub.
Fig. 13.12 : Sound travelling through a me-

tre scale
Can you hear the sound of the

scratch? Ask your friends around
you if they were able to hear the
Fig. 13.11 : Sound travelling through water same sound?
164 SCIENCE
You can also perform the above 13.4 We hear Sound through
activity by placing your ear at one end Our Ears
of a long wooden or metallic table and
asking your friend to gently scratch the The shape of the outer part of the ear is
other end of the table (Fig. 13.13). like a funnel. When sound enters in it,
it travels down a canal at the end of
which a thin membrane is stretched
tightly. It is called the eardrum. It
performs an important function. To
understand what the eardrum does, let
us build a tin can model of the eardrum.
Activity 13.10
Take a tin can. Cut its ends. Stretch
a piece of rubber balloon across one
Fig. 13.13 : Sound can travel through solids
end of the can and fasten it with a
We find that sound can travel rubber band. Put four or five grains
through wood or metal. In fact, sound of dry cereal on the stretched rubber.
can travel through any solid. You can Now ask your friend to speak
perform interesting activities to show “Hurrey, Hurrey” from the open end
that sound can also travel through (Fig.13.15). Observe what happens
strings. Recall if you made a toy to the grain. Why do the grains
telephone (Fig. 13.14). Can you say that jump up and down?
the sound can travel through strings?
Fig. 13.14 : A toy telephone
We have learnt so far that vibrating

objects produce sound and it is carried
in all directions in a medium. How do
we hear it? Fig. 13.15 : Tin can eardrum
SOUND 165
The eardrum is like a stretched You have already learnt in earlier classes
rubber sheet. Sound vibrations make about the oscillatory motion and its
the eardrum vibrate (Fig. 13.16). The time period.
eardrum sends vibrations to the inner The number of oscillations per
ear. From there, the signal goes to the second is called the frequency of
brain. That is how we hear. oscillation. Frequency is expressed in
hertz. Its symbol is Hz. A frequency of
1 Hz is one oscillation per second. If an
object oscillates 20 times in one second,
what would be its frequency?
You can recognise many familiar
sounds without seeing the objects
producing them. How is it possible?
These sounds must be different to
enable you to recognise them. Have you
ever thought what factors make them
different? Amplitude and frequency are
two important properties of any sound.
Can we differentiate sounds on the basis
of their amplitudes and frequencies?
Loudness and Pitch

Eardrum
Activity 13.11
Take a metallic tumbler and a
Fig. 13.16 : Human ear tablespoon. Strike the tablespoon
gently at the brim of the tumbler.
We must NEVER put a sharp,

pointed or hard thing into our
ear. It can damage the
eardrum. The damaged
eardrum can impair hearing.
13.5 Amplitude, Time Period

And Frequency Of A
Vibration
We have learnt that the to and fro motion
of an object is known as vibration. This Fig. 13.17 : Thermocole ball touching the
motion is also called oscillatory motion. vibrating glass tumbler
166 SCIENCE
Compare the sound of a baby with
Hear the sound produced. Now bang
that of an adult. Is there any difference?
the spoon on the tumbler and hear
Even if two sounds are equally loud,
the sound produced again. Is the
they differ in some way. Let us see how.
sound louder when the tumbler is
struck hard?
Now suspend a small thermocole I wonder why my voice
ball touching the rim of the tumbler is different from that of
(Fig. 13.17). Vibrate the tumbler by my teacher.
striking it. See how far the ball is
displaced. The displacement of the The frequency determines the
ball is a measure of the amplitude shrillness or pitch of a sound. If the
of vibration of the tumbler. frequency of vibration is higher we say
Now, strike the tumbler gently that the sound is shrill and has a higher
and then with some force. Compare pitch. If the frequency of vibration is
the amplitudes of vibrations of the lower, we say that the sound has a lower
tumbler in the two cases. In which pitch. For example, a drum vibrates with
case is the amplitude larger? a low frequency. Therefore, it produces
Loudness of sound is proportional to

the square of the amplitude of the
vibration producing the sound. For
example, if the amplitude becomes
twice, the loudness increases by a
factor of 4. The loudness is expressed
in a unit called decibel (dB). The
following table gives some idea of the
loudness of sound coming from
various sources.
Normal breathing 10 dB
Soft whisper (at 5m) 30 dB
Normal conversation 60 dB
Busy traffic 70 dB
Average factory 80 dB
Above 80 dB the noise becomes

physically painful.
The loudness of sound depends on

its amplitude. When the amplitude of
vibration is large, the sound produced
is loud. When the amplitude is small, Fig. 13.18 : Frequency determines the
the sound produced is feeble. pitch of a sound
SOUND 167
a low-pitched sound. On the other 13.7 Noise and Music
hand, a whistle has a high frequency
We hear different types of sounds
and therefore, produces a sound of
around us. Is the sound always
higher pitch (Fig. 13.18). A bird makes
pleasing? Does a sound sometimes
a high-pitched sound whereas a lion
cause discomfort to you? Some sounds
makes a low-pitched roar. However, the
are pleasant to the ear, whereas some
roar of a lion is very loud while the are not.
sound of the bird is quite feeble. Suppose construction work is going
Every day you hear the voices of on in your neighbourhood. Are the
children and adults. Do you find any sounds coming from the construction
difference in their voices? Can you say site pleasing? Do you enjoy the sounds
that the frequency of the voice of a child produced by horns of buses and trucks?
is higher than that of an adult? Usually Such unpleasant sounds are called
the voice of a woman has a higher noise. In a classroom, if all the students
frequency and is shriller than that of a speak together, what would the sound
man. produced be called?
On the other hand you enjoy sounds
13.6 Audible and Inaudible from musical instruments. Musical
Sounds sound is one which is pleasing to the
ear. Sound produced by a harmonium
We know that we need a vibrating body
is a musical sound. The string of a sitar
for the production of sound. Can we
also gives out a musical sound. But, if
hear the sound of all vibrating bodies?
a musical sound becomes too loud,
The fact is that sounds of frequencies
would it remain melodious?
less than about 20 vibrations per second
(20 Hz) cannot be detected by the human 13.8 Noise Pollution
ear. Such sounds are called inaudible.
On the higher side, sounds of frequencies You already know about air pollution.
higher than about 20,000 vibrations per Presence of unwanted gases and
second (20 kHz) are also not audible to particles in air is called air pollution.
the human ear. Thus, for human ear, Similarly, presence of excessive or
the range of audible frequencies is unwanted sounds in the environment
roughly from 20 to 20,000 Hz. is called noise pollution. Can you list
some sources of noise pollution? Major
Some animals can hear sounds of causes of noise pollution are sounds of
frequencies higher than 20,000 Hz. vehicles, explosions including bursting
Dogs have this ability. The police use of crackers, machines, loudspeakers etc.
high frequency whistles which dogs can What sources in the home may lead to
hear but humans cannot. noise? Television and transistor radio
The ultrasound equipment, familiar at high volumes, some kitchen
to us for investigating and tracking appliances, desert coolers, air
many medical problems, works at conditioners, all contribute to noise
frequencies higher than 20,000 Hz.
pollution.
168 SCIENCE
What are the harms of noise must be installed in air craft engines,
pollution? transport vehicles, industrial
Do you know that presence of machines and home appliances.
excessive noise in the surroundings may How can the noise pollution be
cause many health related problems. controlled in a residential area?
Lack of sleep, hypertension (high blood- The noisy operations must be
pressure), anxiety and many more health conducted away from any residential
disorders may be caused by noise area. Noise producing industries
pollution. A person who is exposed to a should be set up away from such
loud sound continuously may get areas. Use of automobile horns
temporary or even permanent should be minimised. TV and music
impairment of hearing. systems should be run at low
volumes. Trees must be planted along
Measures to Limit Noise Pollution the roads and around buildings to
To control noise, we must control the cut down on the sounds reaching the
sources of noise. How can this be residents, thus reducing the harmful
achieved? For this, silencing devices effects of noise pollution.
Hearing Impairment
The total hearing imparment, which is rare, is usually from birth itself. Partial
disability is generally the result of a disease, injury or age. Children with impaired
hearing need special care. By learning sign language, such children can
communicate effectively. Because speech develops as the direct result of hearing,
a child with a hearing loss may have defective speech also. Technological devices
for the hearing-impared have made it possible for such persons to improve their
quality of life. Society can do much to improve the living environment for the
hearing-impaired and help them live normal lives.
SOUND 169
AMPLITUDE Sound is produced by vibrating objects.
In human beings, the vibration of the vocal
AUDIBLE
cords produces sound.
EARDRUM Sound travels through a medium (gas, liquid
or solid). It cannot travel in vacuum.
HERTZ (Hz)
The eardrum senses the vibrations of sound,
LARYNX It sends the signals to the brain. This process
is called hearing.
LOUDNESS
The number of oscillations or vibrations per
NOISE second is called the frequency of oscillation.
The frequency is expressed in hertz (Hz)
OSCILLATION
Larger the amplitude of vibration, louder is
PITCH the sound.
Higher the frequency of vibration, the higher
SHRILLNESS
is the pitch, and shriller is the sound.
TIME PERIOD Unpleasant sounds are called noise.
Excessive or unwanted sounds lead to noise
VIBRATION pollution. Noise pollution may pose health
VOICE BOX problems for human beings.

Attempts should be made to minimise noise
WIND PIPE pollution.
Plantation on the roadside and elsewhere can
reduce noise pollution.
Exercises
1. Choose the correct answer :

Sound can travel through
(a) gases only (b) solids only
(c) liquids only (d) solids, liquids and gases.
2. Which of the following voices is likely to have minimum frequency?

(a) Baby girl (b) Baby boy
(c) A man (d) A woman
170 SCIENCE
3. In the following statements, tick T against those which are true, and F
EXERCISES against those which are false:
(a) Sound cannot travel in vacuum. (T/F)
(b) The number of oscillations per second of a vibrating object is called
its time period. (T/F)
(c) If the amplitude of vibration is large, sound is feeble. (T/F)
(d) For human ears, the audible range is 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz. (T/F)
(e) The lower the frequency of vibration, the higher is the pitch. (T/F)
(f) Unwanted or unpleasant sound is termed as music. (T/F)
(g) Noise pollution may cause partial hearing impairment. (T/F)
4. Fill in the blanks with suitable words.
(a) Time taken by an object to complete one oscillation is called
................... .
(b) Loudness is determined by the .........................of vibration.
(c) The unit of frequency is..........................
(d) Unwanted sound is called ......................... .
(e) Shrillness of a sound is determined by the ................. of vibration.
5. A pendulum oscillates 40 times in 4 seconds. Find its time period and

frequency.
6. The sound from a mosquito is produced when it vibrates its wings at an
average rate of 500 vibrations per second. What is the time period of the
vibration?
7. Identify the part which vibrates to produce sound in the following
instruments:
(a) Dholak (b) Sitar (c) Flute
8. What is the difference between noise and music? Can music become noise
sometimes?
9. List sources of noise pollution in your surroundings.

10. Explain in what way noise pollution is harmful to humans.
11. Your parents are going to buy a house. They have been offered one on the
roadside and another three lanes away from the roadside. Which house
would you suggest your parents should buy? Explain your answer.
12. Sketch larynx and explain its function in your own words.
13. Lightning and thunder take place in the sky at the same time and at the
same distance from us. Lightning is seen earlier and thunder is heard
later. Can you explain?
SOUND 171
1. Visit the music room of your school. You may also visit musicians
in your locality. Make a list of musical instruments. Note down the
parts of these instruments that vibrate to produce sound.
2. If you play a musical instrument, bring it to the class and

demonstrate how you play it.
3. Prepare a list of famous Indian musicians and the instruments
they play.
4. Take a long thread. Place your hands over your ears and get some
one to place this thread round your head and hands. Ask her to
make the thread taut and hold its ends in one hand. Now ask her
to draw her finger and thumb tightly along the thread (Fig. 13.19).
Can you hear a rolling sound like that of a thunder? Now repeat
the activity while another friend stands near both of you. Can he
hear any sound?
Fig. 13.19
5. Make two toy telephones. Use them as shown in Fig. 13.20. Make
sure that the two strings are taut and touch each other. Let one of
you speak. Can the remaining three persons hear? See how many
more friends you can engage in this way. Explain your observations.
Fig. 13.20
172 SCIENCE
6. Identify the sources of noise pollution in your locality. Discuss with
your parents, friends and neighbours. Suggest how to control noise
pollution. Prepare a brief report and present it in the class.
You can read more on the related topics on the following websites:
www.physicsclassroom.com/Class/sound/soundtoc.html
health.howstuffworks.com/hearing.htm
www.jaltarang.com for jaltarang
www.tempro/com/articles/hearing.html
www.cartage.org.lb/en/themes/sciences/physics/mainpage.htm
Did You Know
Golconda fort, near Hyderabad, is one of the most magnificient

forts in India. It is famous for many engineering and architectural
marvels. One of the marvels is the water supply system. But,
perhaps, more astonishing is a dome near the entrance to the fort.
A hand-clap at a particular point under the dome reverberates
and can be heard at the highest point of the fort, about a kilometre
away. This was devised as a warning system. If a guard saw a
suspicious movement outside the fort, he clapped at the particular
point under the dome, and the army inside the fort was alerted to
the danger of the approaching enemy.
Golconda fort
SOUND 173
CHEMICAL EFFECTS OF ELECTRIC
CURRENT
Y
our elders might have cautioned plastic and wood do not conduct
you against touching an electrical electricity. However, so far we have used
appliance with wet hands. But our tester to test materials which were
do you know why it is dangerous to in solid state. But what about liquids?
touch an electrical appliance with wet Do liquids also conduct electricity? Let
hands? us find out.
We have learnt earlier that the
materials, which allow electric current
to pass through them, are good Paheli and Boojho want to
conductors of electricity. On the other remind you that one
hand, materials, which do not allow should not experiment
electric current to pass through them with the electric supply
easily, are poor conductors of electricity. from the mains or a
In Class VI, we made a tester generator or an inverter.
(Fig.14.1) to test whether a particular Use only electric cells for
material allows the electric current to all the activities suggested
here.
pass through it or not. Do you recall
how the tester helped us in deciding
that? 14.1 Do Liquids Conduct
We found that metals such as copper Electricity?
and aluminium conduct electricity
To test whether a liquid allows electric
whereas materials such as rubber,
current to pass through it or not, we
can use the same tester (Fig. 14.1) which
Fig.14.1 : A tester
we made in Class VI. However, replace
of the tester glow? Does lemon juice
the cell by a battery. Also, before using
or vinegar conduct electricity? How
the tester we should check whether it is
would you classify lemon juice or
working or not.
vinegar— a good conductor or a poor
conductor?
Activity 14.1
Join the free ends of the tester
together for a moment. This
completes the circuit of the tester
and the bulb should glow. However,
if the bulb does not glow, it means
that the tester is not working. Can
you think of the possible reasons?
Is it possible that the connections
are loose? Or, the bulb is fused? Or,
your cells are used up? Check that
all the connections are tight. If they
are, then replace the bulb with
another bulb. Now test if the tester
is working or not. If it is still not Fig. 14.2 : Testing conduction of electricity in
working then replace the cells with lemon juice or vinegar
fresh cells.
When the liquid between the two
Now that our tester is working, let ends of the tester allows the electric
us use it to test the various liquids. current to pass, the circuit of the tester
(Caution: While checking your tester, becomes complete. The current flows in
the circuit and the bulb glows. When
do not join its free ends for more than
the liquid does not allow the electric
a few seconds. Otherwise the cells of
current to pass, the circuit of the tester
the battery will drain very quickly.)
is not complete and the bulb does not
glow.
Activity 14.2
In some situations even though the
Collect a few small plastic or rubber liquid is conducting, the bulb may not
caps of discarded bottles and clean glow. It may have happened in Activity
them. Pour one teaspoon of lemon 14.2. What can be the reason?
juice or vinegar in one cap. Bring Do you remember why the bulb
your tester over this cap and let the glows when the electric current passes
ends of the tester dip into lemon juice through it? Due to the heating effect
or vinegar as shown in Fig.14.2. Take of current, the filament of the bulb gets
care that the ends are not more than heated to a high temperature and it
1 cm apart but at the same time do starts glowing. However, if the current
not touch each other. Does the bulb through a circuit is too weak, the
filament does not get heated
sufficiently and it does not glow. And Activity 14.3
why is the current in the circuit weak?
Well, though a material may conduct Take the tray from inside a discarded
electricity, it may not conduct it as matchbox. Wrap an electric wire a few
easily as a metal. As a result, the times around the tray. Place a small
circuit of the tester may be complete compass needle inside it. Now
connect one free end of the wire to
and yet the current through it may be
the terminal of a battery. Leave the
too weak to make the bulb glow. Can
other end free. Take another piece of
we make another tester which can
wire and connect it to the other
detect a weak current?
terminal of the battery (Fig. 14.4).
You may use an LED (Fig. 14.3) in
place of the electric bulb in the tester
of Fig. 14.2. LED glows even when a
weak electric current flows through
it.
There are two wires (called leads)
attached to an LED. One lead is
slightly longer than the other.
Remember that while connecting to
a circuit, the longer lead is always
connected to the positive terminal of
the battery and the shorter lead is
connected to the negative terminal of Fig 14.4 : Another tester
the battery. Join the free ends of two wires
momentarily. The compass needle
should show deflection. Your tester
with two free ends of the wire is ready.
Now repeat Activity 14.2 using this
tester. Do you find a deflection in the
compass needle the moment you dip
the free ends of the tester in lemon
juice?
Fig. 14.3 : LEDs
Take out the ends of the tester
We can use another effect of an electric from the lemon juice, dip them in
current to make another kind of tester. water and then wipe them dry.
Do you recall that electric current Repeat the activity with other liquids
produces a magnetic effect? What such as tap water, vegetable oil, milk,
happens to a compass needle kept nearby honey. (Remember to wash and wipe
when current flows in a wire? Even if dry the ends of tester after testing each
the current is small, the deflection of the liquid). In each case observe whether
magnetic needle can be seen. Can we the magnetic needle shows deflection
or not. Record your observations in
make a tester using the magnetic effect
Table 14.1.
of currents? Let us find out.
176 SCIENCE
Table 14.1 : Good/Poor Conducting Liquids
S.No Material Compass Needle Shows Good Conductor/
Deflection Yes/No Poor Conductor
1. Lemon juice Yes Good Conductor
2. Vinegar
3. Tap Water
4. Vegetable oil
5. Milk
6. Honey
7.
8.
9.
10.
From Table 14.1, we find that some We have tested the conduction of
liquids are good conductors of electricity electricity through tap water. Let us now
and some are poor conductors. test the conduction of electricity through
distilled water.
When the free ends of the

