Salicylic Acid Improves Root Antioxidant

Defense System and Total Antioxidant Capacities

of Flax Subjected to Cadmium
A cha Belkadhi,
1,2
Antonio De Haro,
2
Pilar Soengas,
3
Sara Obregon,
2
Maria Elena Cartea,
3
Wahbi Djebali,
1
and Wided Cha bi
1
Abstract
Cadmium (Cd) disrupts the normal growth and development of plants, depending on their tolerance to this toxic
element. The present study was focused on the impacts of exogenous salicylic acid (SA) on the response and
regulation of the antioxidant defense system and membrane lipids to 16-day-old ax plantlets under Cd stress.
Exposure of ax to high Cd concentrations led to strong inhibition of root growth and enhanced lipid peroxides,
membrane permeability, protein oxidation, and hydrogen peroxide (H
2
O
2
) production to varying degrees.
Concomitantly, activities of the antioxidant enzymes catalase (CAT, EC 1.11.1.6), gua col peroxydase (GPX, EC
1.11.1.7), ascorbate peroxydase (APX, EC 1.11.1.11), and superoxide dismutase (SOD, EC 1.15.1.1), and the total
antioxidant capacities (2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) scavenging activity and ferric reducing anti-
oxidant power (FRAP)) were signicantly altered by Cd. In contrast, exogenous SA greatly reduced the toxic
effects of Cd on the root growth, antioxidant system, and membrane lipid content. The Cd-treated plantlets pre-
soaked with SA exhibited less lipid and protein oxidation and membrane alteration, as well as a high level of
total antioxidant capacities and increased activities of antioxidant enzymes except of CAT. These results may
suggest that SA plays an important role in triggering the root antioxidant system, thereby preventing membrane
damage as well as the denaturation of its components.
Introduction
R
oots are the rst part of the plant to respond to metal
stress. Cadmium (Cd) stress may disturb plant nutrient
balance (Belkhadi et al., 2010, Douchiche et al., 2010), inhibit
growth (Hediji et al., 2010, Gallego et al., 2012), and generate
oxidative stress (Tamas et al., 2007). It is well known that Cd is
a non-redox-active metal that does not trigger the direct for-
mation of hydroxyl radicals (OH
.
) via Haber-Weiss and Fen-
ton reactions, but indirectly, by disturbing the chloroplast and
mitochondria electron transport rates (Hendry et al., 1992)
and/or by inducing loss in enzymatic and nonenzymatic
antioxidative system capacities (Grata o et al., 2005, Ro-
driguez-Serrano et al., 2009, Gallego et al., 2012).
The oxidative stress induced by Cd can also be correlated
with damage to membrane lipids (Djebali et al., 2005; Bel-
khadi et al., 2010), nucleic acids (Apel and Hirt, 2004, Gichner
et al., 2004) and proteins (Djebali et al., 2008, Douchiche et al.,
2010). In response to reactive oxygen species (ROS), plants can
induce a succession of detoxication reactions catalyzed by
antioxidative enzymes (Grata o et al., 2012). However, in
comparison of some species, Cd treatment can be seen to have
opposite effects on certain antioxidative enzymes. In Bacopa
monnieri L., Cd induced elevated superoxide dismutase (SOD,
EC1.15.1.1), gua col peroxydase (GPX, EC1.11.1.7), ascorbate
peroxidase (APX, EC 1.11.1.11), and glutathione reductase
(GR, EC 1.6.4.2), but decreased catalase (CAT, EC 1.11.1.6)
activities (Mishra et al., 2006). Severe diminution of peroxi-
dase (POX, EC 1.11.1.7) and CAT activities were found in
Oryza sativa roots, while in contrast to B. monnieri, SOD ac-
tivity was also diminished (Guo et al., 2007). An increase in
CAT activity under Cd stress has been found in other species
(Balestrasse et al., 2001, Smeets et al., 2008).
Salicylic acid (SA) is a biomolecule that may be involved in
several cell processes under normal and stress conditions.
