Types of Semiconductors

Semiconductors can be classified as:

1. 2. Intrinsic Semiconductor. Extrinsic Semiconductor. Extrinsic Semiconductors are further classified as: a. n-type Semiconductors. b. p-type Semiconductors.
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Intrinsic Semiconductor
Semiconductor in pure form is known as Intrinsic Semiconductor. Ex. Pure Germanium, Pure Silicon. At room temp. no of electrons equal to no. of holes. Fig 1.
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Si

Si
FREE ELECTRON

Si

Si

Si

Si
HOLE

Si

Si

Si

Intrinsic semiconductor energy band diagram

Conduction Band

Energy in ev

FERMI LEVEL

Valence Band

Fig 2. Fermi level lies in the middle

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Extrinsic Semiconductor
When we add an impurity to pure semiconductor to increase the charge carriers then it becomes an Extrinsic Semiconductor. In extrinsic semiconductor without breaking the covalent bonds we can increase the charge carriers.

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Comparison of semiconductors
Intrinsic Semiconductor
1. It is in pure form.

Extrinsic Semiconductor
1. It is formed by adding trivalent or pentavalent impurity to a pure semiconductor. 2. No. of holes are more in ptype and no. of electrons are more in n-type.

2. Holes and electrons are equal.

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(Cont.,)
3. Fermi level lies in between valence and conduction Bands. Ratio of majority and minority carriers is unity. 3. Fermi level lies near valence band in p-type and near conduction band in n-type. 4. Ratio of majority and minority carriers are equal.

4.

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Comparison between n-type and p-type semiconductors

N-type
Pentavalent impurities are added. Majority carriers are electrons. Minority carriers are holes. Fermi level is near the conduction band.

P-type
Trivalent impurities are added. Majority carriers are holes. Minority carriers are electrons. Fermi level is near the valence band.

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N-type Semiconductor

When we add a pentavalent impurity to pure semiconductor we get n-type semiconductor.

As
Fig 1.

N-type Pure Si si

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N-type Semiconductor
Arsenic atom has 5 valence electrons. Fifth electron is superfluous, becomes free electron and enters into conduction band. Therefore pentavalent impurity donates one electron and becomes positive donor ion. Pentavalent impurity known as donor.

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P-type Semiconductor
When we add a Trivalent impurity to pure semiconductor we get p-type semiconductor.

Ga
Fig 2.

P-type Pure Si si

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P-type Semiconductor
Gallium atom has 3 valence electrons. It makes covalent bonds with adjacent three electrons of silicon atom. There is a deficiency of one covalent bond and creates a hole. Therefore trivalent impurity accepts one electron and becomes negative acceptor ion. Trivalent impurity known as acceptor.
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Carriers in P-type Semiconductor

In addition to this, some of the covalent bonds break due temperature and electron hole pairs generates. Holes are majority carriers and electrons are minority carriers.

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P and N type Semiconductors

Acceptor ion

Donor ion

+ + +

+ + +

+ +

+ + +

Minority electron

Majority holes

Majority electrons

Minority hole

Fig 3.
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Comparison of semiconductors
Intrinsic Semiconductor
1. It is in pure form.

Extrinsic Semiconductor
1. It formed by adding trivalent or pentavalent impurity to a pure semiconductor.

2. No. of holes are more in p2. Holes and electrons are type and no. of electrons are equal. more in n-type. 3. Fermi level lies in between valence and conduction Bands. 3. Fermi level lies near valence band in p-type and near conduction band in n-type.
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Conduction in Semiconductors

Conduction is carried out by means of

1. Drift Process. 2. Diffusion Process.

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Drift process
A CB VB B

Fig 4.

Electrons move from external circuit and in conduction band of a semiconductor. Holes move in valence band of a semiconductor.
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Diffusion process

Moving of electrons from higher concentration gradient to lower concentration gradient is known as diffusion process.

X=a

Fig 5.
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P and N type Semiconductors

P Minority electron

Acceptor ion

Donor ion

N + + + + +

+ + +

+ + +

Majority holes

Majority electrons

Minority hole

Fig 1.
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Formation of pn diode
Depletion Region P + + + + + + N + + + + +

Fig 2.
Potential barrier
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Vb
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Formation of pn diode
A P-N junction is formed , if donor impurities are introduced into one side ,and acceptor impurities Into other side of a single crystal of semiconductor

Initially there are P type carriers to the left side of the junction and N type carriers to the right side as shown in figure 1

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 On formation of pn junction electrons from nlayer and holes from p-layer diffuse towards the junction and recombination takes place at the junction.