Activity 14.4
tester do not touch each Take about two teaspoonfuls of
other, there is an air gap distilled water in a clean and dry
between them. Paheli knows
plastic or rubber cap of a bottle. (You
that air is a poor conductor of
may obtain distilled water from your
electricity. But she has also read
that during lightning, an electric school science lab. You may also get
current passes through air. She distilled water from a medical store
wonders if air is indeed a poor or a doctor or a nurse). Use the tester
conductor under all conditions. to test whether distilled water
This makes Boojho ask whether conducts electricity or not. What do
other materials classified as you find? Does distilled water
poor conductors also allow conduct electricity? Now dissolve a
electricity to pass under pinch of common salt in distilled
certain conditions. water. Again test. What do you
conclude this time?
Actually, under certain conditions When salt is dissolved in distilled

most materials can conduct. That is why water, we obtain salt solution. This is a
it is preferable to classify materials as conductor of electricity.
good conductors and poor conductors The water that we get from sources
instead of classifying as conductors and such as taps, hand pumps, wells and
insulators. ponds is not pure. It may contain several
salts dissolved in it. Small amounts of Most liquids that conduct electricity
mineral salts are naturally present in it. are solutions of acids, bases and salts.
This water is thus a good conductor of When an electric current flows
electricity. On the other hand, distilled through a conducting solution, does it
water is free of salts and is a poor produce an effect on the solution?
conductor.
14.2 Chemical Effects of
Electric Current
Small amounts of mineral salts In Class VII, we have learnt some effects
present naturally in water are of electric current. Can you list these
beneficial for human health. effects? What effect does the current
However, these salts make water produce when it flows through a
conducting. So, we should never conducting solution? Let us find out.
handle electrical appliances
with wet hands or while Activity 14.6
standing on a wet floor.
Take out carbon rods carefully from
We have found that common salt, when two discarded cells. Clean their metal
dissolved in distilled water, makes it a good caps with sand paper. Wrap copper
conductor. What are the other substances wires around the metal caps of the
which, when dissolved in distilled water, carbon rods and join them to a
make it conducting? Let us find out.
battery (Fig. 14.5). We call these two
Caution: Do the next activity under the rods electrodes. (Instead of carbon
supervision of your teacher/parent or
some elderly person, because the use of
acid is involved in it.
Activity 14.5
Take three clean plastic or rubber caps
of bottles. Pour about two teaspoonfuls
of distilled water in each of them. Add
a few drops of lemon juice or dilute
hydrochloric acid to distilled water in
one cap. Now in the second cap
containing distilled water, add a few Metal Cap
drops of a base such as caustic soda
or potassium iodide. Add a little sugar Carbon Carbon
to the distilled water in the third cap rod rod
and dissolve it. Test which solutions Water
conduct electricity and which do not.
What results do you obtain? Fig.14.5 : Passing current through water
178 SCIENCE
rods, you may take two iron nails
about 6 cm long ). Pour a cupful of
water in a glass/plastic bowl. Add a Boojho decided to test
whether some fruits and
teaspoonful of salt or a few drops of
vegetables also conduct
lemon juice to water to make it more electricity or not. He cut
conducting. Now immerse the a potato into two halves and
electrodes in this solution. Make sure inserted the copper wires of a tester
that the metal caps of the carbon rods into it. Just then his mother called
are outside the water. Wait for 3-4 him and he forgot to take out the
minutes. Observe the electrodes wires of the tester inserted into the
carefully. Do you notice any gas potato. When he came back after
half an hour, he noticed that there
bubbles near the electrodes? Can we
was a greenish blue spot on the
call the change taking place in the potato around one wire whereas
solution a chemical change? Recall there was no such spot around the
the definition of a chemical change other wire (Fig. 14.6).
that you learnt in Class VII.
In 1800, a British chemist, William

Nicholson (1753–1815), had shown
that if electrodes
were immersed
in water, and a
current was passed,
bubbles of oxygen
and hydrogen were
produced. Oxygen
bubbles formed
on the electrode
connected to the positive terminal of Fig. 14.6 : Testing potato
the battery and hydrogen bubbles He was surprised with this
formed on the other electrode. observation and along with Paheli
repeated this activity many times.
The passage of an electric current They found that it was always the wire
through a conducting solution causes connected to the positive terminal,
which had greenish blue spot around
chemical reactions. As a result, bubbles
it. They felt that this discovery was
of a gas may be formed on the electrodes. very useful because it could be used
Deposits of metal may be seen on for identifying the positive terminal
electrodes. Changes of colour of of a cell or a battery concealed in a
solutions may occur. The reaction would box. They decided to report their
depend on what solution and electrodes finding to a children’s magazine.
are used. These are some of the chemical Remember that Boojho set out to
effects of the electric current. test whether potato conducted

electricity or not. What he found was
that current produced a chemical
effect in the potato. To him this was
very exciting. In fact, this is how
science sometimes works. You are
looking for something and you
discover something else. Many
Copper plate
important discoveries have been
made in this manner.
Copper plate Copper
14.3 Electroplating sulphate
solution
Recall that a brand new bicycle has shiny
handlebar and wheel rims. However, if Fig.14.7 : A simple circuit showing electroplating
these are accidentally scratched, the Allow the current to pass for
shiny coating comes off revealing a not about 15 minutes. Now remove the
so shiny surface beneath. You might electrodes from the solution and
have also seen women using ornaments, look at them carefully. Do you find
which appear to be made of gold. any difference in any one of them?
However, with repeated use, the gold Do you find a coating over it? What
coating wears off, revealing silver or some colour is the coating? Note down the
other metal beneath. terminal of the battery with which
In both these cases, a metal has a this electrode is connected.
coating of another metal. Do you wonder
how a layer of one metal can be
deposited on top of another? Well, let
us try doing it ourselves.
After doing the electroplating
activity, Paheli interchanged
Activity 14.7 the electrodes and repeated
We will need copper sulphate and the activity. What do you think
she would observe this time?
two copper plates of size around 10
cm × 4 cm. Take 250 mL of distilled
water in a clean and dry beaker. When electric current is passed
Dissolve two teaspoonfuls of copper through the copper sulphate solution,
sulphate in it. Add a few drops of copper sulphate dissociates into
dilute sulphuric acid to copper copper and sulphate. The free copper
sulphate solution to make it more gets drawn to the electrode connected
conducting. Clean copper plates with to the negative terminal of the battery
sand paper. Now rinse them with and gets deposited on it. But what
water and dry them. Connect the about the loss of copper from the
copper plates to the terminals of a solution?
battery and immerse them in copper From the other electrode, a copper
sulphate solution (Fig. 14.7). plate, an equal amount of copper gets
dissolved in the solution. Thus, the
180 SCIENCE
loss of copper from the solution is
restored and the process keeps going.
This means that copper gets
transferred from one electrode to the
other.
Boojho could get only one

copper plate. So he
performed Activity 14.7 by
connecting a carbon rod in
place of the copper plate
which was connected to
the negative terminal of
the battery. He succeeded
in obtaining a coating of
copper on carbon rod.
The process of depositing a layer of

any desired metal on another material
by means of electricity is called Fig. 14.8 : Some electroplated objects
electroplating. It is one of the most
silver and gold on less expensive metals.
common applications of chemical effects
These ornaments have the appearance
of electric current.
of silver or gold but are much less
Electroplating is a very useful
expensive.
process. It is widely used in industry
Tin cans, used for storing food, are
for coating metal objects with a thin
made by electroplating tin onto iron. Tin
layer of a different metal (Fig.14.8). The
is less reactive than iron. Thus, food
layer of metal deposited has some
does not come into contact with iron and
desired property, which the metal of the
is protected from getting spoilt.
object lacks. For example, chromium
Iron is used in bridges and
plating is done on many objects such
automobiles to provide strength.
as car parts, bath taps, kitchen gas
However, iron tends to corrode and rust.
burners, bicycle handlebars, wheel rims
So, a coating of zinc is deposited on iron
and many others.
to protect it from corrosion and
Chromium has a shiny appearance.
formation of rust.
It does not corrode. It resists scratches.
However, chromium is expensive and it In the electroplating factories the
may not be economical to make the disposal of the used conducting
whole object out of chromium. So the solution is a major concern. It is a
object is made from a cheaper metal and polluting waste and there are specific
only a coating of chromium over it is disposal guidelines to protect the
environment.
deposited. Jewellery makers electroplate
ELECTRODE Some liquids are good conductors of electricity
and some are poor conductors.
ELECTROPLATING
Most liquids that conduct electricity are
GOOD CONDUCTOR solutions of acids, bases and salts.
The passage of an electric current through a
LED
conducting liquid causes chemical reactions.
POOR CONDUCTOR The resulting effects are called chemical effects
of currents.
The process of depositing a layer of any desired
metal on another material, by means of
electricity, is called electroplating.
Exercises
1. Fill in the blanks
(a) Most liquids that conduct electricity are solutions of ,
______________ and ______________.
(b) The passage of an electric current through a solution causes

______________ effects.
(c) If you pass current through copper sulphate solution, copper gets
deposited on the plate connected to the terminal of the
battery.
(d) The process of
depositing a layer of
any desired metal on
another material by
means of electricity is
called .
2. When the free ends of a tester
are dipped into a solution,
the magnetic needle shows
deflection. Can you explain
the reason?
3. Name three liquids, which

when tested in the manner
shown in Fig.14.9, may
Fig. 14.9
cause the magnetic needle
to deflect.
182 SCIENCE
4. The bulb does not glow in the setup shown in Fig.14.10. List the possible
EXERCISES reasons. Explain your answer.
Fig. 14.10
5. A tester is used to check the conduction of electricity through two liquids,
labeled A and B. It is found that the bulb of the tester glows brightly for
liquid A while it glows very dimly for liquid B. You would conclude that
(i) liquid A is a better conductor than liquid B.
(ii) liquid B is a better conductor than liquid A.
(iii) both liquids are equally conducting.
(iv) conducting properties of liquid cannot be compared in this manner.
6. Does pure water conduct electricity? If not, what can we do to make it
conducting?
7. In case of a fire, before the firemen use the water hoses, they shut off the
main electrical supply for the area. Explain why they do this.
8. A child staying in a coastal region tests the drinking water and also the
seawater with his tester. He finds that the compass needle deflects more
in the case of seawater. Can you explain the reason?
9. Is it safe for the electrician to carry out electrical repairs outdoors during
heavy downpour? Explain.
10. Paheli had heard that rainwater is as good as distilled water. So she
collected some rainwater in a clean glass tumbler and tested it using a
tester. To her surprise she found that the compass needle showed
deflection. What could be the reasons?
11. Prepare a list of objects around you that are electroplated.

12. The process that you saw in Activity 14.7 is used for purification of copper.
A thin plate of pure copper and a thick rod of impure copper are used as
electrodes. Copper from impure rod is sought to be transfered to the thin
copper plate. Which electrode should be attached to the positive terminal
of battery and why?

1. Test the conduction of electricity through various fruits and

vegetables. Display your result in a tabular form.
2. Repeat the Activity 14.7 with a zinc plate in place of the copper
plate connected to the negative terminal of the battery. Now replace
zinc plate with some other metallic object and again repeat the
activity. Which metal gets deposited over which other metal? Discuss
your findings with your friends.
3. Find out if there is a commercial electroplating unit in your town.
What objects are electroplated there and for what purpose? (The
process of electroplating in a commercial unit is much more complex
than what we did in Activity 14.7). Find out how they dispose off the
chemicals they discard.
4. Imagine that you are an ‘entrepreneur’ and have been provided a
loan by a bank to set up a small electroplating unit. What object
you would like to electroplate and for what purpose? (Look up the
meaning of ‘entrepreneur’ in a dictionary).
5. Find out the health concerns associated with chromium
electroplating. How are people trying to resolve them?
6. You can make a fun pen for yourself. Take a conducting metal plate
and spread a moist paste of Potassium Iodide and starch. Connect
the plate to a battery as shown in Fig. 14.11. Now using the free
end of the wire, write a few letters on the paste. What do you see?
Fig. 14.11
184 SCIENCE
For more information on this topic visit:
www.tutorvista.com/content/physics/physics-iv/thermal-
chemical-currents/chemical-effects-current.php
www.physchem.co.za/Redox/Electrolysis.htm
electronics.howstuffworks.com/led.htm
Did You Know?
LEDs (Light Emitting Diodes) are available in

many colours such as red, green, yellow, blue,
white and are increasingly being used for many
applications, for example in traffic signal lights.
LEDs are increasingly being used for lighting. A
cluster of white LEDs grouped together forms a
LED light source. LED light sources consume less
electricity and have longer lifetime than light
bulbs and fluorescent tubes. But LED light
sources are expensive, so CFLs are currently the
best choice. However, CFLs contain mercury
which is toxic. Therefore, used or broken CFLs
need to be disposed off safely. Once the
technological advances reduce the cost of LEDs,
they will become the preferred lighting source.