Under biotic and abiotic stress conditions, increasing evidence
1
Departement de Biologie, Unite de Recherche de Physiologie et Biochimie de la tolerance des plantes aux contraintes abiotiques, Faculte
des Sciences de Tunis, Campus Universitaire, Tunis, Tunisia.
2
Department of Agronomy and Plant Breeding, Institute of Sustainable Agriculture, Spanish Council for Scientic Research (CSIC),
Co rdoba, Spain.
3
Department of Plant Genetics, Misio n Biolo gica de Galicia, Spanish Council for Scientic Research (CSIC), Pontevedra, Spain.
OMICS A Journal of Integrative Biology
Volume 17, Number 7, 2013
Mary Ann Liebert, Inc.
DOI: 10.1089/omi.2013.0030
398
indicates that SA, a phytohormone that acts at low concen-
trations, is produced and accumulates inside cells to function
as a signaling molecule in plants (Choi et al., 2012, Hao et al.,
2012). SA is involved in gene expression in response to mul-
tiple stresses (Durrant and Dong, 2004, Fobert and Despres,
2005, Foyer and Noctor, 2005). When applied exogenously at
appropriate concentrations, SA enhanced the efciency of
antioxidant system in plants (Radwan 2012, Saruhan et al.,
2012). Furthermore, SA application has been reported to al-
leviate the symptoms of Cd toxicity observed in plants (Za-
woznik et al., 2007; Zhang and Chen, 2011). Previous studies
have shown that SA treatment mitigates the oxidative stress
generated by Cd in different plant species such as barley
(Metwally et al., 2003), soybean (Drazic and Mihailovic, 2005),
rice (Guo et al., 2007), maize (Krantev et al., 2008), pea (Po-
pova et al., 2009), and hemp (Shi et al., 2009). However, little
has been reported about the role of SA in the increase of total
antioxidant capacities under Cd stress. In the present study,
we aim to characterize the mechanism by which SA protects
plants against lipid and protein oxidative damage caused by
Cd exposure. In roots, Zhang et al. (2011) have demonstrated
that SA-induced Cd tolerances in Phaseolus aureus and Vicia
sativa were related to increases in symplastic and apoplastic
antioxidant enzyme activities. Recent study also reported that
the priming of seeds with lower concentrations of SA, before
sowing, lowered the elevated levels of ROS due to Cd expo-
sure and enhanced the activities of various antioxidant en-
zymes (CAT, GPX, GR, and SOD) in Oryza sativa, thereby
protecting the plants from oxidative burst (Panda and Patra,
2007). However, contrary to this observation, Choudhury and
Panda (2004) reported a decline in the activities of the anti-
oxidant enzymes CAT, POX, SOD, and GR in rice following
the pre-treatment with SA.
Taken together, this work provides novel avenues toward
understanding the mechanisms of plant enhancement of tol-
erance to Cd-mediated oxidative stress by using SA priming
event and its possible function in the restoration and main-
tenance of the cell membrane integrity in roots. To test this
possibility, SA-related changes in hydrogen peroxide (H
2
O
2
)
production, membrane integrity, antioxidant capacities, and
membrane lipid content and fatty acid proles have been
studied in roots of Cd-treated ax plantlets.
Materials and Methods
Flax seeds (cv. Viking) were soaked for 8 h in SA solutions
as previously shown in Belkhadi et al. (2010). They were then
germinated for 4 days at 25C in the dark. Uniform plantlets
were transferred to a continuously aerated nutrient solution
(pH 5.5) containing 1 mM MgSO
4
, 2.5 mM Ca(NO
3
)
2
, 1 mM
KH
2
PO
4
, 2 mM KNO
3
, 2 mM NH
4
Cl, 50 mM EDTA FeK,
30 mM H
3
BO
3
, 10 mM MnSO
4
, 1 mM ZnSO
4
, 1 mM CuSO
4
and 30 mM (NH4)
6
Mo
7
O
24
. The nutrient solution was buff-
ered with HCl/KOH and changed twice per week. After
growing for 2 days, plantlets were subjected during 10 days to
CdCl
2
appropriately from moderate to high concentrations
(50 to 100 lM). Five replicates were in individual 6 l plastic
beakers made for control and Cd treatments. Plantlets were
grown in a growth chamber at a day/night cycle of 16 h/8 h,
at 23C/18C, respectively, a relative humidity close to 75%
and a light intensity of 200 lmol photons m
-2
s
- 1
. Roots were
then detached, washed with deionized water and immedi-
ately used or frozen at - 80C. Three independent culture
experiments were performed.
