Section III:

Proposed Guidelines for Custody

and Visitation for Cases with Domestic Violence

High-Conflict and Violent

Parents in Family Court:
FINDINGS ON CHILDRENS ADJUSTMENT, AND
PROPOSED GUIDELINES FOR THE
RESOLUTION OF CUSTODY
AND VISITATION DISPUTES

Janet R. Johnston, Ph.D.

Center for the Family in Transition 5725 Paradise Drive, Bldg. B, #300
Corta Madera, CA 94925

INTRODUCTION
DEVELOPMENT OF THE GUIDELINES
The following guidelines for the disposition of custody and visitation
disputes where there has been domestic violence between parents were developed
through a process of community involvement and dialogue among concerned
professionals and administrators of public and private agencies. The goal of this
process was (a) to review relevant research findings in order to specify the
problems to be solved, (b) to develop consensus about the principles that should
guide any intervention, (c) to propose specific strategies for resolving the
problems, and (d) to discuss the pragmatics of instituting the proposed changes in
court policies and procedures.
As the guidelines were drafted, representatives from two domestic violence
agencies within the two counties were the study reported in Section I was
conducted were consulted regularly. These agencies were the Marin Abused
Womens Services and the San Mateo Battered Womens Services. In addition,
information about other states laws, policies, and procedures were obtained from
Battered Womens Coalitions in seven states (Alaska, Arizona, California,
Colorado, Minnesota, Pennsylvania, and Texas), the National Clearing House on
Women and Family Law (New York City), and the Draft Report of the California
Judicial Council Advisory Committee on Gender Bias in the Courts, as well as
numerous concerned professionals across the US (womens advocates, attorneys,
judges, mental health professionals, researchers, journalists, and activists). See the
Appendix for a summary of the different states current provisions in the law with
respect to domestic violence and custody.
The Northern California Ad Hoc Committee on Domestic Violence was also
solicited for its input. This committee has had a core and shifting membership
over the past three years with representatives from California family courts
(primarily mediators), the Senate Office of Research, and the Statewide Office of
Family Court Services, as well as concerned professionals (family law attorneys,
law educators, and mental health professionals specializing in domestic violence).
During September and October 1991, the committee sponsored a working seminar
to develop broad-based principles and procedures for family court service
intervention in domestic violence cases, and specifically devoted part of this
working seminar to develop these guidelines for custody and visitation.1
Representatives from 11 counties attended this seminar, many of whom were the
1

Both the Southern and the Northern Ad Hoc Committees on Domestic Violence have proposed guidelines for principles and
procedures to be used by staffs of Family Court Services to identify, assess and deliver services to families in which domestic violence
has occurred. These other guidelines should be seen as complementary to the ones proposed here, which focus on the disposition of
custody and visitation in disputed cases. To the best of our knowledge, there are no other guidelines in California, nor in the rest of
the country, that provide the kind of detailed proposals about custody and visitation that are made here.

administrative heads of their local family court services: Alameda, Contra Costa,
Marin, Monterey, Napa, San Francisco, San Mateo, Santa Clara, Santa Cruz,
Solano, and Sonoma.
A draft of the guidelines was then circulated at a meeting in November 1991 of
Family Court Services directors from all counties in California, with a request for
feedback and further suggestions from their respective local offices. A total of 15
responses were received. The final draft was then prepared, after taking into
account the feedback from both Family Court Services offices and our consulting
domestic violence agencies, Marin Abused Womens Services and the San Mateo
Battered Womens Services. While the final draft attempts to bring together a
core consensus among the different agencies and concerned professionals, not all
suggestions were incorporated, and some differences of opinion remain. The
guidelines, therefore, reflect a collaborative process. Nonetheless, the author of
this report takes final responsibility for the material included.

RESEARCH, COMMUNITY VALUES, AND LEGAL BASE

Statements designated as premises in the guidelines that follow are based
upon the general body of empirical and clinical research findings discussed in
Sections I and II of this report. Statements designated as principles are supported
by research to varying extents, but they also reflect values held by the community
of concerned professionals as well as commonly held conceptions about how to
help children and families in domestic violence situations. Statements designated
as specific recommendations are strategies proposed and used by experts in the
field (Family Court Services workers, custody evaluators, therapists, womens and
childrens advocated, etc.). They have not yet been evaluated empirically as
effective methods of solving the problems specified in this report.
Existing laws relevant to specific statements in the guidelines are referenced in the
text. Current California laws and uniform standards of practice for courtconnected child custody mediation relevant to domestic violence are provided in a
separate document by the Statewide Office of Family Court Services. These
proposed guidelines are intended to supplement and do not contradict any current
law or uniform standard.
The guidelines are based on existing knowledge about domestic violence, which is
quite limited; therefore, they will change as more is learned . They are also meant
to be employed together with good clinical judgment and wise judicial discretion
with respect to individual cases, and are to be interpreted in the context of the
research findings described here and elsewhere.