SOME NATURAL PHENOMENA
In Class VII you read about winds, precautions to protect ourselves from
storms and cyclones. You learnt that the deadly sparks.
cyclones can cause a lot of damage to
human life and property. You also The Sparks that the Greeks Knew
About
learnt that we can protect ourselves from
these destructive phenomena to some The ancient Greeks knew as early as
extent. In this chapter we shall discuss 600 B.C. that when amber (amber is a
two other destructive natural kind of resin) was rubbed with fur, it
phenomena. These are lightning and attracted light objects such as hair. You
might have seen that when you take
earthquakes. We shall also discuss what
off woollen or polyester clothes, your
steps we can take to minimise
hair stands on ends. If you take off
destruction caused by these these clothes in the dark, you see even
phenomena. a spark and hear crackling sound. In
1752 Benjamin Franklin, an American
15.1 Lightning scientist, showed that lightning and the
You might have seen sparks on a spark from your clothes are essentially
electric pole when wires become loose. the same phenomena. However, this
This phenomenon is quite common realisation took 2000 years.
when a wind is blowing and shacking
the wires. You might also have seen
sparks when a plug is loose in its I wonder why they took so
many years to realise the
socket. Lightning is also an electric
similarity.
spark, but on a huge scale.
In ancient times people did not
understand the cause of these sparks.
They were, therefore, afraid of lightning Scientific discoveries are a
result of hardwork by many
and thought that the wrath of gods was
people. It can sometime takes
visiting them. Now, of course, we a long time.
understand that lightning is caused by
the accumulation of charges in the We shall now study some properties
clouds. We need not be afraid of of electric charges. We shall also see how
lightning, but we have to take they are related to the lightning in the
sky.
Let us perform some activities to When a plastic refill is rubbed with
understand the nature of electric polythene, it acquires a small electric
charges. But recall first what you might charge. Similarly, when a plastic comb
have played as a game. When you rub is rubbed with dry hair, it acquires a
a plastic scale on your dry hair, the small charge. These objects are called
scale can attract very small pieces of charged objects. In the process of
paper. charging the refill and the plastic comb,
polythene and hair also get charged.
15.2 Charging by rubbing
Let’s try to charge some other
Activity 15.1 objects that are familiar to you.
Take a used ballpen refill and rub Activity 15.2
it vigorously with a piece of
polythene. Bring it close to small Collect the objects and the
pieces of paper. Take care not to materials listed in Table 15.1. Try
touch the rubbed end of the refill to charge each by rubbing with the
with your hand or with a metallic materials mentioned in the Table.
object. Repeat the activity with small Record your findings.
pieces of dry leaf, husk and mustard You can add more items to the
seeds. Record your observations. Table.
Table 15.1
Objects rubbed Materials Attracts/does not Charged

used for rubbing attract pieces /not charged
of paper
Refill Polythene,
woollen cloth
Balloon Polythene, woollen
cloth, dry hair
Eraser Wool
Steel spoon Polythene,

woollen cloth

15.3 Types of Charges and refill also with polythene. Bring it
their Interaction close to the charged refill. Be careful
We will select some objects from Table not to touch the charged end with
15.1 for the next activity. your hand. Is there any effect on
the refill in the tumbler? Do the two
Activity 15.3 attract each other, or repel each
other?
a) Inflate two balloons. Hang them In this activity we have brought close
in such a way that they do not touch together the charged objects that
each other (Fig. 15.1). Rub both the were made of the same material.
balloons with a woollen cloth and What happens if two charged objects
release them. What do you observe? made of different materials are
brought close to each other? Let’s
find out.
b) Rub a refill and place it gently in
a glass tumbler as before (Fig. 15.3).
Bring an inflated charged balloon
near the refill and observe.
Fig. 15.1 : Like charges repel each other

Now let us repeat this activity with
the used pen refills. Rub one refill
with polythene. Place it carefully in
a glass tumbler using the tumbler
as a stand (Fig. 15.2). Rub the other
Fig. 15.3 : Unlike charges attract each other
Let’s summarise the observations:

A charged balloon repelled a charged
balloon.
A charged refill repelled a charged
refill.
But a charged balloon attracted a
charged refill.
Does it indicate that the charge on
the balloon is of a different kind from
the charge on the refill? Can we say
Fig. 15.2 : Interaction between like charges then, that there are two kinds of
188 SCIENCE
charges? Can we also say that the with the end of the paper clip.
charges of the same kind repel each Observe what happens. Is there any
other, while charges of different kind effect on the foil strips? Do they
attract each other? repel each other or attract each
It is a convention to call the charge other? Touch now, other charged
acquired by a glass rod when it is bodies with the end of the paper clip.
rubbed with silk as positive. The Do foil strips behave in the same
other kind of charge is said to be way in all cases? Can this apparatus
negative. be used to detect whether a body is
It is observed that when a charged charged or not? Can you explain
glass rod is brought near a charged why the foil strips repel each other?
plastic straw rubbed with polythene
there is attraction between the two.
What do you think would be the kind
of charge on the plastic straw? Your
guess, that the plastic straw would carry
a negative charge is correct.
The electrical charges generated by
rubbing are static. They do not move by
themselves. When charges move, they
constitute an electric current. You have
been reading about electric current since
Class VI. The current in a circuit which
makes a bulb glow, or the current that
makes a wire hot, is nothing but a
motion of charges.
Fig 15.4 : A simple electroscope
15.4 Transfer of Charge
The aluminium foil strips receive the
Activity 15.4 same charge from the charged refill
Take an empty jam bottle. Take a through the paper clip (remember that
piece of cardboard slightly bigger in metals are good conductors of
size than the mouth of the bottle. electricity). The strips carrying similar
Pierce a hole in it so that a metal charges repel each other and they
paper clip could be inserted. Open become wide open. Such a device can
out paper clip as shown in Fig. 15.4. be used to test whether an object is
Cut two strips of aluminium foil carrying charge or not. This device is
about 4 cm × 1 cm each. Hang them known as electroscope.
on the paper clip as shown. Insert Thus, we find that electrical charge
the paper clip in the cardboard lid can be transferred from a charged object
so that it is perpendicular to it (Fig. to another through a metal conductor.
15.4). Charge a refill and touch it Touch the end of the paper clip gently
with hand and you will find a change in
the foil strips. They come back to their You learnt in Class VII that during
original state. Repeat charging of foil the development of a thunderstorm, the
strips and touching the paper clip. Every air currents move upward while the
time you will find that the foil strips water droplets move downward. These
collapse as soon as you touch the vigorous movements cause separation
paperclip with hand. Why does it of charges. By a process, not yet
happen? The reason is that the foil strips
completely understood, the positive
lose charge to the earth through your
charges collect near the upper edges of
body. We say that the foil strips are
discharged. The process of transfering the clouds and the negative charges
of charge from a charged object to the accumulate near the lower edges. There
earth is called earthing. is accumulation of positive charges near
the ground also. When the magnitude
of the accumulated charges becomes very
Earthing is provided in buildings to
protect us from electrical shocks due large, the air which is normally a poor
to any leakage of electrical current. conductor of electricity, is no longer able
to resist their flow. Negative and positive
15.5 The Story of Lightning charges meet, producing streaks of
bright light and sound. We see streaks
It is now possible to explain lightning
as lightning (Fig. 15.5). The process is
in terms of the charges produced by
called an electric discharge.
rubbing.
Fig 15.5 : Accumulation of charges leading to lightning.
190 SCIENCE
The process of electric discharge can metal objects. Do not lie on the ground.
occur between two or more clouds, or Instead, squat low on the ground. Place
between clouds and the earth. Today we your hands on your knees with your
need not get frightened by lightning like head between the hands (Fig. 15.6). This
the ancient people did. Now we position will make you the smallest
understand the basic phenomenon. target to be struck.
Scientists are trying hard to improve our
understanding. However, lightning
strike could destroy life and property. It
is, therefore, necessary to take measures
to protect ourselves.
15.6 Lightning Safety

During lightning and thunderstorm no
open place is safe.
Hearing thunder is an alert to rush
to a safer place.
After hearing the last thunder, wait
for some time before coming out of
the safe place.
Finding a safe place

A house or a building is a safe place.
If you are travelling by car or by bus, Fig. 15.6 : Safe position during lightning
you are safe inside with windows and
doors of the vehicle shut. Inside the house
Lightning can strike telephone cords,
Do’s and Don’ts during a Thunder- electrical wires and metal pipes (Do you
storm remember, lightning is an electrical
Outside discharge?). During a thunderstorm
Open vehicles, like motorbikes, tractors, contact with these should be avoided. It
construction machinery, open cars are is safer to use mobile phones and
not safe. Open fields, tall trees, shelters cordless phones. However, it is not wise
in parks, elevated places do not protect to call up a person who is receiving your
us from lightning strokes. phone through a wired phone.
Carrying umbrella is not a good idea Bathing should be avoided during
at all during thunderstorms. thunderstorms to avoid contact with
If in a forest, take shelter under running water.
shorter trees. Electrical appliances like computers,
If no shelter is available and you are TVs, etc., should be unplugged. Electrical
in an open field, stay far away from all lights can remain on. They do not cause
trees. Stay away from poles or other any harm.
Lightning Conductors 15.7 Earthquakes
Lightning Conductor is a device used You just learnt about thunderstorm and
to protect buildings from the effect of lightning. In Class VII you learnt about
lightning. A metallic rod, taller than the cyclones. These natural phenomena can
building, is installed in the walls of the cause large scale destruction of human
building during its construction. One life and property. Fortunately, these
end of the rod is kept out in the air and phenomena can be predicted to some
the other is buried deep in the ground extent. The weather department can
(Fig. 15.7). The rod provides easy route warn about a thunderstorm developing
for the transfer of electric charge to the in some area.
ground. If a thunderstorm occurs there is
The metal columns used during always a possibility of lightning and
construction, electrical wires and water cyclones accompanying it. So, we get
pipes in the buildings also protect us to time to take measures to protect
an extent. But do not touch them during ourselves from the damage caused by
a thunderstorm. these phenomena.
lightning
conductor
copper
plate
Fig. 15.7 : Lightning conductor

192 SCIENCE
There is, however, one natural caused by these earthquakes from
phenomenon which we are not yet able newspapers and magazines of those
to predict. It is an earthquake. It can
days. Prepare a short report on the
cause damage to human life and
suffering of the people during the
property on a huge scale.
earthquakes.
A major earthquake occurred in India
on 8 th October 2005 in Uri and
Tangdhar towns of North Kashmir (Fig. What is an earthquake? What
15.8). Before that a major earthquake happens when it occurs? What can we
occurred on 26th January 2001 in Bhuj do to minimise its effects? These are
District of Gujarat. some of the questions which we shall
discuss below.
Activity 15.5
What is an Earthquake?
Ask your parents about the huge
An earthquake is a sudden shaking or
damages to life and property caused
trembling of the earth lasting for a very
by these earthquakes. Collect a few
short time. It is caused by a disturbance
pictures showing the damage
deep inside the earth’s crust.
Fig. 15.8 : Kashmir earthquake

Earthquakes occur all the time, all over
the earth. They are not even noticed. What could cause a
Major earthquakes are much less disturbance inside
frequent. They can cause immense the earth?
damage to buildings, bridges, dams and
people. There can be a great loss to life Now we know that the tremors are
and property. The earthquakes can caused by the disturbance deep down
cause floods, landslides and tsunamis. inside the uppermost layer of the earth
A major tsunami occurred in the Indian called the crust (Fig. 15.9).
Ocean on 26th December 2004. All the
coastal areas around the ocean suffered
huge losses. crust
Activity 15.6
mantle
Take an outline map of the world.
Locate the eastern coast and outer
core
Andaman and Nicobar Islands in
India. Mark other countries around
inner
the Indian Ocean which could have core
suffered damage. Collect accounts
of the devastation caused by the
tsunami in India from your parents, Fig. 15.9 : Structure of the earth
or other elders in the family or in
the neighbourhood. The outermost layer of the earth is
not in one piece. It is fragmented. Each
What Causes an Earthquake? fragment is called a plate (Fig. 15.10).
These plates are in continual motion.
When they brush past one another, or
My grandmother told me
that the earth is balanced
on the horn of a bull and
when the bull shifts it to
the other horn, an
earthquake takes place.
How could it be true?
Eurasian
In ancient times, people did not know Plate
the true cause of earthquakes. Their Arabian
ideas were, therefore, expressed in Plate
mythical stories such as the one told by
Boojho’s grandmother. Similar myths
were prevalent in other parts of the
world. Fig. 15.10 : Earth plates
194 SCIENCE
a plate goes under another due to carried out. However, most earthquakes
collision (Fig. 15.11), they cause are caused by the movement of earth’s
disturbance in the earth’s crust. It is plates.
this disturbance that shows up as an Since earthquakes are caused by the
earthquake on the surface of the earth. movement of plates, the boundaries of
the plates are the weak zones where
earthquakes are more likely to occur.
The weak zones are also known as
seismic or fault zones. In India, the
Colliding
areas most threatened are Kashmir,
Western and Central Himalayas, the
whole of North-East, Rann of Kutch,
Rajasthan and the Indo – Gangetic
Plane. Some areas of South India also
Brushing
past
fall in the danger zone (Fig. 15.12).
Fig. 15.11 : Movements of earth’s plates
If scientists know so much

about earthquakes, can
they also predict when and
where the next one will
strike?
Although, we know for sure what

causes an earthquake, it is not yet
possible to predict when and where the
next earthquake might occur.
Fig. 15.12 : Movements of Indian earth’s plate

I read somewhere that
underground explosions
The power of an earthquake is
could also cause expressed in terms of a magnitude on a
tremors. scale called Richter scale. Really
destructive earthquakes have
Tremors on the earth can also be magnitudes higher than 7 on the
caused when a volcano erupts, or a Richter scale. Both Bhuj and Kashmir
meteor hits the earth, or an earthquakes had magnitudes greater
underground nuclear explosion is than 7.5.
The tremors produce waves on the surface of the earth. These are called seismic
waves. The waves are recorded by an instrument called the seismograph
(Fig. 15.13). The instrument is simply a vibrating rod, or a pendulum, which
starts vibrating when tremors occur. A pen is attached to the vibrating system.
The pen records the seismic waves on a paper which moves under it. By studying
these waves, scientists can construct a complete map of the earthquake, as shown
in Fig. 15.14. They can also estimate
its power to cause destruction.
Earth’s
Focus Surface Seismic
waves
Epicentre
A typical seismograph record Inside the earth
Fig. 15.13 : A seismograph Fig. 15.14 : Map of the earthquake
Like many other scales in science (decibel is another example), Richter scale is
not linear. This means that an earthquake of magnitude 6 does not have one and
half times the destructive energy of an earthquake of magnitude 4. In fact, an
increase of 2 in magnitude means 1000 times more destructive energy. For
example, an earthquake of magnitude 6 has thousand times more destructive
energy than an earthquake of magnitude 4.
Protection against Earthquakes have to be specially prepared. First of

We know from the earlier pages that all, the buildings in these zones should
earthquakes cannot be predicted. We be designed so that they can withstand
have also seen that they can be highly major tremors. Modern building
destructive. It is, therefore, important technology can make it possible.
that we take necessary precautions to It is advisable to make the structure
protect ourselves all the time. People simple so that it is ‘Quake Safe’.
living in seismic zones, where the Consult qualified architects and
earthquakes are more likely to occur, structural engineers.
196 SCIENCE
In highly seismic areas, the use of In the event that an earthquake does
mud or timber is better than the strike, take the following steps to protect
heavy construction material. Keep yourself:
roofs as light as possible. In case
the structure falls, the damage will 1. If you are at home:
not be heavy. Take shelter under a table and stay
It is better if the cupboards and there till shaking stops.
shelves are fixed to the walls, so that Stay away from tall and heavy objects
they do not fall easily. that may fall on you.
Be careful where you hang wall
If you are in bed, do not get up.
clocks, photo-frames, water heaters
etc., so that in the event of an Protect your head with a pillow.
earthquake, they do not fall on
people. 2. If you are outdoors:
Since some buildings may catch fire
due to an earthquake, it is necessary Find a clear spot, away from
that all buildings, especially tall buildings, trees and overhead power
buildings, have fire fighting lines. Drop to the ground.
equipment in working order. If you are in a car or a bus, do not
The Central Building Research come out. Ask the driver to drive
Institute, Roorkee, has developed slowly to a clear spot. Do not come
knowhow to make quake proof houses. out till the tremors stop.

CRUST Some objects can be charged by rubbing with
other objects.
DISCHARGE
There are two kinds of charges — positive
EARTH’S PLATES
charge and negative charge
EARTHQUAKE Like charges repel and unlike charges attract
each other.
ELECTROSCOPE
The electrical charges produced by rubbing
LIGHTNING are called static charges.
When charges move, they constitute an
LIGHTNING
electric current.
CONDUCTOR
An electroscope may be used to detect
NEGATIVE CHARGE whether a body is charged or not.
The process of transfer of charge from a
POSITIVE CHARGE
charged object to the earth is called earthing.
RICHTER SCALE The process of electric discharge between
clouds and the earth or between different
SEISMOGRAPH clouds causes lightning.
THUNDER Lightning strike could destroy life and

property.
THUNDERSTORM Lightning conductors can protect buildings
from the effects of lightning.
TRANSFER OF
An earthquake is a sudden shaking or
CHARGE
trembling of the earth.
TSUNAMI Earthquake is caused by a disturbance deep
inside the earth’s crust.
TREMOR
It is not possible to predict the occurrence of
an earthquake.
Earthquakes tend to occur at the boundaries
of earth’s plates. These boundaries are known
as fault zones.
Destructive energy of an earthquake is
measured on the Richter scale. The
earthquake measuring 7 or more on Richter
scale can cause severe damage to life and
property.
We should take necessary precautions to
protect ourselves from earthquakes.
198 SCIENCE
Exercises
Select the correct option in Questions 1 and 2.
1. Which of the following cannot be charged easily by friction?
(a) A plastic scale
(b) A copper rod
(c) An inflated balloon
(d) A woollen cloth.
2. When a glass rod is rubbed with a piece of silk cloth the rod
(a) and the cloth both acquire positive charge.
(b) becomes positively charged while the cloth has a negative charge.
(c) and the cloth both acquire negative charge.
(d) becomes negatively charged while the cloth has a positive charge.
3. Write T against true and F against false in the following statements:

(a) Like charges attract each other (T/F)
(b) A charged glass rod attract a charged plastic straw (T/F)
(c) Lightning conductor cannot protect a building from lightning (T/F)
(d) Earthquakes can be predicted in advance (T/F)
4. Sometime, a crackling sound is heard while taking off sweater during
winters. Explain.
5. Explain why a charged body loses its charge if we touch it with our hand.
6. Name the scale on which the destructive energy of an earthquake is
measured. An earthquake measures 3 on this scale. Would it be recorded
by a seismograph? Is it likely to cause much damage?
7. Suggest three measures to protect ourselves from lightning.
8. Explain why a charged balloon is repelled by another charged balloon
whereas an uncharged balloon is attracted by another charged balloon?
9. Describe with the help of a diagram an instrument which can be used to
detect a charged body.
10. List three states in India where earthquakes are more likely to strike.
11. Suppose you are outside your home and an earthquake strikes. What
precaution would you take to protect yourself?
12. The weather department has predicted that a thunderstorm is likely to

occur on a certain day. Suppose you have to go out on that day. Would you
carry an umbrella? Explain.

