OSI REFERENCE MODEL

JTO Phase – I Data Communication

OSI REFERENCE MODEL

CONTENTS

2.1 OBJECTIVES

2.2 INTRODUCTION

2.3 CONCEPT OF DATA ENCAPSULATION

2.4 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE OSI LAYERS

2.5 OSI MODEL AND COMMUNICATION BETWEEN

SYSTEMS

2.6 OSI LAYERS

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Chapter 2
OSI REFERENCE MODEL

2.1 OBJECTIVES
The objective of this chapter is to familiarize with : -
i) Concept of data encapsulation
ii) Characteristics of the OSI Layers
iii) OSI Model and Communication Between Systems
iv) OSI layers
2.2 INTRODUCTION
The International Organization introduced the OSI layer for Standardization (ISO) in
1984 in order to provide a reference model to make sure products of different vendors
would interoperate in networks. OSI is short for Open System Interconnection.
The OSI layer shows WHAT needs to be done to send data from an application on one
computer, trough a network, to an application on another computer, not HOW it
should be done. A layer in the OSI model communicates with three other layers: the
layer above it, the layer below it, and the same layer at its communication partner.
Data transmitted between software programs passes all 7 OSI layers. The Application,
Presentation and Session layers are also known as the Upper Layers.
The Data Link and Physical layers are often implemented together to define LAN and
WAN specifications.

• Data Encapsulation
Application

• Application Layer
Presentation

• Presentation Layer

Session

• Session Layer

Transport
• Transport Layer

Network
• Network Layer

Data Link
• Data Link Layer

Physical

• Physical Layer

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2.2 DATA ENCAPSULATION

Data Encapsulation is the process of adding a header to wrap the data that flows down
the OSI model. Each OSI layer may add it's own header to the data received from
above. (from the layer above or from the software program 'above' the Application
layer.)
There are five steps of Data Encapsulation : -

1. The Application, Presentation and Session layers create DATA from users'
input.
2. The Transport layer converts the DATA to SEGMENTS
3. The Network layer converts the SEGMENTS to PACKETS (or datagrams)
4. The Data Link layer converts the PACKETS to FRAMES
5. The Physical layer converts the FRAMES to BITS.
At the sending computer the information goes from top to bottom while each layers
divides the information received from upper layers in to smaller pieces and adds a
header. At the receiving computer the information flows up the model discarding the
corresponding header at each layer and putting the pieces back together.
The Figure shows layered model of two directly interconnected end systems. The
transmission media is not included in the seven layers and, therefore, it can be
regarded as layer number zero. Functions and services of various layers are described

LAYER 7 DATA LAYER 7 DATA

LAYER6 DATA H6 LAYER6 DATA H6

LAYER5 DATA H5 LAYER5 DATA H5

LAYER4 DATA H4 LAYER4 DATA H4

LAYER3 DATA H3 LAYER3 DATA H3

LAYER2 DATA H2 LAYER2 DATA H2

LAYER1 DATA LAYER1 DATA

01111110101010101010101001111110 01111110101010101010101001111110

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2.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE OSI LAYERS

The seven layers of the OSI reference model can be divided into two categories: upper
layers and lower layers.

The upper layers of the OSI model deal with application issues and generally are
implemented only in software. The highest layer, the application layer, is closest to
the end user. Both users and application layer processes interact with software
applications that contain a communications component. The term upper layer is
sometimes used to refer to any layer above another layer in the OSI model.

The lower layers of the OSI model handle data transport issues. The physical layer
and the data link layer are implemented in hardware and software. The lowest layer,
the physical layer, is closest to the physical network medium (the network cabling, for
example) and is responsible for actually placing information on the medium.

PROTOCOLS

The OSI model provides a conceptual framework for communication between

computers, but the model itself is not a method of communication. Actual
communication is made possible by using communication protocols. In the context of
data networking, a protocol is a formal set of rules and conventions that governs how
computers exchange information over a network medium. A protocol implements the
functions of one or more of the OSI layers. A wide variety of communication
protocols exist. Some of these include:

LAN protocols operate at the physical and data link layers of the OSI model and
define communication over the various LAN media.

WAN protocols operate at the lowest three layers of the OSI model and define
communication over the various wide-area media.