INTENDED USE OF THE GUIDELINES

These proposed guidelines were prepared for use by court-connected

Family Court Services mediators working with families to arrive at custody

agreements. In this arena, they comprise background information that the
mediator can provide to parents who are trying to reach their own settlement. The
guidelines should also help guide the recommendations of court-connected
evaluators conducting custody investigations, and may assist judges who must at
times make judicial decisions on behalf of disputing parents. Finally, the
guidelines should also be made available to the community at large, especially
those concerned about domestic violence, to provide information on general
policy, increase accountability of the family courts and services to the public, and
elicit comments and on ongoing dialogue about these matters.
DEFINITIONS
1. Domestic violence is the use of physical force, restraint, or threats of force to
compel one to do something against ones will or to do bodily harm to self,
cohabitant, or family member, or the mother or father of ones child. It includes
but is not limited to: assault (pushing, slapping, choking, hitting, biting, etc.); use
of or threat with a weapon; sexual assault; unlawful entry; destruction of property;
keeping someone prisoner or kidnapping; theft of personal property; and infliction
of physical injury or murder. Psychological intimidation or control may also be
maintained through such means as stalking, harassment, threats against children or
others, violence against pets, or destruction of property.
(This definition is broader than but inclusive of definitions used for an offender of
domestic violence in California Penal Code section 273.5 and for an offender of
stalking in California Penal code section 646.9.)
2. Indication of violence may include but is not limited to police reports, medical
reports of injuries, third-party witnesses, domestic violence expert witnesses who
interview both parties, self-reports, and audio or video tapes of threats or actual
incidents.
(It is understood that most often evidence of physical abuse is not available.
However, lack of corroborative data does not diminish the indications of violence
available to the mediator/evaluator by way of self-reports from the victim.)
PREMISES
1. Domestic violence is detrimental to children, irrespective of their relationship
with the perpetrator of violence. Children who have witnessed or overheard
severe or repeated incidents of violence perpetrated by parent(s) are likely to be
acutely or chronically traumatized and at risk for emotional, behavioral, and social
difficulties, including long-term victim or perpetrator roles. Children who do not
directly witness spousal abuse are also negatively affected by the climate of

violence in their homes and are likely to experience impairment of development

and socialization skills. Even very young children and infants who are not thought
to be cognizant of the violence are negatively affected. For these reasons, children
need to be protected from witnessing threats of violence or actual physical abuse
and from exposure to a climate of violence in their homes.
2. Domestic violence is understood to be a behavior or set of behaviors arising
from multiple sources, which may follow different patterns in different families,
rather than a syndrome with a single underlying cause. Parent-child relationships
are likely to vary with the different patters of violence, and children of different
ages and gender are affected differently. There are also different trajectories for
recovery and the reconstitution of family relationships and for the potential for
future violence. For these reasons, domestic violence families need to be
considered on an individual basis when helping them develop appropriate postdivorce parenting plans.
3. Domestic violence can occur in all cultures and ethnic groups. However, the
interpretation of what constitutes violence and what is considered normal
emotional expressiveness varies greatly among different cultural and ethnic
groups. It is important to interpret the meaning of a behavior within its cultural
context whenever possible. It is understood that a client may behave in ways that
the majority culture views as destructive or psychologically aberrant, but that at
the same time may be consonant with the clients native culture. Wherever
possible, it is important to provide culturally aware Family Court Services staff
who can bridge from one culture to another in interpreting domestic violence
and helping families make appropriate custody and visitation plans.
PRINCIPLES
1. All decisions about custody and visitation should be based on physically and
emotionally protecting the child and preserving or reconstituting those positive
aspects of the parent-child and other family relationships to all extents possible.
Custody of children is not a reward or compensation for victim status, nor should
the denial of custody and restrictions on visitation be used as punishment for the
perpetrator of violence.
2. It is recognized that the needs of the children do not always coincide fully with
the needs of their mothers or fathers who have been physically abused by domestic
violence. At the same time, parents need safety from threats, harassment, and/or
physical violence in order to adequately provide and care for their children.