1. Open a water tap. Adjust the flow so that it forms a thin stream.
Charge a refill. Bring it near the water stream. Observe what
happens. Write a short report on the activity.
2. Make your own charge detector. Take a paper strip roughly 10 cm ×
3 cm. Give it a shape as shown in Fig. 15.15. Balance it on a
needle. Bring a charged body near it. Observe what happens. Write
a brief report, explaining its working.
Paper 8.0cm
Fold along
Cut along
Needle
Thermocole
Fig. 15.15
3. This activity should be performed at night. Go to a room where
there is a fluorescent tube light. Charge a balloon. Switch off the
tube light so that the room is completely dark. Bring the charged
balloon near the tubelight. You should see a faint glow. Move the
balloon along the length of the tube and observe how glow changes.
Caution : Do not touch the metal parts of the tube or the wires
connecting the tube with the mains.
4. Find out if there is an organisation in your area which provides
relief to those suffering from natural disaster. Enquire about the
type of help they render to the victims of earthquakes. Prepare a
brief report on the problems of the earthquake victims.
For more information on these topics, visit:
science.howstuffworks.com/lightning.htm
science.howstuffworks.com/earthquake.htm
www.enchantedlearning.com/subjects/astronomy/planets/
earth/continents.shtml
200 SCIENCE
LIGHT
T
he world is largely known through comb and close all its openings
the senses. The sense of sight except one in the middle. You can
is one of the most important use a strip of black paper for
senses. Through it we see mountains, this purpose. Hold the comb
rivers, trees, plants, chairs, people and perpendicular to the sheet of paper.
so many other things around us. We also
Throw light from a torch through
see clouds, rainbows and birds flying
the opening of the comb from one
in the sky. At night we see the moon
side (Fig. 16.1). With slight
and the stars. You are able to see the
adjustment of the torch and the
words and sentences printed on this
comb you will see a ray of light along
page. How is seeing made possible?
the paper on the other side of the
16.1 What makes Things comb. Keep the comb and the torch
steady. Place a strip of plane mirror
Visible
in the path of the light ray (Fig.
Have you ever thought how we see the 16.1). What do you observe?
various objects? You may say that eyes
see the objects. But, can you see an
object in the dark? It means that eyes
alone cannot see any object. It is only
when light from an object enters our
eyes that we see the object. The light
may have been emitted by the object, or
may have been reflected by it.
You learnt in Class VII that a polished
or a shiny surface can act as a mirror. A
mirror changes the direction of light
that falls on it. Can you tell in which
direction the light falling on a surface Fig. 16.1 : Arrangement for showing reflection
will be reflected? Let us find out.
After striking the mirror, the ray of
16.2 Laws of Reflection light is reflected in another direction.
Activity 16.1 The light ray, which strikes any surface,
is called the incident ray. The ray that
Fix a white sheet of paper on a comes back from the surface after
drawing board or a table. Take a reflection is known as the reflected ray.
A ray of light is an idealization. In Table 16.1 : Angles of Incidence
reality, we have a narrow beam of and Reflection
light which is made up of several S. Angle of Angle of
rays. For simplicity, we use the term No. incidence (∠∠i) reflection (∠
∠r)
ray for a narrow beam of light.
1.
Draw lines showing the position of 2.
the plane mirror, the incident ray and
3.
the reflected ray on the paper with the
help of your friends. Remove the mirror 4.
and the comb. Draw a line making an 5.
angle of 90º to the line representing the
mirror at the point where the incident Do you see any relation between the
ray strikes the mirror. This line is known angle of incidence and the angle of
as the normal to the reflecting surface reflection. Are they approximately equal?
at that point (Fig. 16.2). The angle If the experiment is carried out carefully,
it is seen that the angle of incidence is
always equal to the angle of reflection.
This is known as the law of reflection.
Let us perform another activity on
reflection.
Fig. 16.2 : Drawing the normal

What would happen if I
between the normal and incident ray is threw the light on the
called the angle of incidence (∠i). The mirror along the normal.
angle between the normal and the
reflected ray is known as the angle of Activity 16.2
reflection (∠r) (Fig. 16.3). Measure the
angle of incidence and the angle of Perform Activity 16.1 again. This
reflection. Repeat the activity several time use a sheet of stiff paper or a
times by changing the angle of chart paper. Let the sheet project a
incidence. Enter the data in Table 16.1. little beyond the edge of the Table
(Fig. 16.4). Cut the projecting
portion of the sheet in the middle.
Look at the reflected ray. Make sure
Reflected Incident that the reflected ray extends to the
ray ray
projected portion of the paper. Bend
Normal that part of the projected portion on
which the reflected ray falls. Can
you still see the reflected ray? Bring
Fig. 16.3 : Angle of incidence and angle of the paper back to the original
reflection
202 SCIENCE
position. Can you see the reflected with the sun as the source of light instead
ray again? What do you infer? of a torch. You, too, can use the sun as
the source of light.
These activities can also be performed

by making use of the Ray Streak
Apparatus (available in the kit
prepared by NCERT).
Bhoojo remembered that he had

studied in Class VII some features of the
image of an object formed by a plane
mirror. Paheli asked him to recall those
(a)
features:
(i) Was the image erect or upside
down?
(ii) Was it of the same size as the
object?
(iii) Did the image appear at the same
distance behind the mirror as the
object was in front of it?
(iv) Could it be obtained on a screen?
Let us understand a little more about
(b) the formation of image by a plane mirror
Fig. 16.4 (a), (b) : Incident ray, reflected ray
and the normal at the point in the following way:
of incidence lie in the same
plane Activity 16.3
When the whole sheet of paper is A source of light O is placed in front
spread on the table, it represents one of a plane mirror PQ. Two rays OA
plane. The incident ray, the normal at and OC are incident on it (Fig. 16.5).
the point of incidence and the reflected Can you find out the direction of
ray are all in this plane. When you bend the reflected rays?
the paper you create a plane different Draw normals to the surface of the
from the plane in which the incident mirror PQ, at the points A and C.
ray and the normal lie. Then you do not Then draw the reflected rays at the
see the reflected ray. What does it points A and C. How would you
indicate? It indicates that the incident draw these rays? Call the reflected
ray, the normal at the point of rays AB and CD, respectively.
incidence and the reflected ray all lie Extend them further. Do they meet?
in the same plane. This is another law Extend them backwards. Do they
of reflection. meet now? If they meet, mark this
Paheli and Bhoojo performed the point as I. For a viewer’s eye at E
above activities outside the classroom (Fig. 16.5), do the reflected rays
LIGHT 203
Fig. 16.6 : Parallel rays incident on
an irregular surface
Fig. 16.5 : Image formation in a plane mirror

appear to come from the point I.
Since the reflected rays do not
actually meet at I, but only appear
to do so, we say that a virtual image Fig. 16.7 : Rays reflected from irregular
of the point O is formed at I. As you surface
have learnt already in Class VII,
such an image cannot be obtained When all the parallel rays reflected
on a screen. from a plane surface are not parallel,
You may recall that in an image the reflection is known as diffused or
formed by a mirror the left of the object irregular reflection. Remember that the
appears on the right and the right diffused reflection is not due to the
appears on the left. This is known as failure of the laws of reflection. It is
lateral inversion. caused by the irregularities in the
reflecting sur face, like that of a
16.3 Regular and Diffused cardboard.
On the other hand reflection from
Reflection
a smooth surface like that of a mirror
Activity 16.4 is called regular reflection (Fig. 16.8).
Images are formed by regular
Imagine that parallel rays are reflection.
incident on an irregular surface as
shown in Fig. 16.6. Remember that
the laws of reflection are valid at
each point of the surface. Use these
laws to construct reflected rays at
various points. Are they parallel to
one another? You will find that
these rays are reflected in different
directions. (Fig. 16.7) Fig. 16.8 : Regular reflection
204 SCIENCE
Do We See all Objects due to Reflected Light?
Nearly everything you see around is seen due to reflected light. Moon, for example,
receives light from the sun and reflects it. That’s how we see the moon. The objects
which shine in the light of other objects are called illuminated objects. Can you
name some other such objects?
There are other objects, which give their own light, such as the sun, fire, flame
of a candle and an electric lamp. Their light falls on our eyes. That is how we see
them. The objects which emit their own light are known as luminous objects.
Paheli recalls having constructed a

periscope as an Extended Activity in
I have a question. Can the Class VI. The periscope makes use of
reflected rays be further reflected two plane mirrors. Can you explain
if incident on another mirror? how reflection from the two mirrors
enables you to see objects which are
Let us find out.
not visible directly? Periscopes are
16.4 Reflected Light Can be used in submarines, tanks and also
Reflected Again by soldiers in bunkers to see things
outside.
Recall the last time you visited a hair
dresser. She/he makes you sit in front of 16.5 Multiple Images
a mirror. After your hair cut is complete,
she/he places a mirror at your back to You are aware that a plane mirror forms
show you how the hair has been cut only a single image of an object. What
(Fig. 16.9). Can you think how you could happens if two plane mirrors in
see the hair at the back of your head? combination are used? Let us see.
Fig. 16.9 : Mirror at the hair dresser shop

LIGHT 205
Activity 16.5 Can you now explain how you can
see the back of your head at the hair
Take two plane mirrors. Set them dresser’s shop?
at right angles to each other with This idea of number of images formed
their edges touching (Fig. 16.10). To by mirrors placed at an angle to one
hinge them you can use adhesive another is used in a kaleidoscope to
tape. Place a coin in between the make numerous beautiful patterns. You
mirrors. How many images of the can also make a kaleidoscope yourself.
coin do you see (Fig. 16.10)?
Kaleidoscope
Activity 16.6
To make a kaleidoscope, get three
rectangular mirror strips about 15
cm long and 4 cm wide each. Join
them together to form a prism as
shown in Fig. 16.12(a). Fix them
in a circular cardboard tube or tube
Fig. 16.10 : Images in plane mirror at right
angle to each other of a thick chart paper. Make sure
that the tube is slightly longer than
Now hinge the mirrors using the
the mirror strips. Close one end of
adhesive tape at different angles, say
the tube by a cardboard disc
45º, 60º, 120º, 180º etc. Place some
having a hole in the centre,
object (say a candle) in between
through which you can see [Fig.
them. Note down the number of
16.12(b)]. To make the disc durable,
images of the object in each case.
paste a piece of transparent plastic
Finally, set the two mirrors
sheet under the cardboard disc. At
parallel to each other. Find out how
many images of a candle placed
between them are formed (Fig.
16.11).
mirrors
Fig. 16.11 : Image in plane mirror parallel b c

to each other Fig. 16.12 : Making a kaleidoscope
206 SCIENCE
the other end, touching the
16.6 Sunlight — White or
mirrors, fix a circular plane glass Coloured
plate [Fig. 16.12(c)]. Place on this In Class VII, you learnt that the sunlight
glass plate several small pieces of is referred to as white light. You also
coloured glass (broken pieces of learnt that it consists of seven colours.
coloured bangles). Close this end Here is another activity (Activity 16.7)
of the tube by a ground glass plate. showing that sunlight consists of several
Allow enough space for the colour colours.
pieces to move around.
16.7 What is inside Our Eyes?
Your kaleidoscope is ready. When
you peep through the hole, you will be We see things only when light coming
able to see a variety of patterns in the from them enters our eyes. Eye is one
tube. Interesting feature of a of our most important sense organs. It
kaleidoscope is that you will never see is, therefore, important to understand
the same pattern again. Designers of its structure and working.
wallpapers and fabrics and artists use The eye has a roughly spherical
kaleidoscopes to get ideas for new shape. Outer coat of the eye is white. It
patterns. To make your toy attractive, is tough so that it can protect the
you can wrap the kaleidoscope in a interior of the eye from accidents. Its
coloured paper. transparent front part is called cornea
Activity 16.7
Get a plane mirror of suitable size. up the light into its colours, as you
Place it in a bowl (Katori) as shown learnt in Class VII. Splitting of light
in Fig. 16.13. Fill the bowl with water. into its colours is known as
Put this arrangement near a window dispersion of light. Rainbow is a
such that direct sunlight falls on the natural phenomenon showing
mirror. Adjust the position of the bowl dispersion.
such that the
reflected light from
the mirror falls on
a wall. If the wall is
not white, fix a sheet
of white paper on it.
Reflected light will
be seen to have
many colours. How
can you explain
this? The mirror
and water form a
prism. This breaks Fig. 16.13 : Dispersion of light
LIGHT 207
(Fig. 16.14). Behind the cornea, we find Class VII. The lens focuses light on the
a dark muscular structure called iris. back of the eye, on a layer called retina
In the iris, there is a small opening (Fig. 16.14). Retina contains several
called the pupil. The size of the pupil nerve cells. Sensations felt by the nerve
is controlled by the iris. The iris is the cells are then transmitted to the brain
part of that eye which gives it its through the optic nerve.
distinctive colour. When we say that a There are two kinds of cells
person has green eyes, we refer actually (i) cones, which are sensitive to bright
to the colour of the iris. The iris controls light and
the amount of light entering into the (ii) rods, which are sensitive to dim light.
eye. Let us see how. Besides, cones sense colour. At the
junction of the optic nerve and the
Ciliary
retina, there are no sensory cells, so no
muscle
vision is possible at that spot. This is
Iris called the blind spot. Its existence can
Optic
Nerve be demonstrated as follows:
Lens
Cornea Activity 16.9

Make a round mark and a cross on
Retina
a sheet of paper with the spot to the
Fig. 16.14 : Human eye right of the cross (Fig. 16.15). The
distance between two marks may be
Caution : For this activity, never use 6-8 cm. Hold the sheet of paper at
a laser torch. arms length from the eye. Close
Activity 16.8 your left eye. Look continuously at
the cross. Move the sheet slowly
Look into your friend’s eye. Observe towards you, keeping your eye on
the size of the pupil. Throw light on the cross. What do you find? Does
her eye with a torch. Observe the the round mark disappear at some
pupil now. Switch off the torch, and point? Now close your right eye.
observe her pupil once again. Do Look at the round mark now and
you notice any change in the size repeat the activity. Does the cross
of the pupil? In which case was the disappear? The disappearance of the
pupil larger? Why do you think it cross or the round mark shows that
was so? there is a point on the retina which
In which case do you need to cannot send messages to the brain
allow more light in the eye, when when light falls on it.
the light is dim or bright?
Behind the pupil of the eye is a lens

which is thicker in the centre. What
kind of lens is thicker at the centre?
Fig. 16.15 : Demonstration of blind spot
Recall what you learnt about lenses in
208 SCIENCE
The impression of an image does not Nature has provided eyes with
vanish immediately from the retina. It eyelids to protect from any object
persists there for about 1/16th of a entering the eye. Eyelids also shut out
second. So, if still images of a moving light when not required.
object are flashed on the eye at a rate Eye is such a wonderful instrument
faster than 16 per second, then the eye that it (normal) can see distant objects
perceives this object as moving. as well near objects clearly. The
minimum distance at which the eye can
Activity 16.10 see objects distinctly varies with age. The
most comfortable distance at which one
Get a square piece of cardboard of can read with a normal eye is about
side 6-8 cm. Make two holes as 25 cm.
shown in Fig. 16.16. Thread a Some persons can see near objects
string through the two holes. Draw/ clearly but cannot see distant objects
paste a cage on one side of the
so clearly. On the other hand, some
cardboard and a bird on the other
persons cannot see near objects clearly
side. Twist the string and make the
but they can see distant objects quite
card twirl rapidly. Do you see the
well. With suitable corrective lenses,
bird in the cage?
these defects of the eye can be
corrected.
Sometimes, particularly in old age,
eyesight becomes foggy. It is due to the
Reverse side Front side of eye lens becoming cloudy. When it
of cardboard cardboard
happens, persons are said to have
cataract. There is a loss of vision,
sometimes extremely severe. It is
possible to treat this defect. The opaque
lens is removed and a new artificial
lens is inserted. Modern technology
has made this procedure simpler
and safer.
16.8 Care of Eyes