Roots of the harvested plantlets were washed carefully
using distilled water to eliminate any contamination. Root
diameter, surface area, and volume were recorded by
THSCSA Image Tool (IT) Version 3.0. Three plantlets from
each replication of all treatments were selected for data col-
lection.
The level of lipid peroxidation in roots was determined as
2-thiobarbituric acid (TBA) reactive metabolites, chiey mal-
ondialdehyde (MDA), as described previously by Buege and
Aust (1972). Membrane permeability of roots was determined
as follows. Root tissue (0.1 g) was vibrated for 30 min in
deionized water, followed by measurement of conductivity of
bathing medium (EC1). Then, the samples were boiled for
15 min and the nal conductivity (EC2) of the medium was
measured using a conductivity meter (Consort C832).
Root samples were homogenized in 0.2 N perchloric acid
(pH 7.5). The ax H
2
O
2
content in roots was determined as
described by OKane et al. (1996). Protein-bound carbonyl
content was determined by using the dinitrophenylhydrazine
(DNPH) method, according to Reznick and Packer (1994). The
level of carbonyl groups was estimated using an extinction
coefcient of 22,000 M
- 1
cm
-1
.
Total SOD activity was assayed by monitoring the inhibi-
tion of the photochemical reduction of nitroblue tetrazolium
(NBT) according to the method of Beauchamp and Fridovich
(1971). One unit of SOD activity was dened as the amount of
enzyme required to cause 50% inhibition in the reduction of
NBT as monitored at 560 nm. For the assay of APX activity,
2 mM ascorbate was added in the extraction medium. The
reaction mixture containing 50 mMpotassiumphosphate (pH
7.0), 0.1% H
2
O
2
, 0.5 mM ascorbate (extinction coefcient
2.8 mM
- 1
cm
- 1
) and root extract induced a linear decrease in
absorbance at 290 nmfor 25 s (Nakano and Asada, 1981). GPX
activity was measured according to Landberg and Greger
(2002) following the change in absorption at 470 nm. CAT
activity was determined by following the consumption of
H
2
O
2
(extinction coefcient 39.4 mM
-1
cm
-1
) at 240 nm for
30 s (Aeby, 1984). Soluble protein contents in enzyme extracts
were determined by the method of Bradford (1976).
For antioxidant potential analysis, extracts were prepared
following Ferreres et al. (2007). 20 mg of powder material was
suspended in 2 mL of Milli-Q water, then boiled for 1 h at
100C. Suspension was ltered and supernatant lyophilized
(BETA 2-8 LD plus, Christ). The dry material was weighed
and dissolved in Milli-Q water to reach a concentration of
10 mg mL
-1
. Antioxidant potential of the samples was
determined spectrophotometrically by monitoring the dis-
appearance of radical DPPH according to the method of
Brand-Williams et al. (1995). Readings were taken at 517 nm
after 1 h of incubation at room temperature in a microplate
reader (Spectra MR, DYNEX Technologies). After subtracting
the value of the blank from each sample, absorbance was
plotted against concentration of samples, EC50 values (con-
centrations which produced 50% inhibition) were computed
for each extract and were used to compare among samples.