DETERMING CUSTODY AND VISITATION

PHYSICAL CUSTODY AND RESIDENCE
GENERAL PRINCIPLES
1. The absence of violence perpetrated by the parent, and the capacity of the
parent to provide a violence-free home for the child, should be given considerable
weight in determining timesharing and the childs residence (see Civil Code
section 4608). It is important to note that oftentimes domestic violence is
perpetrated not by the parents but by significant others, including new
boyfriends/girlfriends, new spouses, or extended family, and the potential for
violence to occur in this wider domain needs to be considered. It is also
recognized that physical custody awards should not be based on any one factor,
and that informed clinical judgments are necessary in weighing and taking into
account the circumstances of each child and family.
2. Adult victims of repeated or severe incidents of violence may have diminished
parenting capacity when the violent relationship is terminated, as a consequence of
the victimization. Therefore, prior to long-term decision making regarding child
custody and timesharing, the parent who was the victim would need the
opportunity to re-establish competence and stability as a resident parent for a
period of time, usually with the support and guidance of professional and/or peer
counselors.
3. When a victim of violence, for self-protection, leaves the home without the
children, it should not establish a status quo in favor of the perpetrator of violence.
(It is understood that there are few resources available to parents with children
who leave a violent relationship.)
4. The friendly parent provision specifies that the parent most willing to provide
liberal visitation to the other parent is favored as the physical custodial parent (see
Civil Code section 4600(b)(1)). This provision should not apply if it would impair
the ability of a parent to act in a childs best interest by protecting the child from
witnessing violence.

LEGAL CUSTODY
GENERAL PRINCIPLE
Joint legal custody is generally not appropriate where there is ongoing high
conflict and potential for violence between parents, as it usually requires
considerable ability to work cooperatively in joint decision making. Legal custody
orders that keep the tension and hostilities high or that maintain the risk of further
violence are contrary to the spirit and intent of a joint legal custody arrangement.
No legal custody arrangement should maintain a high level of continuous parental
conflict or hinder the parents ability to make appropriate and timely decisions

regarding their children.

SPECIFIC RECOMMENDATIONS
1. Where there is indication of both current AND episodic or ongoing threats of
and/or use of violence, sole legal custody should normally be given to the
nonviolent parent. In these cases, the noncustodial parent may be denied right of
access to the childs medical and educational records if such information would
provide access to the custodial address and telephone number, which the custodial
parent has the right--for safety reasons--to keep confidential.
2. Where there is a history of domestic violence that is not current, nor both recent
AND episodic, or ongoing, there should be no presumption in favor of any
particular legal custody arrangement. The options include but are not limited to
the following:
(a) An explicit division of legal custody decision-making rights and
responsibilities can be awarded to each parent.
(b) A court master (arbitrator) can be appointed to help parents make joint
decisions under a joint legal custody order.
(c) Parents may have joint legal custody provided they both have the
capacity to make non-coerced, timely, cooperative decisions for their
child, under an arrangement that does not compromise their safety.
(d) One parent may be awarded sole legal custody.
3. If it is determined that sole legal custody is appropriate for a particular family,
the agreement should reflect the noncustodial parents legal right to directly
receive information concerning the child(ren)s health, education, and welfare (see
Civil Code section 46.00.5(1)). The agreement should include a provision
whereby the custodial parent must inform the relevant health and educational
institutions that the noncustodial parent has the right of access upon request to
such information (excluding when appropriate the custodial address and telephone
number). The noncustodial parent should also have the authority to consent to
medical treatment on behalf of the child in event of urgent injury or illness.

ACCESS/VISITATION
GENERAL PRINCIPLES
1. Limit childs exposure to parental conflict. All arrangements for contact
between a child and parent should be carefully structured to limit the childs

exposure to conflict between the parents and to ensure the safety of all present.
2. Frequent transitions may not be advisable. Where there is ongoing conflict and
reasonable fear of violence between parents, and/or the child shows continued
stress reactions to transitions between parents, access arrangements that require
the child to make frequent transitions between parents should be avoided.2 (In the
special case of infants and young children where it may be necessary for more
frequent exchanges of the child, special provisions should be made to ensure the
comfort and safety of the child and parent.)
3. Substantial amounts of time with both parents may not be advisable. Where
there is ongoing conflict and fear of violence between parents, timesharing
schedules that require the child to spend substantial amounts of time with both
parents are not usually advisable. (In the special case where a child appears to
need more contact with a same-gender nonresident parent, more visiting time may
be appropriate. In this situation, it may also be better for a sibling who is of
different gender than the nonresident parent to share the same timesharing
agreement, so that siblings can remain together on visits in order to support one
another.)3