It is necessary that you take proper care
Fig. 16.16 : Bird in cage
of your eyes. If there is any problem
you should go to an eye specialist. Have
The movies that we see are actually
a regular checkup.
a number of separate pictures in
If advised, use suitable spectacles.
proper sequence. They are made to
move across the eye usually at the rate Too little or too much light is bad
of 24 pictures per second (faster than for eyes. Insufficient light causes
16 per second). So, we see a moving eyestrain and headaches. Too much
picture. light, like that of the sun, a powerful
LIGHT 209
Did you know?
Animals have eyes shaped in different ways. Eyes of a crab are quite small but
they enable the crab to look all around. So, the crab can sense even if the enemy
approaches from behind. Butterfly has large eyes that seem to be made up of
thousands of little eyes (Fig.
16.17). It can see not only in the
front and the sides but the back Eyes
as well.
A night bird (owl) can see very well
in the night but not during the
day. On the other hand, day light
birds (kite, eagle) can see well
during the day but not in the
night. The Owl has a large cornea
and a large pupil to allow more
light in its eye. Also, it has on its
retina a large number of rods and
only a few cones. The day birds
on the other hand, have more Fig. 16.17 : Eyes of butterfly
cones and fewer rods.
lamp or a laser torch can injure the Raw carrots, broccoli and green
retina. vegetables (such as spinach) and cod
Do not look at the sun or a powerful
liver oil are rich in vitamin A. Eggs,
milk, curd, cheese, butter and fruits
light directly.
such as papaya and mango are also rich
Never rub your eyes. If particles of in vitamin A.
dust go into your eyes, wash your
eyes with clean water. If there is no 16.9 Visually Challenged
improvement go to a doctor. Persons Can Read and
Wash your eyes frequently with Write
clean water.
Always read at the normal distance Some persons, including children, can
for vision. Do not read by bringing be visually handicapped. They have very
your book too close to your eyes or limited vision to see things. Some
keeping it too far. persons cannot see at all since birth.
You learnt about balanced diet in Some persons may lose their eyesight
Class VI. If food is deficient in some because of a disease. Such persons try
components, eye may also suffer. Lack to identify things by touching and
of vitamin A in foodstuff is responsible listening to voices more carefully. They
for many eye troubles. Most common develop their other senses more sharply.
amongst them is night blindness. However, additional resources can
One should, therefore, include in the enable them to develop their capabilities
diet components which have vitamin A. further.
210 SCIENCE
Resources can be of two types : Non-optical aids and optical aids.
Non-optical aids include visual aids, tactual aids (using the sense of touch),
auditory aids (using the sense of hearing) and electronic aids. Visual aids, can
magnify words, can provide suitable intensity of light and material at proper
distances. Tactual aids, including Braille writer slate and stylus, help the visually
challenged persons in taking notes, reading and writing. Auditory aids include
cassettes, tape recorders, talking books and other such devices. Electronic aids,
such as talking calculators, are also available for performing many computational
tasks. Closed circuit television, also an electronic aid, enlarges printed material
with suitable contrast and illumination. Nowadays, use of audio CDs and voice
boxes with computers are also very helpful for listening to and writing the desired
text.
Optical aids include bifocal lenses, contact lenses, tinted lenses, magnifiers and
telescopic aids. While the lens combinations are used to rectify visual limitations,
telescopic aids are available to view chalkboard and class demonstrations.
16.10 What is a Braille Braille system has 63 dot patterns or

System? characters. Each character
represents a letter, a combination of
The most popular resource for visually letters, a common word or a
challenged persons is known as Braille. grammatical sign. Dots are arranged
in cells of two vertical rows of three
Louis Braille, himself a visually dots each.
challenged person, developed a
system for visually challenged persons
and published it in 1821.
Fig. 16.18 : Example of dot patterns used

in Braille System
Patterns of dots to represent some

Louis Braille English alphabets and some common
words are shown below.
The present system was adopted in These patterns when embossed on
1932. There is Braille code for common Braille sheets help visually
languages, mathematics and scientific challenged to recognise words by
notation. Many Indian languages can touching. To make them easier to
be read using the Braille system. touch, the dots are raised slightly.
LIGHT 211
Visually challenged people learn the character has to be memorised. Braille
Braille system by beginning with texts can be produced by hand or by
letters, then special characters and machine. Type writer - like devices and
letter combinations. Methods depend printing machines have now been
upon recognition by touching. Each developed.
Some visually challenged Indians have great achievements to their

credit. Diwakar, a child prodigy has given amazing performances
as a singer.
Mr. Ravindra Jain, born completely visually challenged,
obtained his Sangeet Prabhakar degree from Allahabad. He has
shown his excellence as a lyricist, singer and music composer.
Mr. Lal Advani, himself visually challenged, established an
Association for special education and rehabilitation of disabled
Helen A Keller
in India. Besides, he represented India on Braille problems to
UNESCO.
Helen A Keller, an American author and lecturer, is perhaps the most well-
known and inspiring visually challenged person. She lost her sight when she was
only 18 months old. But because of her resolve and courage she could complete
her graduation from a university. She wrote a number of books including The
Story of my Life (1903).
212 SCIENCE
ANGLE OF Light is reflected from all surfaces.
INCIDENCE Regular reflection takes place when light is
ANGLE OF incident on smooth, polished and regular
REFLECTION surfaces.
BLIND SPOT Diffused/irregular reflection takes place from

rough surfaces.
BRAILLE
Two laws of reflection are
CONES (i) The angle of incidence is equal to the angle
CORNEA of reflection.
(ii) Incident ray, reflected ray and the normal
DIFFUSED/
drawn at the point of incidence to the
IRREGULAR
reflecting surface, lie in the same plane.
REFLECTION
Image formed in a plane mirror undergoes
DISPERSION
lateral inversion.
INCIDENT RAYS Two mirrors inclined to each other give multiple
IRIS images.
Beautiful patterns are formed in a
KALEIDOSCOPE
kaleidoscope because of multiple reflections.
LATERAL INVERSION
Sunlight, called white light, consists of seven
LAWS OF colours.
REFLECTION Splitting of light into its constituent colours is
PUPIL known as dispersion.
Important parts of the eye are cornea, iris,
REFLECTED RAYS
pupil, lens, retina and optic nerve.
REFLECTION
A normal eye can see nearby and distant
REGULAR objects clearly.
REFLECTION Visually challenged persons can read and
RETINA write using Braille system.
Visually challenged persons develop their
RODS
other senses more sharply to improve their
interaction with their environment.
LIGHT 213
Exercises
1. Suppose you are in a dark room. Can you see objects in the room? Can
you see objects outside the room. Explain.
2. Differentiate between regular and diffused reflection. Does diffused
reflection mean the failure of the laws of reflection?
3. Mention against each of the following whether regular or diffused reflection

will take place when a beam of light strikes. Justify your answer in each
case.
(a) Polished wooden table (b) Chalk powder

(c) Cardboard surface (d) Marble floor with water
spread over it
(e) Mirror (f) Piece of paper
4. State the laws of reflection.
5. Describe an activity to show that the incident ray, the reflected ray and
the normal at the point of incidence lie in the same plane.
6. Fill in the blanks in the following :
(a) A person 1 m in front of a plane mirror seems to be _______________ m
from his image.
(b) If you touch your ____________ ear with right hand in front of a plane
mirror it will be seen in the mirror that your right ear is touched with
____________
(c) The size of the pupil becomes ____________ when you see in dim light.
(d) Night birds have ____________ cones than rods in their eyes..
Choose the correct option in Questions 7 – 8
7. Angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection

(a) Always (b) Sometimes
(c) Under special conditions (d) Never
8. Image formed by a plane mirror is

(a) virtual, behind the mirror and enlarged
(b) virtual, behind the mirror and of the same size as the object
(c) real at the surface of the mirror and enlarged
(d) real, behind the mirror and of the same size as the object.
9. Describe the construction of a kaleidoscope.
10. Draw a labeled sketch of the human eye.
214 SCIENCE
11. Gurmit wanted to perform Activity 16.8 using a laser torch. Her teacher
EXERCISES advised her not to do so. Can you explain the basis of the teachers advise?
12. Explain how you can take care of your eyes.
13. What is the angle of incidence of a ray if the reflected ray is at an angle of
90° to the incident ray?
14. How many images of a candle will be formed if it is placed between two
parallel plane mirrors separated by 40 cm?
15. Two mirrors meet at right angles. A ray of light is incident on one at an
angle of 30° as shown in Fig. 16.19. Draw the reflected ray from the second
mirror.
Fig. 16.19
16. Boojho stands at A just on the side of a plane mirror as shown in Fig.
16.20. Can he see himself in the mirror? Also can he see the image of
objects situated at P, Q and R?
Fig. 16.20
17. (a) Find out the position of the image of an object situated at A in the
plane mirror (Fig. 16.21).
(b) Can Paheli at B see this image?
(c) Can Boojho at C see this image?
(d) When Paheli moves from B to C, where does the image of A move?
Fig. 16.21
LIGHT 215
Extended Learning — Activities and Project
1. Make your own mirror. Take a glass strip or glass slab. Clean it and
put it on a white sheet of paper. See yourself in the glass. Next put
the glass slab on a black sheet of paper. Again look into the glass.
In which case you see yourself better and why?
2. Make friends with some visually challenged students. Enquire from
them how they read and write. Also find out how they are able to
recognise objects, hurdles and currency notes.
3. Meet an eye specialist. Get your eye sight checked and discuss how
to take care of your eyes.
4. Survey your neighbourhood. Find out how many children below
the age of 12 years use spectacles. Find out from their parents
what, in their view, could be the reason for the weak eyesight of
their children.
You can read more on this topic on the following websites:
www. glenbrook.k12.il.us/gbssci/phys/mmedia/optics/
ifpm.html.
www.glenbrook.k12.il.us/gbssci/phys/class/refln/
u1311b.html.
Did You Know?

Eyes can be donated by any person as an invaluable gift to visually
challenged persons suffering from corneal blindness, The person may be:
(a) male or female
(b) of any age
(c) of any social status
(d) using spectacles
(e) suffering from any normal disease but not AIDS, Hepatitis B or C,
Rabies, Leukemia, Tetanus, Cholera, Encephalitis.
The eyes have to be donated within 4-6 hours after death at any
place, home or hospital.
A person who wants to donate the eyes has to pledge eyes during his/her
lifetime to any registered eye bank. He/she should also inform his/her
relatives about this pledge so that they can take necessary action after
his/her death.
You can also donate a Braille kit. Contact :

Give India, National Association for the Blind. [The cost of a Braille kit is
Rs. 750/-]
216 SCIENCE
STARS AND THE SOLAR SYSTEM
P
aheli and Boojho visited their at a place where there are no bright lights
grandparents’ village during and the atmosphere is clear.
summer break. After dinner, they Look at the sky on a dark, clear night.
went on to the roof of the house. It was a You see the entire sky dotted with
clear cloudless night. They were countless stars, some bright and some
surprised to see a large number of bright not so bright. Observe them carefully.
stars in the sky. They had never seen such Do all of them appear to twinkle? Do
a beautiful scene in their city (Fig. 17.1). you find any star-like object which does
Fig. 17.1: Night sky
Paheli wondered, why the village sky not twinkle? The objects which do not
was so different from the night sky in twinkle are planets.
big cities? Her grandfather explained that The moon is the brightest object in
due to bright light, smoke and dust, sky the night sky. The stars, the planets,
in big cities is rarely clear. Night sky the moon and many other objects in the
watching can be a fascinating experience sky are called celestial objects.
Are all celestial objects similar? Let size of the bright part of the moon
us find out. appears to become thinner and thinner.
On the fifteenth day the moon is not
17.1 The Moon visible. This day is known as the new
moon day. The next day, only a small
Activity 17.1 portion of the moon appears in the sky.
Observe the moon continuously for This is known as the crescent moon.
several nights, preferably from one Then again the moon grows larger every
full moon to the next. Make a sketch day. On the fifteenth day once again we
of the moon every night in your note get a full view of the moon.
book and note from the day of the The various shapes of the bright part
full moon. Also note everyday the of the moon as seen during a month
part of the sky (east or west) in are called phases of the moon (Fig. 17.2).
which the moon is seen.
The time period between one full moon
to the next full moon is slightly longer
Is there a change in the shape of the than 29 days. In many calendars this
moon everyday? Are there days when period is called a month.
the shape of the moon appears to be
perfectly round? Are there days when
the moon cannot be seen at all even if
the sky is clear?
The day on which the whole disc of Why does the moon change
the moon is visible is known as the full its shape every day?
moon day. Thereafter, every night the
Fig.17.2 : Phases of the moon

218 SCIENCE
Let us try to understand why phases
of the moon occur. You have studied in
Chapter 16 that the moon does not
produce its own light, whereas the Sun
and other stars do. We see the moon
because the sunlight falling on it gets
reflected towards us (Fig. 17.3). We,
therefore, see only that part of the moon,
from which the light of the Sun is
reflected towards us.
Fig. 17.3 : Moon is visible due to reflected
Activity 17.2 sunlight
Take a big ball or a pitcher. Paint east. If the activity is being
half of it white and half black in performed in the afternoon then the
colour. white portion of the ball should be
Go out into the playground with kept towards the west. In each case
two of your friends. Draw a circle of the line dividing the white and
radius about 2 m on the ground. black portions is kept vertical.
Divide the circle into eight equal Standing at the centre of the
parts as shown in Fig. 17.4. circle observe the visible white
Stand at the centre of the circle. portion of the ball while your friend
Ask a friend to hold the ball at stands at the points on the circle
different points of the circle. Ask her marked earlier. Draw the shape of
to keep the white portion of the ball the white portion as you see it.
always towards the Sun. If you are Compare your drawings with the
performing this activity in the different phases of the moon as
morning then the white portion of shown in Fig. 17.5.
the ball should be kept towards the
Fig. 17.4: The moon appears different at different positions in its orbit

Fig. 17.5: Positions of the moon in its orbit and its corresponding phases
Remember that the moon revolves these positions in your notebook. In

around the Earth. The Earth along which part of the sky would you look
with the moon, revolve around the for the full moon?
Sun (Fig. 17.6). The size of the illuminated part of
the moon visible from the Earth
increases each day after the new moon
day. After the full moon day, the sunlit
part of the moon visible from the Earth
decreases in size every day.
I have heard that we

never see the back side of
the moon from the Earth.
Is it true?
Fig. 17.6 : Earth accompanied by moon
revolving round the Sun Activity 17.3
Can you now guess the relative Draw a circle of about 1m diameter
positions of the Sun, moon and the on the ground. Ask one of your
Earth on the day of the full moon and friends to stand at the centre of this
on the day of the new moon? Sketch circle. You revolve around your
220 SCIENCE
friend in such a manner that your
face always remains towards him.
Can your friend see your back? How Can we hear any sound
many rotations did you complete in on the moon?
one revolution? The moon revolves
around the Earth in a similar
manner.
The moon completes one rotation on We learnt in Chapter 13
its axis as it completes one revolution that sound cannot
around the Earth. travel when there is no
medium. Then, how can
The Moon’s Surface we hear any sound on
the moon?
The moon is a fascinating object for
poets and story-tellers. But when
astronauts landed on the moon, they Did You Know?
found that the moon’s surface is dusty On July 21, 1969 (Indian time) the
and barren. There are many craters of American astronaut Neil Armstrong
different sizes. It also has a large number landed on the moon for the first time
of steep and high mountains (Fig. 17.7). followed by Edwin Aldrin.
Some of these are as high as the highest
mountains on the Earth.
NASA
Fig. 17.8 : An astronaut on the moon
NASA 17.2 The Stars

Fig. 17.7 : Surface of the moon What other objects do you see in the
night sky? There is a large number of
The moon has no atmosphere. It has stars in the sky. Observe carefully on a
no water. Can any life exist on the dark night and from a place away from
moon? a big city. Are all the stars equally
bright? Are they of the same colour? In In fact, the stars are present in the
fact, stars emit light of their own. The sky during the day-time also. However,
Sun is also a star. Why does it appear they are not visible then because of the
so large compared to the other stars? bright sunlight.
Which appears bigger, a football Observe some prominent star or a
placed near you, or a football placed at group of stars in the sky for about two
a distance of 100 m? The stars are hours or more. What do you find? Do
millions of times farther away than the you find any change in the positions of
Sun. Therefore, the stars appear to us stars in the sky?
like points. You will find that the stars appear
to move from east to west. A star which
The Sun is nearly 150,000,000 rises in the east in the evening, sets in
kilometres (150 million km) away from the west in the early morning.
the Earth. Why do stars appear to move from
The next nearest star is Alpha east to west? Let us find out.
Centauri. It is at a distance of about
40,000,000,000,000 km from the
Earth. Can you read this distance in
Activity 17.4
kilometres conveniently? Some stars Stand in the centre of a big room
are even further away. and start rotating. In which
Such large distances are direction will the objects in the room
expressed in another unit known as
appear to move? Do you see them
light year. It is the distance travelled
by light in one year. Remember that
moving in the direction opposite to
the speed of light is about 300,000 your motion?
km per second. Thus, the distance of
the Sun from the Earth may be said Paheli recalls that when she is in a
to be about 8 light minutes. The moving train the nearby trees and
distance of Alpha Centauri is about buildings appear to move in the
4.3 light years. backward direction.
If the stars appear to move from east
to west, could it mean that the Earth,
If light from stars takes rotates from west to east?
years to reach us, I
wonder if we are looking
into the past when we
look at stars.
Now I understand
why the Sun appears
to rise in the east and
I want to know why we do set in the west as the
not see the stars during Earth rotates from
the day. Why are they west to east on
visible only at night? its axis.
222 SCIENCE
There is actually a star, the pole star,
which is situated in the direction of the
earth’s axis. It does not appear to move
My grandfather told me that (Fig. 17.10).
there is one star in the sky
which does not move at all.
How is it possible?
Activity 17.5
Take an umbrella and open it. Make
about 10-15 stars out of white
paper. Paste one star at the position
of the central rod of the umbrella
and others at different places on the
cloth near the end of each spoke
(Fig. 17.9).
Fig 17.10: The Pole star lies close to the axis of

rotation of the Earth
17.3 Constellations
Look at the sky for some time. Can you
see some stars forming groups with
shapes like those in Fig. 17.11.
The stars forming a group that has a
recognisable shape is called a
constellation.
Constellations were devised by

ancient people to be able to recognise
Fig. 17.9 : Pole star does not appear to move
stars in the sky. The shapes of
Now rotate the umbrella by holding constellations resemble objects
its central rod in your hand. Observe familiar to those people.
the stars on the umbrella. Is there
You can easily identify some
any star which does not appear to
constellations in the night sky. For this,
move? Where is this star located?
you should know how a particular
If there were a star located where the
constellation looks like and where to
axis of rotation of the Earth meets look for it in the night sky.
the sky, could this star also be One of the most famous
stationary? constellations which you can see during