And leaves an immobile positive donor ions at nside and negative acceptor ions at p-side.

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Formation of pn diode
A potential barrier develops at the junction whose voltage is 0.3V for germanium and 0.7V for silicon.

Then further diffusion stops and results a depletion region at the junction.

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Depletion region
Since the region of the junction is depleted of mobile charges it is called the depletion region or the space charge region or the transition region.

The thickness of this region is of the order of 0.5 micrometers

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Circuit symbol of pn diode

Fig 3. Arrow head indicates the direction of conventional current flow.

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P-N Junction Diode- Forward Biasing

Fig. 1 P-N junction with FB

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Working of P-N Junction under FB

P N

Potential barrier

Fig. 2 Working of P-N junction

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Forward Bias

An ext. Battery applied with +ve on p-side, ve on nside. The holes on p-side repelled from the +ve bias, the electrons on n- side repelled from the ve bias . The majority charge carriers driven towards junction. the

This results in reduction of depletion layer width and barrier potential. As the applied bias steadily increased from zero onwards the majority charge carriers attempts to cross junction.
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 Holes from p-side flow across to the ve terminal on the n-side, and electrons from n-side flow across to the +ve terminal on the p-side. As the ext. bias exceeds the Junction barrier potential (0.3 V for Germanium, 0.7 V for Silicon ) the current starts to increase at an exponential rate. Now, a little increase in forward bias will cause steep rise in majority current. The device simply behaves as a low resistance path.
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Features:

Behaves as a low resistor. The current is mainly due to the flow of majority carriers across the junction. Potential barrier, and the depletion layer is reduced

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Current components

Fig. 3 Current components

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P-N Junction Diode- Reverse Biasing

Fig.1 P-N Junction Diode with Reverse bias (RB)

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P-N Junction working under reverse bias

P N

Fig.2 P-N Junction Diode working under RB

Potential barrier
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P-N Junction Diode- Reverse Bias

External bias voltage applied with +ve on n-side, ve on pside. This RB bias aids the internal field. The majority carriers i.e. holes on p-side, the electrons on nside attracted by the negative and positive terminal of the supply respectively. This widens the depletion layer width and strengthens the barrier potential.
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 Few hole-electron pairs are created due to thermal agitation (minority carriers). As a result small current flows across the junction called as reverse saturation current I0 (uA for Germanium, nA for Silicon). Behaves as a high impedance element.

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 Further rise in reverse bias causes the collapse of junction barrier called breakdown of the diode. This causes sudden increase in flow of carriers across the junction and causes abrupt increase in current.

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P-N JUNCTION

Fig 1.
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JUNCTION PROPERTIES
1. The junction contains immobile ions i.e. this region is depleted of mobile charges. This region is called the depletion region, the space charge region, or transition region. It is in the order of 1 micron width. The cut-in voltage is 0.3v for Ge, 0.6v for Si.

2.

3. 1.

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(Contd..) 5. The reverse saturation current doubles for every 10

degree Celsius rise in temperature. 6. Forward resistance is in the order ohms, the reverse resistance is in the order mega ohms. 7. The Transition region increases with reverse bias this region also considered as a variable capacitor and known as Transition capacitance

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V-I Characteristics of P-N Junction Diode

Fig 2.
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(Contd)
IF(mA) Breakdown voltage

Forward bias

VR(V) Cutin voltage

VF(V)

Reverse Bias IR(uA)

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Fig 3.
40

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Diode Current
The expression for Diode current is

I = I 0 (e 1)
Where Io=Reverse Saturation current. V=Applied Voltage. Vt=Volt equivalent temperature=T(K)/11600. n=1 for germanium and 2 for silicon.

V n Vt

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Resistance calculation
IF(mA) Breakdown voltage
If

Forward bias

V I Vf Cutin voltage VF(V)

VR(V)

Vr

Ir

Reverse Bias IR(uA)

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Fig 4.
43

Resistance calculation

Forward Resistance
1. Dynamic resistance (rf)= V/ I ..ohms.