SPECIFIC RECOMMENDATIONS
1. Supervised Visitation
Supervised visitation involves the use of a third party to effect the transfer
of the child from one parent to the other and to remain with the child throughout
the visitation period.
Supervised visitation is recommended where there is indication of current use of
or an expressed threat of violence. It is also recommended where there has been
both recent violence and episodic or ongoing violence in the past. In these cases,
the perpetrator should normally have supervised visitation with the child under the
following conditions:
(a) An explicit court order should detail the conditions of the supervised
access. This should include the times for the visits, the places of
exchange of the child, whether telephone contact with the child is
permitted and under what conditions, who should supervise the visit or
how the supervisor is to be chosen, and who should bear the cost of the
supervision. (Although it is recognized that the court shall determine
2

Note that violence may not have actually occurred, but there are threats or other indications that would
make a reasonable person fear that it might occur. The available research data support these provisions
(Brotsky et al. 1988; Buchanan et al. 1991; Johnston et al. 1989; and Section I of this report).
3
Ibid.

who bears the cost of the supervision, it is strongly advised that the
parent who has perpetrated violence should normally bear the cost.)
(b) The supervisor should be a responsible adult who can be expected to
provide appropriate supervision for the visitation. In general, the
specific supervisor and the role that this supervisor will play during the
visits may be agreed upon by both parents or ordered by the court. The
supervisor should be someone with whom it is expected that the child
will be comfortable. The place of visitation should be one that is
expected to feel comfortable, reassuring, and safe to the child.
(c) The removal of the requirement for supervised visitation should
normally be made contingent upon cessation of the threats of or use of
violence by the perpetrator for a period of time determined to be
appropriate by the court, and by the order of the court, on the successful
completion of an approved4 course of counseling for the cessation of
violence. In general, a minimum of one year of counseling is considered
necessary for persons who have repeatedly perpetrated domestic
violence.
(d) In the event that supervised visitation under the above terms is
determined to be necessary but is not feasible, then the access plan
should gravitate toward protecting the child, in which case access with
the perpetrator of violence should be suspended until such time that
supervised visitation is available or determined to be no longer
necessary.
2. Suspended Visitation
Supervised visitation should be suspended for a designated period of time5 with a
perpetrator of current violence, or with a perpetrator of both recent and episodic or
ongoing violence, under any one of the following conditions:
4

An approved course of counseling refers to courses used by domestic violence offenders in the criminal
courts that meet the standards of State of California Assembly Bill No. 907. These standards are currently
being considered for legal mandate by the state. Until the standards are mandated, courses should be
approved by Family Court Services, and, if available, should be those that work collaboratively with
battered womens shelters.
5
The length of time for suspension of visitation should be determined for each case individually. In
general, suspension should continue until there is reason to believe the problem no longer exists and, at that
time, visitation can resume on a supervised basis. However, it is also important to remember that very
young children and infants have difficulty remembering an absent parent, so that prolonged lack of contact
may adversely affect their capacity to subsequently attach to that parent. Hence each childs age and
current relationship with the perpetrator of violence need to be carefully considered in determining length
of suspension of visitation.

(a) Where there are repeated violations of the terms of the visitation order,
which adversely affect the child. (This includes occasions when the
supervisor of visitation reports that the perpetrator of violence uses
supervised time with the child to denigrate the other parent, or to obtain
information about the whereabouts and activities of the other parent.)
(b) Where the child is severely distressed in response to visitation
(including refusing to visit with the parent who has been violent) and
when these symptoms are not ameliorated despite appropriate
professional counseling.
(c) As in 1.(d) above
(d) Where there is clear indication that the violent parent has expressly
threatened to harm or flee with the child, or if the offending parent
attempts to use the child to communicate threats of physical harm or
death to the other parent. Such cases should then be evaluated by either
Child Protective Services or Family Court Services and a
recommendation should be made to the court on:
- under what conditions supervised visitations would be resumed, or
- whether all contact between the child and the offending parent should
be suspended indefinitely or permanently terminated.
If the evaluation determines that the indefinite suspension of parent-child
contact is appropriate, it should be made very clear in a court order what
conditions would have to be met by the offending parent before
resumption of supervised visitations would be reconsidered by the court.
If the evaluation determines that reinstatement of parent-child contact is
appropriate, any in person contact should typically begin with
supervised visitation.