(a) Great Bear (b) Orion (c) Cassiopeia (d) Leo Major
Fig. 17.11 : Some constallations in the night sky
summer time in the early part of the Activity 17.6

night is Ursa Major [Fig.17.11 (a)].
It is also known as the Big Dipper, Observe this constellation for a few
the Great Bear or the Saptarshi. hours. Do you find any change in
There are seven prominent stars in its shape? Do you find any change
this constellation. It appears like a big in its position?
ladle or a question mark. There are three You will observe that the shape
stars in the handle of the ladle and four of the constellation remains the
in its bowl (Fig. 17.12). same.
You will also find that the
constellation appears to move in the
sky from east to west.
I have heard that we

can locate the Pole
Star with the help of
Ursa Major.
Activity 17.7
This activity should be performed
on a clear moonless night during
summer at about 9.00 pm. Look
towards the northern part of the sky
and identify Ursa Major. You may
Fig. 17.12: Dipper used for drinking water in get help from elders in your family.
ancient times.
224 SCIENCE
Look at the two stars at the end of Pole Star? Compare your
Ursa Major. Imagine a straight line observations with those in Fig.
passing through these stars as 17.14.
shown in Fig. 17.13. Extend this
imaginary line towards the north
direction. (About five times the
distance between the two stars).
This line will lead to a star which is
not too bright. This is the Pole Star.
Observe the Pole star for some time.
Note that it does not move at all as Pole star
other stars drift from east to west.
Fig. 17.14: Ursa Major moves around the Pole

Star.
In fact, all the stars appear to revolve

around the Pole Star.
Note that the Pole Star is not visible

from the southern hemisphere. Some
of the northern constellations like
Ursa Major may also not be visible
from some points in the southern
hemisphere.
Fig. 17.13: Locating the pole star

Orion is another well-known
constellation that can be seen during
Activity 17.8 winter in the late evenings. It is one of
the most magnificent constellations in
During a summer night, observe the sky. It also has seven or eight bright
Ursa Major 3-4 times at an interval stars [Fig. 17.11(b)] Orion is also called
of 2 to 3 hours. Also locate the Pole the Hunter. The three middle stars
Star each time. Does Ursa Major represent the belt of the hunter. The
appear to move from east to west? four bright stars appear to be arranged
Does it appear to revolve around the in the form of a quadrilateral.

The star Sirius, which is the
brightest star in the sky, is located
close to Orion. To locate Sirius, imagine
a straight line passing through the
three middle stars of Orion. Look along
this line towards the east. This line will
lead you to a very bright star. It is
Sirius. (Fig. 17.15).
Fig. 17.15: Locating - Sirius

Fig. 17.16
Cassiopeia is another prominent
constellation in the northern sky. It is
17.4 The Solar System
visible during winter in the early part
of the night. It looks like a distorted The Sun and the celestial bodies which
letter W or M [Fig. 17.11(c)]. revolve around it form the solar system.
It consists of large number of bodies
Did You Know? such as planets, comets, asteroids and
meteors. The gravitational attraction
A constellation does not have between the Sun and these objects
only 5-10 stars. It has a large keeps them revolving around it.
number of stars (Fig. 17.16). The Earth, as you know, also
However, we can see only the bright revolves around the Sun. It is a member
stars in a constellation with our of the solar system. It is a planet. There
naked eye. are seven other planets that revolve
All the stars which make up a around the Sun. The eight planets in
constellation are not at the same their order of distance from the Sun
distance. They are just in the same are: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars ,
line of sight in the sky. Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune.
226 SCIENCE
Fig. 17.17 : The solar system (not to scale)
Figure 17.17 shows a schematic view of heat and light. The Sun is the source
of the solar system. of almost all energy on the Earth. In
fact, the Sun is the main source of heat
and light for all the planets.
I had read that there are nine
planets in the solar system
The Planets
Did you know? The planets look like stars, but they do
not have light of their own. They merely
Till 2006 there were nine planets in
the solar system. Pluto was the reflect the sunlight that falls on them.
farthest planet from the Sun. Can you distinguish between planets
In 2006, the International and stars?
Astronomical Union (IAU) adopted a The simplest method of identifying
new definition of a planet. Pluto does
not fit this definition. It is no longer
planets from stars is that stars twinkle,
a planet of the solar system. whereas planets do not. Also the planets
keep changing their positions with
Let us know about some members of respect to the stars.
the solar family. A planet has a definite path in which
it revolves around the Sun. This path is
The Sun called an orbit. The time taken by a
The Sun is the nearest star from us. It planet to complete one revolution is
is continuously emitting huge amounts called its period of revolution. The period
of revolution increases as the distance Besides revolving around the Sun, a
of the planet increases from the sun. planet also rotates on its own axis like a
top (Fig. 17.19). The time taken by a
planet to complete one rotation is called
its period of rotation.
I wonder why the planets do
not collide while revolving
around the Sun.
Activity 17.9
Go out into the playground with four
or five of your friends. Draw four Fig. 17.19 : A Planet rotates on its own axis
circles of radii 1m, 1.8m, 2.5m and like a top
3.8m, all having a common centre
(Fig. 17.18). Some planets are known to have
Ask one of your friends to stand moons/satellites revolving round them.
in the centre and represent the Sun. Any celestial body revolving around
Your other four friends may another celestial body is called its
represent Mercury, Venus, Earth satellite.
and Mars.
Ask your friends to move around The Earth revolves
the Sun in anti-clockwise direction around the Sun. Does it
in their own orbits (Fig. 17.18). Do make Earth a satellite
they collide with one another? of the Sun?
Fig. 17.18 : Planets move in their own orbits

228 SCIENCE
The Earth can be said to be a satellite Activity 17.10
of the Sun, though generally we call it a
planet of the Sun. We use the term Find out from some newspaper or
satellite for the bodies revolving around from an almanac the time when
planets. Moon is a satellite of the Earth. Venus is visible in the sky. You can
There are many man-made satellites easily recognise Venus by its
revolving round the Earth. These are brightness. Remember that Venus
called artificial satellites. cannot be seen very high in the sky.
You must try to observe Venus
either 1-3 hours before sunrise or
1-3 hours after sunset.
Venus has no moon or satellite of its
own. Rotation of Venus on its axis is
Mercury (Budh) somewhat unusual. It rotates from east
to west while the Earth rotates from west
The planet mercury is nearest to the to east.
Sun. It is the smallest planet of our solar
system. Because Mercury is very close
to the Sun, it is very difficult to observe
Does it mean that on Venus,
it, as most of the time it is hidden in the
the Sun would rise in the
glare of the Sun. However, it can be west and set in the east?
observed just before sunrise or just after
sunset, near the horizon. So it is visible
only at places where trees or buildings If you get a chance, try to observe
do not obstruct the view of the horizon. Venus through a telescope. You will
Mercury has no satellite of its own. observe that Venus shows phases just
like the moon (Fig. 17.20).
Venus (Shukra)
Venus is earth’s nearest planetary Fig. 17.20 : Phases of Venus

neighbour. It is the brightest planet in
the night sky.
Sometimes Venus appears in the
eastern sky before sunrise. Some times
it appears in the western sky just after
The Earth
sunset. Therefore it is often called a
morning or an evening star, although it The Earth is the only planet in the solar
is not a star. Try to locate Venus in the system on which life is known to exist.
night sky. Some special environmental conditions
are responsible for the existence and You are familiar with the equator of
continuation of life on the Earth. These the Earth. The plane of the equator
include just the right distance from the is called the equatorial plane (Fig.
Sun, so that it has the right temperature 17.21). The plane in which the Earth
range, the presence of water and suitable revolves round the Sun is called the
atmosphere and a blanket of ozone. orbital plane of the Earth (Fig. 17.21).
These two planes are inclined to each
other at an angle of 23.5º. This
means that the axis of the Earth is
We must take special care to inclined to its orbital plane at an
protect our environment so that angle of 66.5º.
life on Earth is not disturbed.
From space, the Earth appears blue-

green due to the reflection of light from
water and landmass on its surface.
The axis of rotation of the Earth is
not perpendicular to the plane of its
orbit. The tilt is responsible for the
change of seasons on the Earth. The
Earth has only one moon.
If I am 13 years old, how many

times have I gone round the sun?
Mars (Mangal)
Fig. 17.21 : Earth rotates on a tilted axis
The next planet, the first outside the
orbit of the Earth is Mars. It appears planet. However, the mass of Jupiter is
slightly reddish and, therefore, it is also about 318 times that of our Earth. It
called the red planet. Mars has two small rotates very rapidly on its axis.
natural satellites.
I have an idea! If you take a

large ball which can
Jupiter (Brihaspati) accommodate about 1300
Jupiter is the largest planet of the solar peas, then the ball will
system. It is so large that about 1300 represent Jupiter and one
pea will represent the Earth.
earths can be placed inside this giant
230 SCIENCE
Fig. 17.22 : Jupiter and its four large satellites.
Jupiter has a large number of

satellites. It also has faint rings around
it. You can easily recognise Jupiter as it
appears quite bright in the sky. If you Saturn (Shani)
observe it with the help of a telescope, Beyond Jupiter is Saturn which appears
you can also see four of its large moons yellowish in colour. What makes it
(Fig. 17.22). unique in the solar system is its beautiful
Boojho has a
naughty idea! “If
we imagine Saturn
in a large pool of
water then it will
float (Fig. 17.23)
Fig. 17.23 : Saturn is less dense than water

rings. These rings are not visible with the Sun than the other four planets.
the naked eye. You can observe them with They are called the inner planets. The
a small telescope. Saturn also has a large inner planets have very few moons.
number of satellites. The planets outside the orbit of Mars,
One interesting thing about Saturn namely Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and
is that it is the least dense among all Neptune are much farther off than the
the planets. Its density is less than that inner planets. They are called the outer
of water. planets. They have a ring system around
them. The outer planets have large
Uranus and Neptune number of moons.
These are the outermost planets of the
solar system. They can be seen only with 17.5 Some Other Members of
the help of large telescopes. Like Venus, the Solar System
Uranus also rotates from east to west. There are some other bodies which
The most remarkable feature of Uranus revolve around the Sun. They are also
is that it has highly tilted rotational axis members of the solar system. Let us
(Fig. 17.24). As a result, in its orbital learn about some of them.
motion it appears to roll on its side.
The first four planets, Mercury, Asteroids
Venus, Earth and Mars are much nearer
There is a large gap in between the orbits
of Mars and Jupiter (Fig. 17.25). This
gap is occupied by a large number of
small objects that revolve around the
Sun. These are called asteroids.
Asteroids can only be seen through large
Fig. 17.24 : Uranus in its orbital path telescopes.
Asteroids
Fig. 17.25 : Asteroid belt
232 SCIENCE
Comets see bright streaks of light in the sky (Fig.
Comets are also members of our solar 17.27). These are commonly known as
shooting stars, although they are not
system. They revolve around the Sun
stars. They are called meteors. A meteor
in highly elliptical orbits. However, their
period of revolution round the Sun is is usually a small object that
usually very long. A Comet appears occasionally enters the earth’s
generally as a bright head with a long atmosphere. At that time it has a very
tail. The length of the tail grows in size high speed. The friction due to the
as it approaches the sun. The tail of a atmosphere heats it up. It glows and
comet is always directed away from the evaporates quickly. That is why the
sun (Fig. 17.26). bright steak lasts for a very short time.
Fig. 17.26 : Different position of a Comet
Many comets are known to appear

periodically. One such comet is Halley’s Fig. 17.27 : Streak of a Meteor
comet, which appears after nearly every Some meteors are large so that they
76 years. It was last seen in 1986. Can can reach the Earth before they
you tell, when Halley’s comet will be evaporate completely. The body that
visible again? reaches the Earth is called a meteorite.
Superstitions about the Comets Meteorites help scientists in
investigating the nature of the material
Some people think that comets are from which the solar system was formed.
messengers of disasters, such as
wars, epidemics and floods. But these Meteor Showers
are all myths and superstitions.
Appearance of a comet is a natural When the Earth crosses the tail of a
phenomenon. We have no reason to comet, swarms of meteors are seen.
be afraid of it. These are known as meteor showers.
Some meteor showers occur at
regular intervals each year. You can
Meteors and Meteorites
find the time of their appearance from
At night, when the sky is clear and the a scientific magazine or from the
moon is not there, you may sometimes internet.

Artificial Satellites satellites are INSAT, IRS, Kalpana-1,
EDUSAT, etc. (Fig. 17.28).
You must have heard that there are a
Artificial satellites have many
number of artificial satellites which are
practical applications. They are used for
orbiting the Earth. You might wonder
forecasting weather, transmitting
how artificial satellites are different from
television and radio signals. They are
the natural satellites. The artificial
also used for telecommunication and
satellites are man-made. They are
remote sensing.
launched from the Earth. They revolve
around the Earth much closer than
earth’s natural satellite, the moon. I want to tell you that by remote
India has built and launched several sensing we mean collecting
artificial satellites. Aryabhatta was the information from a distance.
first Indian satellite. Some other Indian
ISRO
Fig. 17.28 : Some Indian satellites
234 SCIENCE
ARTIFICIAL The phases of the moon occur because we can
SATELLITES see only that part of the moon which reflects
the light of the Sun towards us.
ASTEROIDS
Stars are celestial bodies that emit light of
CASSIOPEIA their own. Our sun is also a star.
It is convenient to express distances of stars
CELESTIAL OBJECTS in light years.
COMETS Stars appear to move from east to west.

The pole star appears to be stationary from
CONSTELLATIONS the Earth, because it is situated close to the
direction of the axis of rotation of the Earth.
LIGHT YEAR
Constellations are groups of stars that appear
METEORITES to form recognisable shapes.
The solar system consists of eight planets and
METEORS host of asteroids, comets and meteors.
A body revolving around another body is called
NATURAL SATELLITES
a satellite.
ORBIT Moon is the natural satellite of the Earth.
Some planets also have natural satellites.
ORION
Venus is the brightest planet in the night sky.
PHASES OF MOON Jupiter is the largest planet of the solar
system.
PLANETS The artificial satellites revolve around the
Earth. They are much closer than the moon.
POLE STAR
Artificial satellites are used for weather
REMOTE SENSING forecasting, long distance communication and
remote sensing.
SOLAR SYSTEM
STARS
URSA MAJOR

Exercises
Choose the correct answer in Questions 1-3 :
1. Which of the following is NOT a member of the solar system?

(a) An asteroid
(b) A satellite
(c) A constellation
(d) A comet
2. Which of the following is NOT a planet of the sun?
(a) Sirius
(b) Mercury
(c) Saturn
(d) Earth
3. Phases of the moon occur because
(a) we can see only that part of the moon which reflects light towards
us.
(b) our distance from the moon keeps changing.
(c) the shadow of the Earth covers only a part of moon’s surface.
(d) the thickness of the moon’s atmosphere is not constant.