Where V, I are incremental voltage and current values on Forward characteristics. 2. Static resistance (Rf)= Vf /If ohms. Where Vf, If are voltage and current values on Forward characteristics.
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(Contd..)
Reverse Resistance:
Static resistance = Vr /Ir ohms

Where Vr, Ir are voltage and current values on Reverse characteristics.

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Diode-Variants
Rectifier diodes: These diodes are used for AC to DC conversion Over voltage protection. Signal diodes : Detection of signals in AM/FM Receivers. Zener diode: Voltage Regulation purpose. Varactor diode for variable capacitance Electronic tuning commonly used in TV receivers.

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(contd)
Light Emitting Diodes (LED) : Display Light source in Fiber optic comm. Photo diodes : Light detectors in Fiber optic comm. Tunnel diode: Negative resistance for Microwave oscillations Gunn diode :Microwave Oscillator. Shottkey diode: High speed Logic circuits

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Semiconductor diodes

Fig. 1 Diode variants

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Visual - 1
48

Diode numbering
First Standard (EIA/JEDEC):
In this approach the semiconductor devices are identified with the no of junctions. 1N series : single junction devices such as P-N junction Diode. e.g.: 1N4001,1N3020. 2N series : Two junction devices such as Transistors. e.g.: 2N2102,1N3904. EIA= Electronic Industries association JDEC=Joint Electron Engineering Council.
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(contd)
Second Standard
In this method devices given with alpha-numeric codes. And each alphabet has a specific information which tells about application, material of fabrication. First Letter: material A=Germanium. B=Silicon. C=Gallium arsenide. R=compound material (e.g. Cadmium sulphide).

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(contd..)
Second Letter: For device type and function
A= Diode. B= Varactor. C= AF Low Power Transistor. D= AF Power Transistor. E= Tunnel Diode. F= HF Low Power Transistor. L= HF Power Transistor. S= Switching Transistor. R= Thyristor/Triac. Y= power device. Z= Zener.
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(contd..)

Third Letter: Tolerance

A B C D :1%. :2%. :5%. :10%.

Examples:
1. 2. AC128: Germanium AF low power Transistor. BC149: Silicon AF low power Transistor.
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(contd)
3. BY114 : Silicon Crystal diode. 4. BZC 6.3 : Silicon Zener diode Vz= 6.3v. 5. BY127 : Silicon rectifier diode.

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Lead Identification:
Commonly the cathode is identified with a band marking a dot marking or with a rounded edge.

Fig. 2 Diode lead identification

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Specifications
1. Peak inverse voltage (PIV)
It is the max. voltage a diode can survive under reverse bias. Max. Forward current (If). It is the maximum current that can flow through the diode under forward bias condition. Reverse saturation current (Io). Amount of current flow through the diode under reverse bias condition.

2.

3.

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Specifications (contd)
4. Max power rating (Pmax). Maximum power that can be dissipated in the diode. 5. Operating Temperature (oC ). The range of temperature over which diode can be operated.

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Applications
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Rectifier circuits for AC-DC Conversion. Over voltage protection circuits. Limiter, Clamping, voltage doublers circuits. Signal detector in AM/FM Receivers. In transistor bias compensation networks. Digital Logic gates.
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ZENER DIODE
Invented by C.Zener. Heavily doped diode. Thin depletion region. Sharp break down voltage called zener voltage Vz. Forward characteristics are same as pn diode characteristics.
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CIRCUIT SYMBOL
Anode cathode

Fig 2. Circuit symbol of zener diode

Arrow head indicates the direction of conventional

current flow. Z symbol at cathode is a indication for zener diode.
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PHOTOS OF ZENER DIODES

K A

K A

Fig 3. photos of Zener Diodes

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PHOTOS OF ZENER DIODES

Fig. 4. Fig 3. photos of Zener Diodes

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EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

In forward bias

Rf

Acts as a closed switch.

Practical Ideal Fig 5. Equivalent circuit in forward bias

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EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

in reverse bias For the voltage below break down voltage Vz

Acts as a open switch

Fig 6. Equivalent circuit in reverse bias for voltage below Vz

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EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

in reverse bias For the voltage above break down voltage Vz

RZ

Vz

Vz

Acts as a constant voltage source

Ideal Practical Fig 7. Equivalent circuit of zener diode for voltage above Vz
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ZENER BREAK DOWN

Break down in Zener Diode. In heavily doped diode field intensity is more at junction. Applied reverse voltage setup strong electric field. Thin depletion region in zener diode.