Routing protocols are network layer protocols that are responsible for exchanging
information between routers so that the routers can select the proper path for network
traffic.

Network protocols are the various upper-layer protocols that exist in a given protocol
suite. Many protocols rely on others for operation.

For example, many routing protocols use network protocols to exchange information
between routers. This concept of building upon the layers already in existence is the
foundation of the OSI model.

2.4 OSI MODEL & COMMUNICATION BETWEEN

SYSTEMS
Information being transferred from a software application in one computer system to a
software application in another must pass through the OSI layers. For example, if a
software application in System A has information to transmit to a software application
in System B. The application program in System A will pass its information to the
application layer (Layer 7) of System A.

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The application layer then passes the information to the presentation layer (Layer 6),
which relays the data to the session layer (Layer 5), and so on down to the physical
layer (Layer 1). At the physical layer, the information is placed on the physical
network medium and is sent across the medium to System B. The physical layer of
System B removes the information from the physical medium, and then its physical
layer passes the information up to the data link layer (Layer 2), which passes it to the
network layer (Layer 3), and so on, until it reaches the application layer (Layer 7) of
System B. Finally, the application layer of System B passes the information to the
recipient application program to complete the communication process.
2.5 INTERACTION BETWEEN OSI MODEL LAYERS
A given layer in the OSI model generally communicates with three other OSI layers:
the layer directly above it, the layer directly below it, and its peer layer in other
networked computer systems. The data link layer in System A, for example,
communicates with the network layer of System A, the physical layer of System A,
and the data link layer in System B. Figure below illustrates this example.
System A System B

(3 (3
) )
(2 (2)
)
(1) (1)

OSI LAYER SERVICES

One OSI layer communicates with another layer to make use of the services provided
by the second layer. The services provided by adjacent layers help a given OSI layer
communicate with its peer layer in other computer systems. Three basic elements are
involved in layer services: the service user, the service provider, and the service
access point (SAP).
In this context, the service user is the OSI layer that requests services from an
adjacent OSI layer. The service provider is the OSI layer that provides services to
service users. OSI layers can provide services to multiple service users. The SAP is a
conceptual location at which one OSI layer can request the services of another OSI
layer.

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Application Layer (Layer 7)

Application Layer provides network services directly to applications. Type of

software programs vary a lot: from groupware and web browser to Tactical Ops
(video game). Software programs itself are not part of the OSI model. It determines
the identity and availability of communication partners, and determines if sufficient
resources are available to start program-to-program communication. This layer is
closest to the user. Gateways operate at this layer. Following are the examples of
Application layer protocols:
i) Telnet
ii) SMTP
iii) FTP
iv) SNMP
v) NCP
vi) SMB
Presentation Layer (Layer 6)
Presentation Layer defines coding and conversion functions. It ensures that
information sent from the application layer of one system is readable by the
application layer of another system. It includes common data representation formats,
conversion of character representation formats, common data compression schemes,
and common data encryption schemes, common examples of these formats and
schemes are:
i) MPEG, QuickTime
ii) ASCII, EBCDIC
iii) GIF, TIFF, JPEG
Gateways operate at this layer. It transmits data to lower layers.
Session Layer (Layer 5)
The session layer establishes, manages, maintains and terminates communication
channels between software programs on network nodes. It provides error reporting for
the Application and Presentation layer. Examples of Session layer protocols are:
i) NFS
ii) SQL
iii) RPC
iv) Zone Information Protocol (ZIP)
Gateways operate at this layer. It transmits data to lower layers.
Transport Layer (Layer 4)
The main purpose of this layers is making sure that the data is delivered error-free and
in the correct sequence. It establishes, maintains and terminates virtual circuits. It
provides error detection and recovery. It is concerned with reliable and unreliable

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transport. When using a connection-oriented, reliable transport protocol, such as TCP,

acknowledgments is send back to the sender to confirm that the data has been
received. It provides Flow Control and Windowing. It provides multiplexing; the
support of different flows of data to different applications on the same host. Examples
of Transport layer protocols are:
i) TCP (connection-oriented, reliable, provides guaranteed delivery.)
ii) UDP (connectionless, unreliable, less overhead, reliability can be
provided by the Application layer)
iii) SPX
Gateways operate at this layer. It transmits data to lower layers.
Network Layer (Layer 3)