(a) The planet which is farthest from the Sun is ____________ .
(b) The planet which appears reddish in colour is ____________ .
(c) A group of stars that appear to form a pattern in the sky is known as
a ____________ .
(d) A celestial body that revolves around a planet is known as __________.
(e) Shooting stars are actually not ____________.
(f) Asteroids are found between the orbits of _________ and _________ .
5. Mark the following statements as true (T) or false (F):
(a) Pole Star is a member of the solar system. ( )

(b) Mercury is the smallest planet of the solar system. ( )
(c) Uranus is the farthest planet in the solar system. ( )
(d) INSAT is an artificial satellite. ( )
(e) There are nine planets in the solar system. ( )
(f) Constellation Orion can be seen only with a telescope. ( )
236 SCIENCE
6. Match items in column A with one or more items in column B:
EXERCISES A B
(i) Inner planets (a) Saturn
(ii) Outer planets (b) Pole Star
(iii) Constellation (c) Great Bear
(iv) Satellite of the Earth (d) Moon
(e) Earth
(f) Orion
(g) Mars
7. In which part of the sky can you find Venus if it is visible as an evening star?
8. Name the largest planet of the solar system.
9. What is a constellation? Name any two constellations.
10. Draw sketches to show the relative positions of prominent stars in
(a) Ursa Major and (b) Orion
11. Name two objects other than planets which are members of the solar system.
12. Explain how you can locate the Pole Star with the help of Ursa Major.
13. Do all the stars in the sky move? Explain.
14. Why is the distance between stars expressed in light years? What do you
understand by the statement that a star is eight light years away from
the Earth?
15. The radius of Jupiter is 11 times the radius of the Earth. Calculate the
ratio of the volumes of Jupiter and the Earth. How many Earths can Jupiter
accomodate?
16. Boojho made the following sketch (Fig. 17.29) of the solar system. Is the
sketch correct? If not, correct it.
Fig. 17.29

1. If possible, visit a planetarium. There are planetariums in many
cities. In a planetarium you can see the motion of the stars,
constellations and planets on a large dome.
2. On a moonless night observe the sky for a few hours. Look out for a
meteor, which appears as a streak of light. September-November is
a good time for observing meteors.
3. Learn to identify the planets visible to the naked eye and some
prominent constellations such as Great Bear (Saptarshi) and Orion.
Also try to locate the Pole Star and the star Sirius.
4. Select a convenient place on the roof of your house or in some
playground from where you can watch sunrise clearly. Remember
that you will have to do this activity for a few months. So, choose
the place carefully. On a sheet of chart paper draw the outline of
the eastern horizon indicating big trees, poles, etc. Mark the outline
of the sheet so that you can place it in the same position every
time. After every two weeks, note the position from where the Sun
rises and mark this on your chart paper (Fig. 17.30). Also note the
date of your observation. Repeat this for a few months.
It is advisable that you start observations in the month of November
or May.
Fig. 17.30 : Position of sunrise on different dates

Does the Sun always rise from the same direction? Discuss your
observations with you teacher, parents and elderly people in your
family or in the neighbourhood.
Did You Know ?

Only on two days in a year, March 21 and September 23, the Sun rises
exactly in the east. On all other days, the Sun rises either north of east
or south of east.
From summer solstice (around June 21) the point of sunrise gradually
shift towards the south. The Sun is then said to be in dakshinayan (moving
south). It keeps moving towards south till winter solstice (around
December 22). Thereafter, the point of sunrise changes direction and
starts moving towards north. The Sun is then said to be in uttarayan
(moving north).
238 SCIENCE
5. Form a group of students. Prepare a model of the solar system
showing the planets, and their relative sizes. For this take a large
chart paper. Make spheres representing different planets according
to their relative size (Use Table 17.1). You may use newspaper, clay
or plasticine to make spheres. You can cover these spheres with
paper of different colours. Exhibit your models in the class.
Table 17.1
Name Approximate Approximate Period Period

of Planet radius distance of of
(assuming from the Sun revolution rotation
Earth as 1 unit) (Assuming
distance of
the Earth
as 1 unit)
Mercury 0.40 0.39 88 days 59 days
Venus 0.95 0.72 225 days 243 days
Earth 1.00 1.00 365.25 days 24 hours

Mars 0.55 1.50 687 days 24 hours 37 min
Jupiter 11.00 5.20 12 years 9 hours 55 min
Saturn 9.00 9.50 29.46 years 10.66 hours

Uranus 4.00 19.20 84 years 17.2 hours
Neptune 3.90 30.00 165 years 16.1 hours
6. Try to make a scale model of the solar system showing distances of

the planets from the Sun (Use Table 17.1). Did you face any
difficulty? Explain it.
7. Solve the following riddle and try to make similar riddles yourself:
My first is in VAN but not in PAN
My second is in EARTH and also in HEAVEN
My third is in ONE and not in TWO
My fourth is in BUN and also in FUN
My last is in STAR but not in RADAR
I am a planet that moves round the Sun.
You can read more on the following websites :
http://www.nineplanets.org
http://www.kidsastronomy.com
http://www.solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets
http://aa.usno.navy.mil/fazz/does/moon-phases.html

Did you know ?
In ancient times, it was believed that the Earth was at the centre
of the universe and the moon, the planets, the Sun and stars
were orbiting around it. About 500 years ago, a Polish priest
and astronomer, named Nicolaus Copernicus (1473 – 1543),
stated that the Sun was at the centre of the solar system and
the planets revolved around it. It was a revolutionary idea. Even
Copernicus hesitated to publish his work. His work was
published in the year of his death in 1543.
In 1609, Galileo designed his own telescope. Through this
telescope Galileo observed moons of Jupiter, phases of Venus
and rings of Saturn. He argued that all the planets must orbit
the Sun and not the Earth.
Thus you can see that ideas and concepts grow and change.
How about your own ideas? Do you keep your mind open to
accept new ideas when there is good evidence to support it?
240 SCIENCE
POLLUTION OF AIR AND WATER
P
aheli and Boojho were very excited You already know that air consists
to hear the news that Taj of a mixture of gases. By volume, about
Mahal in Agra is now one of the 78% of this mixture is nitrogen and
seven wonders of the world. But they about 21% is oxygen. Carbon dioxide,
were disappointed to hear that the argon, methane, ozone and water
beauty of this monument in white vapour are also present in very small
marble is being threatened by air quantities.
pollution in the area surrounding the
Taj. They were eager to know if Activity 18.1
something can be done to fight the air You may have covered your nose
and water pollution. while passing a brick kiln emitting
We are all aware that our smoke or started coughing while
environment is not what it used to be. walking on a busy road (Fig. 18.1).
Our elders talk about the blue sky, clean On the basis of your experience,
water and fresh air that was available compare the quality of air at the
in their times. Now the media regularly places given below:
reports on the falling quality of the
A park and a busy road.
environment. We ourselves feel the
A residential area and an
impact of the falling quality of air and
water in our lives. The number of people industrial area.
suffering from diseases of the respiratory A busy traffic intersection at
system, for example, is steadily rising. different times of the day e.g.
early morning, afternoon and
We dread to imagine a time when
clean air and water may no longer be evening.
available! You have learnt about the A village and a town.
importance of air and water in your
previous classes. In this chapter, we will
study about the harmful changes taking
place in our surroundings and their
effects on our lives.
18.1 Air Pollution

We can survive for some time without food,
but we cannot survive even for a few
minutes without air. This simple fact tells
Fig. 18.1 : A congested road in a city
us how important clean air is to us.
One of your observations in the Activity 18.2
above activity could be the differences
You might have read in the
in the amount of smoke in the
newspapers that respiratory
atmosphere. Do you know where the
problems amongst children
smoke could have come from? Addition
are rising day by day. Conduct a
of such substances to the atmosphere
survey of households in your
modifies it. When air is contaminated neighbourhood and among friends
by unwanted substances which have to find out how many children are
a harmful effect on both the living and suffering from respiratory problems.
the non-living, it is referred to as air
pollution. Many respiratory problems are
caused by air pollution. Let us now try
18.2 How does Air Get Polluted? to find out the substances or pollutants
which are present in the polluted air.
The substances which contaminate the
Have you noticed how rapidly the
air are called air pollutants. Sometimes,
number of vehicles is increasing in our
such substances may come from natural
cities?
sources like smoke and dust arising from
Vehicles produce high levels of
forest fires or volcanic eruptions. pollutants like carbon monoxide, carbon
Pollutants are also added to the dioxide, nitrogen oxides and smoke (Fig.
atmosphere by human activities. The 18.3). Carbon monoxide is produced
sources of air pollutants are factories from incomplete burning of fuels such
(Fig. 18.2), power plants, automobile as petrol and diesel. It is a poisonous
exhausts and burning of firewood and gas. It reduces the oxygen-carrying
dung cakes. capacity of the blood.
Fig. 18.3 : Air pollution due to automobiles

Do you know?
If the vehicles registered in Delhi are
lined up one after the other, the total
length would be nearly equal to the
combined lengths of the two longest
Fig. 18.2 : Smoke from a factory rivers in the world, Nile and Amazon!
242 SCIENCE
Boojho remembers seeing a thick Activity 18.3
fog-like layer in the atmosphere,
especially during winters. This is smog Prepare a table using the pollutants
which is made up of smoke and fog. mentioned above. You may even add
Smoke may contain oxides of nitrogen more data to the following Table.
which combine with other air pollutants Table 18.1
and fog to form smog. The smog causes Air Pollutants Sources Effects
breathing difficulties such as asthma,
cough and wheezing in children.
Many industries are also responsible
for causing air pollution. Petroleum
refineries are a major source of gaseous 18.3 Case Study : The Taj
pollutants like sulphur dioxide and Mahal
nitrogen dioxide. Sulphur dioxide is Over the past 2 decades, India’s most
produced by combustion of fuels like famous tourist attraction, Taj Mahal
coal in power plants. It can cause located in Agra (Fig. 18.4), has become
respiratory problems, including a matter of concern. Experts have
permanent lung damage. You have warned that pollutants in air are
already studied about the burning of discolouring its white marble. So, it is
fossil fuels in Chapter 5. not only living organisms that get
Other kinds of pollutants are affected by polluted air but non-living
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) which are things like buildings, monuments and
used in refrigerators, air conditioners statues also get affected.
and aerosol sprays. CFCs damage the The industries located in and around
ozone layer of the atmosphere. Recall Agra like rubber processing, automobile,
that the ozone layer protects us from chemicals and especially the Mathura oil
harmful ultraviolet rays of the sun. Have refinery, have been responsible for
you heard of the ozone hole? Try to find producing pollutants like sulphur
out about it. Thankfully, less harmful dioxide and nitrogen dioxide. These
chemicals are now being used in place gases react with the water vapour present
of CFCs. in the atmosphere to form sulphuric acid
In addition to the above mentioned and nitric acid. The acids drop down with
gases, automobiles which burn diesel rain, making the rain acidic. This is
and petrol, also produce tiny particles called acid rain. Acid rain corrodes the
which remain suspended in air for long marble of the monument. The
periods (Fig. 18.3). They reduce phenomenon is also called “Marble
visibility. When inhaled, they cause cancer”. Suspended particulate matter,
diseases. Such particles are also such as the soot particles emitted by
produced during industrial processes Mathura oil refinery, has contributed
like steel making and mining. Power towards yellowing of the marble.
plants give out tiny ash particles which The Supreme Court has taken
also pollute the atmosphere. several steps to save the Taj. It has

Fig. 18.4 : Taj Mahal
ordered the industries to switch to and a part is reflected back into space.
cleaner fuels like CNG (Compressed A part of the reflected radiation is
Natural Gas) and LPG (Liquefied trapped by the atmosphere. The trapped
Petroleum Gas). Moreover, the radiations further warm the earth. If you
automobiles should switch over to have seen a greenhouse in a nursery or
unleaded petrol in the Taj zone. elsewhere, recall that the sun’s heat is
Discuss with your elders and see allowed to get in but is not allowed to
what they have to say about the go out. The trapped heat warms the
condition of the Taj, 20 or 30 years ago! green house. The trapping of radiations
Try to procure a picture of the Taj Mahal by the earth’s atmosphere is similar.
for your scrap book. That is why it is called the greenhouse
effect. Without this process, life would
not have been possible on the earth. But
now it threatens life. CO2 is one of the
I am reminded of the gases responsible for this effect.
chapter on crops. I You know that CO 2 is one of the
wonder whether acid rain components of air. You have also studied
affects the soil and
plants also.
18.4 Greenhouse Effect

But how does CO2 content
You know that the sun’s rays warm the
rise in the atmosphere and
earth’s surface. A part of the radiation become excessive?
that falls on the earth is absorbed by it
244 SCIENCE
the role of carbon dioxide in plants. But towards this effect. Like CO2, they are
if there is excess of CO2 in the air, it also called greenhouse gases.
acts as a pollutant. Global warming has become a major
Can you help Paheli find out the concern for governments worldwide.
answer to her question? Many countries have reached an
On the one hand, CO2 is continuously agreement to reduce the emission of
being released because of human greenhouse gases. The Kyoto Protocol
activities. On the other hand, area under is one such agreement.
forests is decreasing. Plants utilise CO2 Boojho is surprised to hear that an
from the atmosphere for photosynthesis, increase in the earth’s temperature by
thereby decreasing the amount of CO2 even as little as 0.5 ºC can have such a
in the air. Deforestation leads to an serious effect! Paheli tells him that she
increase in the amount of CO2 in the air had read in the newspapers recently that
because the number of trees which the Gangotri glacier in the Himalayas
consume CO 2 is reduced. Human has started melting because of global
activities, thus, contribute to the warming.
accumulation of CO2 in the atmosphere.
CO2 traps heat and does not allow it to 18.5 What can be Done?
escape into space. As a result, the average
What can we do to reduce air
temperature of the earth’s atmosphere
pollution?
is gradually increasing. This is called
There are many success stories in our
global warming.
fight against air pollution. For example,
Other gases like methane, nitrous
a few years ago, Delhi was one of the
oxide and water vapour also contribute
most polluted cities in the world. It was
being choked by fumes released from
Global Warming automobiles running on diesel and
A Serious Threat! petrol. A decision was taken to switch
Global warming can cause sea levels to fuels like CNG (Fig. 18.5) and
to rise dramatically. In many places,
coastal areas have already been
flooded. Global warming could result
in wide ranging effects on rainfall
patterns, agriculture, forests, plants
and animals. Majority of people living
in regions which are threatened by
global warming are in Asia. A recent
climate change report gives us only
a limited time to keep the greenhouse
gases at the present level. Otherwise,
the temperature may rise by more
than 2 degrees Celsius by the end of
the century, a level considered
dangerous.
Fig. 18.5 : A public transport bus powered by CNG
unleaded petrol. These measures have fuels for our energy requirements. These
resulted in cleaner air for the city. You could be solar energy, hydropower and
might know of some other examples wind energy.
from your area regarding reduction of
air pollution. Share these with your Activity 18.4
friends. You have various options of
commuting to your school such as
Do you know about the “Say no to
walking, going by bicycle, travelling
crackers” campaign which was
by bus or other public transport,
organised by children from many
schools? This made a big difference using a car individually, travelling
to the air pollution levels around by car pool. Discuss in your class
Diwali. the impact of each of these options
on the quality of air.
The quality of air at various locations
is monitored regularly by government Small contributions on our part can
and other agencies. We can use this data make a huge difference in the state of
to generate awareness about air the environment. We can plant trees and
pollution among friends and nurture the ones already present in the
neighbours. neighbourhood. Do you know about Van
There is a need to switch over to Mahotsav, when lakhs of trees are
alternative fuels instead of the fossil planted in July every year (Fig. 18.6)?
Fig. 18.6 : Children planting saplings