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ZENER BREAK DOWN MECHANISM

Depletion Region
P N

+ + +

+ + +

+ + +

+ +

+ + +

Fig 1. Zener Break down Mechanism animated

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ZENER BREAK DOWN MECHANISM

Depletion Region
P N

+ + +

+ + +

+ + +

+ +

+ + +

Fig 2. Zener Break down mechanism

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ZENER BREAKDOWN
Applied field enough to break covalent bonds in the depletion region. Extremely large number of electrons and holes results. Produces large reverse current. Known as Zener Current IZ.

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ZENER BREAK DOWN

This is known as Zener Break down.

This effect is called

Ionization by an Electric field.

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AVALANCHE BREAK DOWN

Break down in PN Diode. In lightly doped diode field intensity is not strong to produce zener break down. Depletion region width is large in reverse bias.

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AVALANCHE BREAKDOWN MECHANISM

Depletion Region
P N

+ + +

+ + + +

+ + +

+ + +

Incident Minority carriers

Fig 3. Avalanche break down Avalanche of charge mechanism animated

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AVALANCHE BREAKDOWN MECHANISM

Depletion Region
P N

+ + +

+ + + +

+ + +
Avalanche of charge carriers

+ + +

Incident Minority carriers

Fig 4. Avalanche Break down mechanism.

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AVALANCHE BREAK DOWN

Velocity of minority carriers increases with reverse bias. Minority carriers travels with great velocity and collides with ions in depletion region.

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AVALANCHE BREAK DOWN

Many covalent bonds breaks and generates more charge carriers. Generated charge carriers again collides with covalent bonds and again generates the carriers

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AVALANCHE BREAK DOWN

Chain reaction established. Creates large current.. This effect is known as Collision. Ionization by

Damages the junction permanently.

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Differences between Zener and Avalanche break downs.

1. Occurs in heavily doped diodes. 2. Ionization takes place by electric field. 3. Occurs even with less than 5V. 4. After the breakdown voltage across the zener diode is constant. 1. Occurs in lightly doped diodes. 2. Ionization takes place by collisions. 3. Occurs at higher voltages. 4. After breakdown voltage across the pn diode is not constant.
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VI CHARACTERISTICS OF ZENER DIODE

Voltage versus current characteristics of zener diode. Characteristics in forward bias. Characteristics in reverse bias.

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FORWARD BIAS CHARACTERSTICS

Anode cathode

V
Fig 1. zener diode in forward bias

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FORWARD BIAS

CHARACTERSTICS
IF(mA)

VF(V) Cutin voltage Fig2. Forward bias charactersticas of zener diode

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FORWARD BIAS CHARACTERSTICS

Characteristics same as pn diode. Not operated in forward bias.

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REVERSE BIAS CHARACTERSTICS

Anode cathode

V
Fig 3. Zener diode in Reverse bias

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REVERSE BIAS CHARACTERSTICS

ZenerBreakdown

VR(V)

Vz

Reverse Bias IR (uA) Fig 4. Reverse Bias characterstics of zener diode

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REVERSE BIAS CHARACTERSTICS

Always operated in reverse bias. Reverse voltage at which current increases suddenly and sharply known as Zener break down voltage. Zener break down occurs lower voltages than avalanche break down voltage. After break down the reverse voltage VZ remains constant.

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VI CHARACTERISTICS

Fig 5. VI characteristics of Zener diode

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APPLICATIONS OF ZENER DIODE

Used as voltage regulator. Also used in clipper circuits

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SPECIFICATIONS OF ZENER DIODE Specifications of 1n746 zener diode.

Zener Voltage: Tolerance range of zener voltage: Test current IZT: Maximum zener Impedance ZZT: 3.3V +5% to +10% 20 mA 28 ohms

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SPECIFICATIONS OF ZENER DIODE Specifications of 1n746 zener diode.

Maximum d.c. zener current: Reverse leakage current Is: Maximum power dissipation: 110mA 10uA 500 mw up to 75 w

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