Rebuilding Rails

Rebuilding Rails
Get Your Hands Dirty and Build

Your Own Ruby Web Framework
DRM-free. Please copy for yourself and only yourself.
Locomotive Construction, New South Wales State Records
(C) Noah Gibbs, 2012-2013

Version: February 17th, 2014
0. Rebuilding Rails for Yourself!
Why Rebuild Rails?!
Who Should Rebuild Rails?!
Working Through!
Cheating!
0.5 Getting Set Up!
11
1. Zero to It Works!!
13
In the Rough!
13
Hello World, More or Less!
15
Making Rulers Use Rack!
17
Review!
18
In Rails!
19
Exercises!
21
Exercise One: Reloading Rulers!
21
Exercise Two: Your Librarys Library!
22
Exercise Three: Test Early, Test Often!
23
2. Your First Controller!
27
Sample Source!
27
On the Rack!
27
Routing Around!
28
It Almost Worked!!
32
Review!
34
Exercises!
34
Exercise One: Debugging the Rack Environment!
34
Exercise Two: Debugging Exceptions!
36
Exercise Three: Roots and Routes!
37
In Rails!
37
3. Rails Automatic Loading!
39
Sample Source!
39
CamelCase and snake_case!
42
Reloading Means Convenience!
44
Putting It Together!
45
Review!
47
Exercises!
48
Exercise One: Did It Work?!
48
Exercise Two: Re-re-reloading!
49
In Rails!
52
4. Rendering Views!
53
Sample Source!
53
Erb and Erubis!
53
And Now, Back to Our Program!
55
More Quotes, More Better!
57
Controller Names!
58
Review!
59
Exercises!
59
Exercise One: Mind Those Tests!!
59
Exercise Two: View Variables!
62
Exercise Three: Rake Targets for Tests!
63
In Rails!
64
3
5. Basic Models!
66
Sample Source!
66
File-Based Models!
66
Inclusion and Convenience!
71
Queries!
72
Where Do New Quotes Come From?!
73
Review!
75
Exercises!
76
Exercise One: Object Updates!
76
Exercise Two: Caching and Sharing Models!
77
Exercise Three: More Interesting Finders!
78
In Rails!
79
6. Request, Response !
80
Sample Source!
80
Requests with Rack!
80
Responses with Rack!
83
Review!
86
Exercises!
86
Exercise One: Automatic Rendering!
86
Exercise Two: Instance Variables!
87
In Rails!
88
7. The Littlest ORM!
89
Sample Source!
89
What Couldnt FileModel Do? (Lots)!
89
No Migrations? But How Can I...?!
90
4
Read That Schema!
91
When Irb Needs a Boost!
92
Schema and Data!
93
Seek and Find!
96
I Might Need That Later!
98
Review!
100
Exercises!
100
Exercise One: Column Accessors!
100
Exercise Two: method_missing for Column Accessors!
102
Exercise Three: from_sql and Types!
102
In Rails!
103
8. Rack Middleware!
105
Sample Source!
105
Care and Feeding of Config.ru!
105
The Real Thing!
107
Powerful and Portable!
109
Built-In Middleware!
110
Third-Party Middleware!
112
More Complicated Middleware!
113
Middleware Fast and Slow!
114
Review!
116
Exercises!
42
Exercise One: Do It With Rulers!
42
Exercise Two: Middleware from Gems!
42
Exercise Three: More Benchmarking!
42
5
In Rails!
43
9. Real Routing!
44
Sample Source!
44
Routing Languages!
44
Controller Actions are Rack Apps!
45
Rack::Map and Controllers!
49
Configuring a Router!
50
Playing with Matches!
53
Putting It Together (Again)!
56
Review!
58
Exercises!
58
Exercise One: Adding Root!
58
Exercise Two: Default Routes!
59
Exercise Three: Resources!
59
In Rails!
60
Appendix: Installing Ruby 2.0, Git, Bundler and SQLite3!
42
Ruby 2.0!
42
Windows!
42
Mac OS X!
42
Ubuntu Linux!
42
Others!
43
Git (Source Control)!
43
Windows!
43
Mac OS X!
43
Ubuntu Linux!
43
6
Others!
43
Bundler!
43
SQLite!
44
Windows!
44
Mac OS X!
44
Ubuntu Linux!
44
Others!
45
Other Rubies!
45
0. Rebuilding Rails for Yourself

Why Rebuild Rails?
Knowing the deepest levels of any piece of software lets you
master it. Its a special kind of competence you cant fake. You
have to know it so well you could build it. What if you did build it?
Wouldnt that be worth it?
This book will take you through building a Rails-like framework
from an empty directory, using the same Ruby features and
structures that make Rails so interesting.
Ruby on Rails is known for being magical. A lot of that magic
makes sense after youve built with those Ruby features.
Also, Ruby on Rails is an opinionated framework; the Rails team
says so, loudly. What if you have different opinions? Youll build
a Rails-like framework, but youll have plenty of room to add your
own features and make your own trade-offs.
Whether you want to master Rails exactly as it is or want to build
your own personal version, this book can help.
Who Should Rebuild Rails?