Antioxidant potential of the samples was also measured by
the FRAP assay developed by Benzie et al. (1996). Readings
were taken at 593 nm after 1 h at room temperature. Sample
absorbance was plotted against concentration of samples; the
concentration which produced an absorbance of 1.00 was
EFFECTS OF CADMIUM AND SALICYLIC ACID ON ANTIOXIDANTS 399
computed and was used to compare among samples. For both
assays, three replications were analyzed for each sample and
standard prepared with different concentrations of Trolox
were also measured. The results were expressed in lmol
Trolox g
- 1
dry weight (DW).
Lipids in roots were extracted according to Garces and
Mancha (1993) using 30 mg plant tissue. Fatty acids were
identied by comparing the retention times of ax root me-
thyl esters with those of known mixtures of standard fatty
acids (Sigma) run on the same column under the same con-
ditions.
Statistical calculations were performed with SPSS-17 sta-
tistical software. Mean difference comparison among differ-
ent treatments was done by ANOVA and Tukeys (HSD) test
at a 0.05 probability level.
Results
When Cd was present in the nutrient solution, ax plantlets
exhibited reduced root growth. Root dry weight, length, di-
ameter, surface, and volume decreased proportionally with
increasing concentrations of Cd (Table 1). In contrast, pre-
soaking with SA for 8 h led to an increase in the root growth
parameters in a Cd-dependent manner. As a result, already
after 10 days exposure to Cd, the whole root system appeared
less short and thick (Fig. 1).
In roots, Cd treatments showed a signicant increase of
H
2
O
2
content compared with control (Fig. 2A). It increased by
about 37%over control at 50 lMCdand was further enhanced
to nearly 62% more over control at 100 lM Cd. However,
upon the 8-h SA pretreatment, there was no signicant de-
crease in the H
2
O
2
content in ax roots compared to those
with Cd only (Fig. 2A).
The damage by Cd to membranes was investigated by
monitoring MDA content and electrolyte leakage (Fig. 2B and
C). Relative to the control, Cd-treated ax plantlets exhibited a
higher rate of lipid peroxidation. However, it was observed
that 8-h SA pretreatment exhibited a signicant reduction of
Cd-increased MDA content (Fig. 2B). Electrolyte leakage was
also altered by the 8-h SA pretreatment, but the extent of
change was not as great as the change in the MDA level (Fig.
2C). Only at 100 lM Cd, the electrolyte leakage level in roots
increased signicantly by 1.6-fold as compared with the
control. 8-h SA pretreatment counteracted the Cd-induced
loss of membrane permeability. At the highest metal con-
centration, the most prominent effect was at 1000 lM SA; a
nearly 46% decrease was noticed (Fig. 2C). Signicant in-
creases in total protein content were observed between trea-
ted and control ax plantlets irrespective of the Cd
concentration, (Fig. 2D). Within both Cd concentrations (50
and 100 lM), 8-h SA pretreatment led to restoration of the
protein content and that in a dose dependent way. Thus, at
100 lMCd-treated plantlets, SA(250 or 1000 lM) inhibited the
amount of protein oxidation in roots by about 2.4- and 1.4-
fold, respectively, compared to control (Fig. 2E).
The effect of Cd on the activities of antioxidative enzymes
(Fig. 3AD) was signicant in most Cd-exposed roots. CAT
activity was signicantly increased in Cd-treated roots while,
Table 1. Effect of SA on Root Growth of 16-Day-Old Cd-Treated Flax Plantlets
Root
SA
(lM)
Cd
(lM)
Dry weight
(mg plant
-1
)
Length
(cm)
Diameter
(mm)
Surface
(dm
2
plant
- 1
)
Volume
(cm
3
plant
-1
)
0 0 5.51 0.27
e
31.78 1.81
bc
2.44 0.15
c
14.16 1.19
d
19.34 1.17
d
0 50 4.34 0.15
bc
16.09 0.8
e
1.33 0.03
ab
3.83 0.21
b
2.70 0.3
b
0 100 3.21 0.13
a
12.05 1.13
e
1.04 0.02
a
1.63 0.06
a
1.19 0.05
a
250 0 5.21 0.1
cd
45.69 2.3
cd
3.16 0.2
cd
13.39 0.7
d
51.78 2.3
g
250 50 5.55 0.2
ef
31.82 1.5
bc
2.69 0.11
b
7.08 0.26
c
21.38 1.5
e
250 100 4.26 0.11
ab
18.23 0.13
a
1.16 0.1
a
2.94 0.02
ab
3.03 0.3
bc
1000 0 5.59 0.21
ef
40.90 1.7
d
3.57 0.25
d
16.01 1.22
e
46.88 2.1
f
1000 50 4.75 0.25
cd
25.80 2.31
b
1.41 0.03
ab
4.13 0.13
bc
7.37 0.24
c
1000 100 3.75 0.07
a
14.20 0.7
e
1.28 0.13
ab
1.81 0.02
a
2.03 0.19
ab
a
Data are means of three independent experiments (SE).