(e) If a parent has a history of extreme violence or abusive behavior (i.e.,

murder, attempted murder, violent sexual assault, severe child
abuse/neglect), extreme caution must be taken with regard to the childs
contact with the violence- threatening parent. Any parent-child contact
should be suspended until such time as an appropriate evaluation is made
by a designated agency (Child Protective Services or Family Court
Services) to determine under what conditions supervised visitations may
occur or if parent-child contact should be permanently terminated.
3. Temporary Supervision or Suspension of Visitation
Either supervised or suspended visitation may be appropriate for a brief period4
under either of the following circumstances:
(a) While there is fact finding with respect to serious allegations of
domestic violence.
(b) While the child is being assessed for serious symptoms of distress
and/or reluctance to visit.
Suspended visitation, for a brief period, is appropriate following a traumatic
episode of violence perpetrated by one parent, when the abused parent and child
have sought shelter (e.g., in a battered womens shelter) and need respite. This
period of respite should be no less than two weeks.
4. Unsupervised Access/Visitation
(a) Under an arrangement for access between parents and children where there
has been a history of domestic violence but the violence is not current, nor both
recent and episodic or ongoing (as in the above sections on supervised and
suspended visitation), the following provisions should normally be appropriate:
The access arrangements should be explicitly stated in court orders
(with respect to schedules, times, dates, holidays, vacations, etc.) that
can be easily interpreted and enforced by police officers if necessary,
and subject to contempt actions if the orders are violated.
A restraining order should normally be in place preventing the parent
who has perpetrated violence from coming near the other parent,
including during drop-off and pick-up times with the child. The use of
mutual restraining orders is generally appropriate only when there is
actual evidence of mutual physical or psychological abuse.
Transfer of the child should be at a neutral, safe place, preferably with a
third party present
(b) Where there is considerable concern about the parenting capacities
4

Ibid.

of both parents, and where there is indication that violence has been
perpetrated by one or both parties:
Temporary custody and visitation awards can be made contingent upon
either or both parents obtaining parent counseling, and
approved5counseling for cessation of the violence. If there is evidence
that there are drug or alcohol problems contributing to the violence, then
temporary awards should be provisional upon treatment for these
problems also. If treatment and/or repeated attempts to improve their
parenting skills fail and the children continue to be at risk, referrals
should be made to appropriate Child Protective Services.

Temporary awards made with these provisons should be subject to

appropriate review(s) to ensure compliance with the terms of the
agreement and the safety and well-being of the child.

It may be appropriate to give more weight in the custody/access

decision to providing the child with continuity in relationships with
supportive others (such as teachers, peers, grandparents) and stability of
place (such as neighborhood and school). A parents need to make
geographical move in order to obtain economic stability is an exception
to this.

See definition of approved counseling in footnote 4.

ASSESSMENT, TREATMENT, AND

REPRESENTATION OF CHILDREN
SPECIFIC RECOMMENDATIONS
1. Children who demonstrate symptoms of fear, anxiety, persistent refusal to visit,
and other distress in relation to visitation with a parent who is perceived to have
perpetrated violence should normally be seen and assessed by Family Court
Services workers, or by any counselor, therapist, or advocate who is trained to
interview children and who is prepared to talk with Family Court Services. The
purpose of this assessment is to hear the childs concerns and recommend
appropriate schedules to the court, including safeguards in the visitation plan that
help the child feel more safe and comfortable with the arrangement.
2. Children who express strong wishes to talk with the judge and those who
write letters and attempt to communicate with the court should normally be given
the opportunity to talk to Family Court Services workers or to a legal or mental
health counselor who is trained to interview children and who is prepared to talk
with Family Court Services. The purpose of interviewing children is to gain a
greater understanding of the childs wishes and needs and to provide the child with
an opportunity to be heard. It should be made clear to both parents and to the
child that the child is not testifying, that a decision about custody and access is not
the childs to make, and that the child does not have to choose between parents.
3. Children who have witnessed severe or repeated incidents of parental violence
are likely to be acutely or chronically traumatized and in need of remedial
psychological help. Their reluctance or refusal to visit a parent should not be seen
as solely induced by an alienating parent. Wherever possible they need to be
referred for psychological treatment and each parent (whether victim or
perpetrator) is likely to need separate collateral parental counseling (see Civil
Code sections 4608.1(a) and 4608.1(b)).
4. It may be appropriate to appoint a guardian ad litem in order to represent the
childs interests and concerns during the legal proceedings where there has been
domestic violence and where the child is symptomatic or reluctant to visit.