246 SCIENCE
Boojho and Paheli once happened to Activity 18.5
go to an area where some people were
burning dry leaves. They started Try to collect samples of water from
coughing because the entire area was full a tap, pond, river, well and lake.
Pour each into separate glass
of smoke. Paheli thought it would be a
containers. Compare these for
better option to put them in a compost
smell, acidity and colour. Complete
pit rather than burning. What do you
the following Table.
think?
Table 18.2
18.6 Water Pollution Smell Acidity Colour
In Class VII you learnt that water is a Tap Water
precious resource. Think and list the
Pond Water
various activities in which we need
water. We saw that water is becoming River Water
scarce due to increase in population, Well Water
industries and agricultural activities.
You have also studied how water Lake Water
becomes “dirty” after we use it for
washing clothes, bathing, etc. This 18.7 How does Water Get
means that we are adding some
materials to the water, which spoil its
Polluted?
quality and change its smell and colour. Case Study
Whenever harmful substances such Ganga is one of the most famous rivers
as sewage, toxic chemicals, silt, etc., get of India (Fig. 18.7). It sustains most of
mixed with water, the water becomes the northern, central and eastern
polluted. The substances that pollute Indian population. Millions of people
water are called water pollutants. depend on it for their daily needs and
Fig. 18.7 : Course of the river Ganga

livelihood. However, recently a study by and defecating in the river. They also
the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) throw garbage, flowers, idols of gods
found that Ganga is one of the ten most and goddesses and non-biodegradable
endangered rivers in the world. The polythene bags into the river.
pollution levels have been rising for At Kanpur the amount of water is
many years. We have reached this stage comparatively small and the flow of the
because the towns and cities, through river is very slow. In addition, Kanpur
which the river flows, throw large has more than 5000 industries. These
quantities of garbage, untreated sewage, include fertiliser, detergent, leather and
dead bodies, and many other harmful paint industries. These industrial units
things, directly into the river. In fact the discharge toxic chemical wastes into the
river is “dead” at many places where river.
the pollution levels are so high that Based on the above information
aquatic life cannot survive. think of the answers to the following
An ambitious plan to save the river, questions :
called the Ganga Action Plan was What are the factors responsible for
launched in 1985. It aimed to reduce pollution of the river ?
the pollution levels in the river. However,
What steps can be taken to restore
the increasing population and
the river Ganga to its past glory ?
industrialisation have already damaged
How would the disposal of garbage,
this mighty river beyond repair.
etc., affect the living organisms in the
Let us take a specific example to
river ?
understand the situation. The Ganga
at Kanpur in Uttar Pradesh (U.P.), has Many industries discharge harmful
one of the most polluted stretches of chemicals into rivers and streams,
the river (Fig. 18.8). Kanpur is one of causing the pollution of water
the most populated towns in U.P. People (Fig. 18.9). Examples are oil refineries,
can be seen bathing, washing clothes paper factories, textile and sugar mills
Fig. 18.8 : A polluted stretch of the river Fig. 18.9 : Industrial waste discharged into a
Ganga river
248 SCIENCE
and chemical factories. These industries food wastes, detergents, microor -
cause chemical contamination of water. ganisms, etc. Can ground water get
The chemicals released include arsenic, polluted by sewage? How? Water
lead and fluorides which lead to toxicity contaminated with sewage may contain
in plants and animals. There are bacteria, viruses, fungi and parasites
regulations to prevent this. Industries which cause diseases like cholera,
are supposed to treat the waste typhoid and jaundice.
produced before discharging it into The bacteria present in the faeces
waters, but quite often the rules are not of mammals are indicators of the
followed. The soil is also affected by quality of water. If water has these
impure water, causing changes in bacteria, it means that it has been
acidity, growth of worms, etc. contaminated by fecal matter. If such
We have learnt in Chapter 1 the water is used by us, it can cause various
importance of pesticides and weedicides infections.
for the protection of crops. However, all
these chemicals dissolve in water and Do you know?
are washed into water bodies from the Hot water can also be a pollutant !
fields. They also seep into the ground This is usually water from power
to pollute ground water. plants and industries. It is released
Have you seen ponds which look into the rivers. It raises the
green from a distance because they have temperature of the waterbody,
a lot of algae growing in them? This is adversely affecting the animals and
caused by excessive quantities of plants living in it.
chemicals which get washed from the
fields. These act as nutrients for algae 18.8 What is Potable Water
to flourish. Once these algae die, they and How is Water
serve as food for decomposers like Purified ?
bacteria. A lot of oxygen in the water
body gets used up. This results in a
decrease in the oxygen level which may Activity 18.7
kill aquatic organisms.
Let us construct a water filter with
simple, everyday materials.
Recall Activity 18.6
Take a plastic bottle and cut it
You had investigated the sewage into 2 halves at the centre. Use the
disposal system of your locality in upper half as a funnel by putting it
Class VII. upside down in the lower half. Make
Do you remember how the layers in it with paper napkin or a
sewage was collected from your fine cloth followed by, cotton, sand
home and where it went thereafter. and then gravel. Now pour dirty
water through the filter and observe
Sometimes untreated sewage is
thrown directly into rivers. It contains the filtered water.

water. Boiling kills the germs present
Discuss the following questions
in the water.
amongst yourselves and with your
Chlorination is a commonly used
teacher:
chemical method for purifying water.
Why do we need to filter water
It is done by adding chlorine tablets
before drinking ?
or bleaching powder to the water. We
Where do you get your drinking
must be cautious. We should not
water from?
use more chlorine tablets than
What will happen if we drink
specified.
polluted water?
18.9 What can be Done?
Boojho is very upset. He tells Paheli
that he drank water which looked clear Activity 18.8
and was without any smell, but still he Investigate the level of awareness
fell sick ! about water pollution in your area.
Paheli explains that water which Collect data on the sources of
looks clean may still have disease- drinking water and the methods of
carrying microorganisms and dissolved sewage disposal.
impurities. So, it is essential to purify What are the common water-borne
water before drinking, for example, by diseases in the community? You can
boiling. consult your local doctor/health
Water which is suitable for drinking worker for this.
is called potable water. You have seen Which are the governmental and
how various physical and chemical non-governmental organisations
processes in the sewage treatment working in this field? What are the
plants help to clean water before measures being taken by them for
discharging it into water bodies. generating awareness?
Similarly, municipal bodies treat the
water before supplying it to households.
Laws for industrial units should be
Do you know? strictly implemented so that polluted
water is not disposed off directly into
25% of the world’s population is
without safe drinking water ! rivers and lakes. Water treatment plants
should be installed in all industrial
Let us see how water can be made areas (Fig. 18.10). At our individual
safe for drinking: levels we should consciously save water
You have already seen how water is and not waste it. Reduce, reuse and
filtered. This is a physical method of recycle should be our mantra !
removing impurities. A popular Think of your daily routine – How
household filter is a candle type can you save water?
filter. We can think of creative ideas like
Many households use boiling as a reusing water used for washing and for
method for obtaining safe drinking other household tasks. For example,
250 SCIENCE
Fig. 18.10 : Water treatment plant
water used for washing vegetables may of our daily lives. Unless we all realise
be used to water plants in the garden. our responsibility and start using
Pollution is no longer a distant environment-friendly processes, the very
phenomenon. It is affecting the quality survival of our planet is in danger.
Do you know?
While brushing your teeth, leaving the tap running may waste several litres of
water. A tap that drips once every second wastes a few thousand litres of water
every year. Think about it !

ACID RAIN Air pollution is the contamination of air by
impurities which may have a harmful impact
AIR POLLUTION
on the living organisms and the non-living
CHEMICAL components.
CONTAMINATION Pollutants are the substances which
contaminate air and water.
GLOBAL WARMING
Carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, carbon
GREENHOUSE dioxide, methane and sulphur dioxide are the
EFFECT major pollutants of air.
Increasing levels of greenhouse gases like CO2
POLLUTANTS
are leading to global warming.
POTABLE WATER Water pollution is the contamination of water
by substances harmful to life.
WATER POLLUTION
Sewage, agricultural chemicals and industrial
waste are some of the major contaminants of
water.
Water which is purified and fit for drinking is
known as potable water.
Water is a precious natural resource. We must
learn to conserve it.
Exercises
1. What are the different ways in which water gets contaminated ?
2. At an individual level, how can you help reduce air pollution?

3. Clear, transparent water is always fit for drinking. Comment.
4. You are a member of the municipal body of your town.
Make a list of measures that would help your town to ensure the supply
of clean water to all its residents.
5. Explain the differences between pure air and polluted air.
6. Explain circumstances leading to acid rain. How does acid rain affect us?
7. Which of the following is not a greenhouse gas?
(a) Carbon dioxide
(b) Sulphur dioxide

252 SCIENCE
(c) Methane
EXERCISES (d Nitrogen
8. Describe the ‘Green House Effect’ in your own words.

9. Prepare a brief speech on global warming that you have to make in your
class.
10. Describe the threat to the beauty of the Taj Mahal.

11. Why does the increased level of nutrients in the water affect the survival
of aquatic organisms?
1. In some cities, a pollution check has been made compulsory for

vehicles. Visit a petrol pump in order to learn about the process of
conducting a pollution check. You may systematically record your
findings in the following areas:
Average number of vehicles checked per month.
Time taken to check each vehicle.

Pollutants checked for.
The process of testing.
Permissible levels of emission of various gases.

Measures taken if the emitted gases are above the permissible
limits.
How frequently is a pollution check required ?

2. Conduct a survey in your school to investigate various environment
related activities that have been undertaken. The class can divide
itself into two groups, with each group looking at a different area.
For example, one group can find out whether there is an
environment club in the school. What are its objectives ? What is
its calendar of events ? How can you become a member ?
If your school does not have such a club, you can even think of
starting one along with a few of your friends.
3. Organise a field visit to a river in or around your town with the help
of your teachers.

Observations followed by discussion could focus on :
The history of the river.
Cultural traditions.
Role of the river in meeting the town’s water needs.
Pollution concerns.
Sources of pollution.
Effects of pollution on the people living by the riverside as well
as those living far away.
4. Find out with the help of your teachers and the internet (if possible),
whether there are any international agreements to control global
warming. Which are the gases covered under these agreements?
www.edugreen.teri.res.in/explore/air/air.htm
www.edugreen.teri.res.in/explore/water/pollu.htm
www.cpcb.nic.in/citizen’s%Charter/default_citizen’s.html
coe.mse.ac.in/kidswater.asp
coe.mse.ac.in/kidsair.asp
254 SCIENCE
INDEX
A C
Acid Rain 73, 241 Calorific Value 72
Acrylic 34 Carrier 23
Adam’s Apple 116 Cassiopeia 224
Adolescence 120 Celestial Objects 215, 216
Adrenalin 120 Cell 90-96, 173
Agricultural Practices 1, 2 Cell Membrane 93, 94
Air Pollution 240, 241 Cell Wall 94
Algae 17-19 Chemical Contamination 247
Amplitude 164, 165 Chloroplast 96
Angle of Incidence 200 Chromosome 95
Angle of Reflection 200 Coal 44, 45, 57, 59-61
Animal Husbandry 12 Coal Gas 58
Antibiotics 20,21 Coal Tar 58
Antibodies 21 Coke 58
Artificial Satellites 232 Combustion 64, 65
Artificial silk 33 Comets 251
Asexual Reproduction 100, 106, 107 Communicable Diseases 23
Asteroids 230 Conductor 45, 175, 176
Atmospheric pressure 140, 141 Cones 206
Atom 52 Constellations 221-224
Audible 166 Contact Force 134, 135
Cornea 206
B Crop 1-3, 10
Bacteria 17-21 Crust 192
Balanced Diet 121 Cytoplasm 94
Ball Bearing 153
Binary Fission 107 D
Biodiversity 78, 79 Deforestation 75, 77, 78, 84
Biosphere Reserve 79-82 Desertification 78
Blind spot 206 Diffused/Irregular reflection 202
Braille 209, 210 Discharge 188, 189
Budding 107 Dispersion 205
Displacement Reaction 50, 51 G
Drag 153 Gene 95
Ductility 45 Global Warming 61, 73, 243
Good Conductor 45, 172, 173, 175, 176, 187
E Granaries 12
Eardrum 161, 162 Gravitational Force 137
Earthquake 190-195 Gravity 137
Earth’s Plates 190, 193 Green House Effect 242, 243
Ecosystem 83
Eggs 90, 91, 102-106, 108, 116-118 H
Electrode 176-178 Hardness 44
Electroplating 178, 179 Harvesting 10, 11
Electrostatic Force 136, 138 Hertz (Hz) 164, 166
Elements 52 Hormones 117, 119, 120
Embryo 104
Endangered Species 83 I
Endemic Species 81 Ideal Fuel 72
Endocrine Glands 117 Ignition Temperature 67
Estrogen 117 Incident Rays 199-201
Eukaryotes 95 Inflammable Substances 68
Explosion 70 Insulin 120
Interlocking 151
External Fertilisation 103
Internal Fertilisation 102
Extinct 83
Iris 206
F Irrigation 7-9
Fauna 80, 81
K
Fermentation 20
Kaleidoscope 204, 205
Fertilisation 102
Kharif 2
Fertiliser 5-7
Fire Extinguisher 69 L
Flame 64, 65, 70-72 Lactobacillus 19
Flora 80-82 Larynx 160
Fluid Friction 153 Lateral Inversion 202
Foetus 105 Laws of Reflection 199-201
Force 127-138, 141 LED 174
Fossil Fuel 57, 61 Light Year 220
Friction 146-153 Lightning 184, 188, 189
Fuel 64, 68, 69, 72, 73 Lightning Conductor 189, 190
Fuel Efficiency 72 Loudness 164, 165
Fungi 11, 17-19 Lubricants 151, 152
254 SCIENCE
M Petroleum 56-61
Petroleum Refinery 60
Magnetic Force 135
Phases of Moon 216-218
Malleability 45, 46
Pitch 165, 166
Manure 5
Pituitary Gland 117
Metalloids 52 Planets 225-228, 230
Metals 44-46, 48-52 Plasma membrane 93, 94
Metamorphosis 106 Plastic 36-39
Meteorites 231 Plastid 96
Meteors 231 Plough 3
Microorganism 17, 19-26 Pole Star 221
Migratory Birds 84 Pollutants 240, 241, 243, 245
Multicellular 91 Polyester 34, 35
Polymer 33, 36
Muscular Force 134, 135
Polythene 34, 36
N Poor Conductor 172, 175
Positive Charge 188
National Park 82, 83
Potable Water 248
Natural Gas 56, 57, 59-61
Preservation 25, 26
Natural Satellites 228 Pressure 137-142
Negative Charge 187, 188 Prokaryotes 95
Nitrogen Cycle 27 Protozoa 17
Nitrogen Fixation 26 Pseudopodia 92
Noise 166, 167 Puberty 117, 118
Non-Contact Force 136, 137 Pull 127-132
Non-Metals 44, 46-52 Pupil 204, 206
Nuclear Membrane 95 Push 127-138
Nucleolus 95
R
Nucleus 94, 96
Rabi 2
Nylon 33, 34
Rayon 33
Red Data Book 83, 84
O
Reflected Rays 199-201
Orbit 217, 225, 226
Reflection 199-202
Organ 92, 93 Reforestation 84
Organelles 95 Regular Reflection 202
Orion 222, 224 Remote Sensing 232
Oscillation 164 Reproductive Health 120
Oviparous Animals 105 Retina 204, 206
Rhizobium 26
P Richter Scale 193, 194
Pasteurisation 26 Rods 208
Pathogen 23 Rolling Friction 152
INDEX 255
S Time Period 164
Sanctuary 78, 79, 82 Tissue 92, 93, 95
Secondary Sexual Characters 116 Transfer of Charge 187
Seeds 4-6 Tremor 193, 194
Seismograph 194 Tsunami 192
Sex Chromosomes 118
U
Sexual Reproduction 100
Unicellular 91
Shooting Stars 231
Ursa Major 221-223
Shrillness 165
Silo 12 V
Sliding Friction 152 Vaccine 21
Solar System 215, 224, 228 Vacuole 96
Sonorous 46
Vibration 158
Sowing 4, 5
Virus 17, 19, 23, 24
Sperms 101, 102
Viviparous Animals 105
Stars 219, 222
Voice Box 115, 158
Static Friction 149
Storage 11, 12 W
Synthetic Fibres 32, 33, 35, 36 Water Pollution 245
Weedicide 10
T Weeds 10
Target Site 117 White Blood Cell (WBC) 92
Terylene 34 Wind Pipe 160
Testosterone 117
Winnowing 11
Thermoplastics 37
Thermosetting Plastics 37 Y
Threshing 11 Yeast 20
Thunder 189
Thunderstorm 189, 190 Z
Thyroxine 119, 120 Zygote 102
256 SCIENCE

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In order to provide food for a large

Fig. 1.1 (a) : The plough

One day I saw my mother put

1.5 Adding Manure and

S. No. Fertiliser Manure

1. A fertiliser is an inorganic Manure is a natural substance obtained

2. A fertiliser is prepared in Manure can be prepared in the fields.

4. Fertilisers are very rich in Manure is relatively less rich in plant

Fig. 1.4 (a) : Moat

Fig. 1.4 (b) : Chain pump Fig. 1.4 (c) : Dhekli

(iii) dhekli, and

Fig. 1.4 (d) : Rahat

Fig. 1.5 (b) : Drip System

Have these other

In a field many other undesirable

I saw my mother putting

1. Milk Cow, Buffalo, She-

CROP PRODUCTION AND MANAGEMENT 13

(i) Kharif crops (a) Food for cattle

3. Give two examples of each.

4. Write a paragraph in your own words on each of the following.

5. Explain how fertilisers are different from manure.

6. What is irrigation? Describe two methods of irrigation which conserve water.

7. If wheat is sown in the kharif season, what would happen? Discuss.

8. Explain how soil gets affected by the continuous plantation of crops in

9. What are weeds? How can we control them?

Preparation of Ploughing the

Extended Learning — Activities and Projects

CROP PRODUCTION AND MANAGEMENT 15

An Example for Field Trip Work

Fig. 2.1: Bacteria

Chlamydomonas Spirogyra Paramecium

Fig. 2.2 : Algae Fig. 2.3 : Protozoa

Bread mould Penicillium Aspergillus

Fig. 2.4: Fungi

Microorganisms have been used for

They are also used in cleaning up

Cleaning the Environment released in the process could be used

Then how do you

All mosquitoes breed in water. Hence,

Tuberculosis Bacteria Air Keep the patient in complete

Cholera Bacteria Water/Food Maintain personal hygiene

Hepatitis B Virus Water Drink boiled drinking water.

Use mosquito net and

Some of the common diseases in other animals. For example, anthrax

Plant Micro- Mode of Figures

Citrus Bacteria Air

Rust of Fungi Air,

Yellow vein Virus Insect

Fig. 2.10 : Nitrogen cycle

BACTERIA and deserts to marshy lands.

PASTEURIZATION Some microorganisms decompose the organic

(d) Cholera is caused by __________.

(i) sugar (ii) alcohol (iii) hydrochloric acid (iv) oxygen

(c) Carrier of malaria-causing protozoan is

(d) The most common carrier of communicable diseases is

(a) Synthetic fibres are also called or _ fibres.