b
Means with different letters indicate statistically different results at p 0.05,
according to Tukeys (HSD) test.
FIG. 1. Root morphological aspects of SA-pretreated ax plantlets grown in hydroponics culture and subjected for 10 days
to increased CdCl
2
concentrations.
400 BELKADHI ET AL.
8-h SA pretreatment alone (1000 lM) decreased it, and the
effect was similar with the addition of Cd (50 or 100 lM) (Fig.
3A). After 10 days of Cd stress, root GPX and APX showed
signicantly higher activities levels than control, especially at
100 lM Cd. A signicantly enhanced response in both en-
zymes activities occurred by 8-h SApretreatment followed by
Cd exposure (Fig. 3B and C). In contrast, SOD activity was
suppressed by Cd addition in the medium. Cd treatment
caused an increase of 28% and 50% upon exposure to 50 and
100 lM Cd, respectively (Fig. 3D). However, SA (250 or
1000 lM) inhibited Cd-decreased activity of SOD (Fig. 3D).
At 50 and 100 lM Cd, the total antioxidant capacities in-
creased with respect to the control plantlets (Fig. 4A and B).
These Cd-induced increases were further improved by the 8-h
SA pretreatment but in a dose-dependent manner. In terms of
100 lM Cd, the maximum values have been registered at
250 lM SA for both analyzed tests (Fig. 4A and B).
The amount of total lipid (TL) evaluated from the amount
of total fatty acids was changed in Cd-treated roots and highly
dependent on the metal concentration in the medium (Fig. 5).
At 50 and 100 lM Cd, TL content of roots was 40.5% and 79%
reduced, respectively, compared to control. Only at the highest
Cd dose did 8-h SA pretreatment signicantly enhance TL
content in roots of ax plantlets (Fig. 5). In controls, the fatty
acids composition of TL in ax roots contained mostly linolenic
(C18:3), linoleic (C18:2), and palmitic (C16:0) acids (about 87%
of the total fatty acids). CdCl
2
(50 and 100 lM) showed a slight
statistically signicant increase in the degree of fatty acid un-
saturation in the roots (Table 2). The impact of Cd on the fatty
acid composition of root cell membranes became more evident
at higher concentration. The SA-induced change in the lipid
unsaturation was similar to that caused by Cd. Interestingly,
when Cd was added in the medium (50 or 100 lM), 8-h pre-
treatment with SA (250 lM) signicantly increased the total
extent of fatty acid unsaturation (Table 2).
Discussion
In this work, we investigate the potential defense mecha-
nisms enabling primed plantlets to overcome Cd-induced
FIG. 2. The effects of salicylic acid (SA) on hydrogen peroxide content (A), lipid peroxidation (B), electrolyte leakage (C),
total protein (D), and protein carbonyl (E) contents in roots of ax plantlets under cadmium (Cd) stress. Values are the means
of 5 replicate experiments SE. Bars with different letters are statistically different at p 0.05.