This layer defines logical addressing for nodes and networks/segments. It enables
internetworking, passing data from one network to another. It defines the logical
network layout so routers can determine how to forward packets trough an internet-
work. Routing occurs at this layer, hence Routed and Routing protocols reside on this
layer. Routed protocols are used to encapsulate data into packets. The header added
by the Network layer contains a network address so it can be routed trough an
internet-work. Examples of Network layer Routed protocols are:
i) IP
ii) IPX
iii) AppleTalk
Routing protocols are used to create routing tables; routing tables are used to
determine the best path / route. Routing protocols provide periodic communication
between routers in an Internet work to maintain information on network links in a
routing table. It transmits Packets. Routers operate at this layer. Examples of Network
layer Routing protocols are:
i) OSPF
ii) IGRP/EIGRP
iii) RIP
iv) BGP
v) NLSP
Data Link Layer (Layer 2)

It defines psychical addressing, network topology, and is also concerned with error
notification, sequencing of frames and flow control. Examples of network topologies
are:
i) Star
ii) Bus
iii) Ring

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Physical addresses are also known as hardware and BIA's (Burned In Addressess) but
most commonly as MAC addresses. Examples of Data Link LAN specifications are:
i) Ethernet
ii) Fast Ethernet
iii) Token Ring
iv) FDDI
Examples of Data Link WAN specifications are:
i) Frame Relay (operates also on the Physical layer)
ii) PPP (operates also on the Physical layer)
iii) X.25 (operates also on the Physical and Network layer)
Data Link layer Transmits Frames. Bridges and Switches operate at this layer.The
Data Link layer consists of two sub-layers:
• LCC (Logical Link Control) Layer
Manages communication between devices over a single link of a
network. Enables multiple higher-layer protocols to share a single
physical data link.
• MAC Layer
Manages protocol access to the physical network medium and
determines hardware addresses.
Physical Layer (Layer 1)

The physical layer defines the electrical, mechanical, procedural, and functional
specifications for activating, maintaining, and deactivating the physical link between
communicating network systems. It transmits and receives bits (bit stream) to
transmission media. Physical layer specifications define characteristics such as:
• Voltage levels
• Timing of voltage changes
• Physical data rates
• Maximum transmission distances
• Physical connectors
Physical layer implementations can be categorized as either LAN or WAN
specifications. The examples of LAN and WAN specifications are given below: -

LAN specifications
i) Ethernet
ii) Fast Ethernet
iii) Token Ring
iv) FDDI

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WAN specifications are:

i) HSSI
ii) V.24
iii) V.35
iv) BRI
v) SLIP
vi) RS-232
The core of this standard is the OSI Reference Model, a set of seven layers
that define the different stages that data must go through to travel from one device to
another over a network.

2.6 SUMMARY
The core of this standard is the OSI Reference Model, a set of seven layers
that define the different stages that data must go through to travel from one device to
another over a network. Think of the layers as the assembly line in the computer. At
each layer, certain things happen to the data that prepare it for the next layer. The
seven layers, which separate into two sets, are:
• Application Set:
• Layer 7: Application - This is the layer that actually interacts with the
operating system or application whenever the user chooses to transfer files,
read messages or perform other network-related activities.
• Layer 6: Presentation - Takes the data provided by the Application layer and
converts it into a standard format that the other layers can understand.
• Layer 5: Session - Establishes, maintains and ends communication with the
receiving device.
• Transport Set:
• Layer 4: Transport - This layer maintains flow control of data and provides for
error checking and recovery of data between the devices. Flow control means
that the Transport layer looks to see if data is coming from more than one
application and integrates each application's data into a single stream for the
physical network.
• Layer 3: Network - The way that the data will be sent to the recipient device is
determined in this layer. Logical protocols, routing and addressing are
handled here.
• Layer 2: Data - In this layer, the appropriate physical protocol is assigned to
the data. Also, the type of network and the packet sequencing is defined.
• Layer 1: Physical - This is the level of the actual hardware. It defines the
physical characteristics of the network such as connections, voltage levels and
timing

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