EFFECTS OF CADMIUM AND SALICYLIC ACID ON ANTIOXIDANTS 401
oxidative damage to proteins and membranes (oxidation, loss
of membrane uidity and integrity, and the degradation of its
components). Flax roots exposed for 10 days to 50 and 100 lM
CdCl
2
had reduced dry weight and the morphological char-
acters such as surface, volume, and diameter (Table 1). These
alterations observed at the root level could be a consequence
of Cd interference in plant metabolism (Liu et al., 2007), as
well as modication in antioxidative enzyme activities (Ro-
driguez-Serrano et al., 2009).
The results showed that Cd decreased the biomass and
induced the generation of H
2
O
2
(Fig. 2A), which agrees with
previous reports by Schu tzendu bel and Polle (2002) for Scots
FIG. 3. The effects of salicylic acid (SA) on the activities of catalase (CAT) (A), gua col peroxidase (GPX) (B), ascorbate
peroxidase (APX) (C), and superoxide dismutase (SOD) (D) in roots of ax plantlets under cadmium (Cd) stress. Values are
the means of 5 replicate experiments SE. Bars with different letters are statistically different at p 0.05.
FIG. 4. The effects of salicylic acid (SA) on ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) (A) and DPPH
.
scavenging activity (B)
in roots of ax plantlets under cadmium (Cd) stress. Values are the means of 5 replicate experiments SE. Bars with different
letters are statistically different at p 0.05.
402 BELKADHI ET AL.
pine, Ortega-Villasante et al. (2007) for alfalfa, Liu et al.
(2008) for tomato, and Goncalves et al. (2009) for potato.
Cd-increased H
2
O
2
concentration led to lipid peroxidation,
causing membrane damage and leakage of electrolytes
(Schu tzendu bel and Polle 2002). However, in this experiment,
the reduction in biomass, induction of electrolyte leakage,
lipid peroxidation, and protein carbonylation were partially
alleviated by applying SAto Cd-treated ax plantlets (Table 1
and Fig. 2B-E). This is linked to the SA- increased levels
of GPX, APX and SOD activities under Cd stress (Fig. 3B, C,
and D).
Superoxide radicals generated by oxidative metabolism
were dismutated into H
2
O
2
and O
2
by SOD which acts as a
rst line of defense response in planta (Grata o et al., 2012,
Radwan, 2012). The increased SOD activity due to SA might
protect biomolecules from being attacked by superoxide
radicals. It has been shown that exogenous SA application
resulted in the alleviation of Cd-induced ROS overproduction
in Arabidopis thaliana (Zhang and Chen, 2011) and maize
seedlings (Radwan, 2012). Consequently, the lower level of
lipid peroxidation, and thus the lower degree of membrane
damage, might result from the SA-increased activity of SOD
enzyme in ax roots (Fig. 3D).
Protein carbonylation may occur due to direct oxidation of
amino acid side chains (e.g., proline, arginine, lysine, and
threonine) by ROS and/or by protein reactions with lipid
peroxidation products, such as 4-hydroxy-2-nonenal (HNE).
Numerous studies have shown that Cd bioaccumulation lead
to the oxidation of proteins in plant tissues (Romero-Puertas
et al., 2002, Djebali et al., 2008, Douchiche et al., 2010), which is
in agreement with our present ndings (Fig. 2E). On the other
hand, SA-decrease of lipid peroxidation may partially con-
tribute to the Cd alteration effect on protein content in roots
(Fig. 2B). In fact, several studies reported the increase in total
protein content and formation of new proteins in pea due to
SA treatment (Katoch, 2007, Cxag et al., 2009).
Plant membranes are the rst functional structure to come
into contact with toxic metals; it is considered to play a critical
role in metal tolerance of plants. The presence of polyunsat-
urated fatty acids in the plasma membrane results in in-
creased membrane permeability to ions (Hanzel and
Williams, 1990). The depletion of unsaturated fatty acids may
also indicate lipid peroxidation elicited by Cd (Ben youssef
et al., 2005; Djebali et al., 2005). In a study of pea roots, Her-
nandez and Cooke (1997) reported a similar decrease in the
fatty acid saturation in response to Cd stress. SA acts in re-
sponse to the Cd-induced changes in fatty acid saturation,
[i.e., the increased unsaturation in the roots (Table 2)]. More-
over, it can be assumed that the defensive role of SA against
Cd toxicity might be credited to its function in regulating root
membrane permeability.
Other mechanisms involved in the prevention of Cd-in-
duced membrane damage require the synthesis of antioxidant
enzymes. In fact, an increase in antioxidant enzyme activities
after Cd treatment has been detected in Hordeum vulgare (Guo
et al., 2004); O. sativa (Hsu and Kao, 2004); Triticum aestivum
(Khan et al., 2007); Brassica juncea (Mobin and Khan, 2007);
Vigna mungo (Singh et al., 2008); C. arietinum (Hassan et al.,
2008). In this study, Cd affected SOD, CAT, APX, and GPX
FIG. 5. The effects of salicylic acid (SA) on total lipid con-
tent in roots of ax plantlets under cadmium (Cd) stress.
Values are the means of 5 replicate experiments SE. Bars
with different letters are statistically different at p 0.05.
Table 2. Effect of SA on Fatty Acid of Total Lipids Composition in Root of 16-Day-Old
Flax Plantlets Subjected During 10 Days to Cd Toxicity
Fatty acids (%TL) Roots
SA (lM) Cd (lM) C16:0 C16:1 C18:0 C18:1 C18:2 C18:3 Unsaturation
0 0 30.22 1.68
ab
Tr 5.96 0.60
a
6.62 0.82
ab
43.78 0.58
bc
13.40 0.33
ab
69.77 1.66
a
0 50 29.75 0.15
c
Tr 6.88 0.34
ab
6.74 0.24
ab
42.08 0.18
b
14.55 0.52
b
70.25 0.13
a
0 100 27.13 0.83
a
Tr 8.19 0.29
bc
8.15 0.32
bc
42.51 0.54
b
13.94 0.62
ab
72.78 0.54
b
250 0 30.02 0.73
c
Tr 6.04 0.90
a
6.21 0.77
a
43.55 2.29
bc
14.18 0.12
b
69.99 0.74
a
250 50 27.45 1.00
a
Tr 7.63 0.13
b
7.73 0.04
b
41.97 1.30
b
15.21 2.48
c
72.55 1.00
b
250 100 28.43 0.73
ab
Tr 8.11 0.06
bc
8.14 0.09
bc
39.87 0.47
a
15.43 0.12
c
71.55 0.73
ab
1000 0 29.72 0.15
c
Tr 6.02 0.67
a
5.85 0.45
a
44.66 3.20
c
13.74 2.23
ab
70.28 0.15
a
1000 50 30.07 1.16
c
Tr 7.22 0.12
b
7.52 0.19
bc
42.52 0.4
b
12.70 0.67
a
69.94 1.15
a
1000 100 28.41 0.45
ab
Tr 8.02 0.35
bc
8.09 0.28
bc
41.51 1.00
b
13.98 0.04
ab
71.59 0.41
ab
a
Data are means of three independent experiments ( SE).
b
Means with different letters indicate statistically different results at p 0.05,
according to Tukeys (HSD) test, (Tr, trace).
EFFECTS OF CADMIUM AND SALICYLIC ACID ON ANTIOXIDANTS 403
activities in ax plantlets, with their impact being higher at
100 lM Cd (Fig. 3). In the roots, Cd, especially at this con-
centration, tended to increase their activities (with the ex-
ception of SOD). The severe Cd-decrease in SOD activity
might be caused by the continuous competition between Zn
and Cd for the same sites in Cu/Zn SOD. Similarly, Ro-
driguez-Serrano et al. (2009) showed that Cd-decrease in Ca
lead to Cu/Zn SOD downregulation, which resulted in the
overproduction of superoxide radicals in Pisum sativum.
However, our results showed that the 8-h SA pretreatment
caused a signicant increase in GPX, APX, and SOD, and a
decrease in CAT activity in Cd-treated plantlets (Fig. 3A-D).
In barley seedlings treated with Cd, Metwally et al. (2003)
reported that total root APX activity reected the cytosolic
isoforms and the Cd response was fully suppressed by SA.
Conversely, the same authors reported that CAT activity and
expression level decreased upon SA pretreatment. According
to Janda et al. (1999), a new peroxidase isoform was detected
in maize treated with SA, even the total activity did not in-
crease signicantly.
The effect of SA on the activation of SOD may facilitate the
integrity of membrane structures of root cells, because SOD is
involved in the processes of lipid peroxidation deactivation
(Zenkov et al., 2001). But, the signicance of catalase inhibi-
tion could be partly due to the possible binding of SA to
CAT. In fact, SA has proved capable of binding directly to
CAT enzyme (Chen et al., 1993), isolated from tobacco, in-
hibiting its activity (Conrath et al., 1995). The in vitro SA cat-
alase-inhibiting effect has also been demonstrated in many
other plant species, such as Arabidopsis, tomato, cucumber
(Sanchez-Casas and Klessig, 1994), and tobacco (Horvath
et al., 1998).
Numerous studies showed that exogenous application of
SAcan inuence the antioxidant capacity of plant cells ( Janda
et al., 2003, Ananieva et al., 2004, Radwan, 2012). Besides,
since adaptation to oxidative stress involves not only the
regulation of the synthesis and repair of proteins but also
enhanced antioxidant capacity (Ananieva et al., 2004), two
different tests were used in this work to conrm the SA-
induced changes in antioxidant activities of Cd-treated
plantlets (Fig. 4A and B). In roots, Cd stress signicantly in-
creased FRAP and DPPH-radical scavenging activity. This
effect was improved by SA in Cd-stressed plantlets.
Conclusion
To summarize, it was demonstrated that the exogenous 8-h
SA pretreatment may improve the tolerance of ax roots to
Cd-induced oxidative stress. Moreover, SA-enhanced anti-
oxidant enzymes SOD, APX, and GPX maintained ROS such
as superoxide radicals at minimum levels with respect to
100 lM Cd treatment. Therefore, SA-increase of the total an-
tioxidant capacities in Cd-treated ax roots avoids its delete-
rious effects in cell membranes. For these reasons, we can
conclude that due to Cd high toxicity and its potent free-
radical scavenging ability, SA-induced priming could be used
as a potential preventive action taken to limit oxidative
damages.
Acknowledgments
This research was supported by a grant from the Tunisian
Ministry of Higher Education, Scientic Research and Tech-
nology. We gratefully acknowledge Dr. Michael Deyholos
(University of Alberta, Canada) for his careful reading of the
manuscript and Ms. Geraldine Dambry (Service Recherche/
Laboratoire Pathologie et Biologie du lin, France) for her
gracious help to provide us the ax seeds.
Author Disclosure Statement
No competing nancial interests exist.
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Address correspondence to:
A cha Belkadhi
Departement de Biologie
Unite de Recherche de Physiologie et Biochimie
de la tolerance des plantes aux contraintes abiotiques
Faculte des Sciences de Tunis
Campus Universitaire
1060 Tunis
Tunisia
or
Department of Agronomy and Plant Breeding
Institute of Sustainable Agriculture
Spanish Council for Scientic Research (CSIC)
Alameda del Obispo s/n
14080 Cordoba
Spain
E-mail: aicha585@yahoo.ca
Abbreviations Used
APXascorbate peroxidase
CATcatalase
Cdcadmium
DPPH2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl
DWdry weight
FRAPferric reducing antioxidant power
GPXgua col peroxidase
H
2
O
2
hydrogen peroxide
MDAmalondialdehyde
SAsalicylic acid
SODsuperoxide dismutase (SOD)
TLtotal lipid
406 BELKADHI ET AL.