Youll need to know some Ruby. If youve built several little Ruby
apps or one medium-sized Rails app, you should be fine. If you
consult the pickaxe book as you go along, that helps too (http://
ruby-doc.com/docs/ProgrammingRuby/). You should be able to
write basic Ruby without much trouble.
If you want to brush up on Rails, Michael Hartls tutorials are
excellent: http://ruby.railstutorial.org/ruby-on-rails-tutorial-book.
Theres a free HTML version of them, or you can pay for PDF or
8
screencasts. Some concepts in this book are clearer if you

already know them from Rails.
In most chapters, well use a little bit of Ruby magic. Each
chapter will explain as we go along. None of these features are
hard to understand. Its just surprising that Ruby lets you do it!
Working Through
Each chapter is about building a system in a Rails-like framework,
which well call Rulers (like, Ruby on Rulers). Rulers is much
simpler than the latest version of Rails. But once you build the
simple version, youll know what the complicated version does
and a lot of how it works.
Later chapters have a link to source code -- thats what bookstandard Rulers looks like at the end of the previous chapter. You
can download the source and work through any specific chapter
youre curious about.
Late in each chapter are suggested features and exercises.
Theyre easy to skip over, and theyre optional. But youll get
much more out of this book if you stop after each chapter and
think about what you want in your framework. What does Rails
do that you want to know more about? What doesnt Rails do but
you really want to? Does Sinatra have something awesome?
The best features to add are the ones you care about!
Cheating
You can download next chapters sample code from GitHub
instead of typing chapter by chapter. Youll get a lot more out of
the material if you type it yourself, make mistakes yourself and,
yes, painstakingly debug it yourself. But if theres something you
just cant get, use the sample code and move on. Itll be easier
on your next time through.
It may take you more than once to get everything perfectly. Come
back to code and exercises that are too much. Skip things but
come back and work through them later. If the books version is
hard for you to get, go read the equivalent in Rails, or in a simpler
framework like Sinatra. Sometimes youll just need to see a
concept explained in more than one way.
Oh, and you usually dont get the source code to the exercises,
just the main chapter. Theres a little bit of challenge left even for
cheaters. Youre welcome.
At the end of the chapter are pointers into the Rails source for the
Rails version of each system. Reading Rails source is optional.
But even major components (ActiveRecord, ActionPack) are still
around 25,000 lines - short and readable compared to most
frameworks. And generally youre looking for some specific
smaller component, often between a hundred and a thousand
lines.
Youll also be a better Rails programmer if you take the time to
read good source code. Rails code is very rich in Ruby tricks and
interesting examples of metaprogramming.
10
0.5 Getting Set Up

Youll need:
Ruby 1.9 or higher
a text editor
a command-line or terminal
Git (preferably)
Bundler.
SQLite, only for one later chapter... But its a good one!
If you dont have them, youll need to install them. This book
contains an appendix with current instructions for doing so. Or
you can install from source, from your favorite package manager,
from RubyGems, or Google it and follow instructions.
Ruby 1.9 or higher is important. Its worth upgrading if you dont
already use it. 1.9 averages twice the speed. Ruby 1.8 is
deprecated and insecure. Rails 4 requires 1.9. New projects
should always be started in Ruby 1.9+, even if they need 1.8
compatibility for a little while yet. 2.0 is basically the same as 1.9.
By text editor above, I specifically mean a programmers editor.
More specifically, I mean one that uses Unix-style newlines. On
Windows this means a text editor with that feature such as
Notepad++, SublimeText or TextPad. On Unix or Mac it means
any editor that can create a plain text file with standard newlines
such as TextEdit, SublimeText, AquaMacs, vim or TextMate.
Ill be assuming you type at a command line. That could be
Terminal, xterm, Windows cmd or my personal favorite, iTerm2.
The command line is likely familiar to you as a Ruby developer.
11
This book instructs in the command line because it is the most

powerful way to develop. Its worth knowing.
Its possible to skip git in favor of different version control software
(Subversion, Perforce, ClearCase, or even SourceSafe). Its
highly recommended that you use some kind of version control. It
should be in your fingers so deeply that you feel wrong when you
program without it. Git is my favorite, but use your favorite. The
example text will all use git and youll need it to grab sample code.
If you git pull to update your sample repo, make sure to use -f.
Im using a slightly weird system for the chapters and I may add
commits out of order.
Bundler is just a Ruby gem -- you can install it with gem install
bundler. Gemfiles are another excellent habit to cultivate, and
well use them throughout the book.
SQLite is a simple SQL database stored in a local file on your
computer. Its great for development, but please dont deploy on
it. The lessons from it apply to nearly all SQL databases and
adapters in one way or another, from MySQL and PostgreSQL to
Oracle, VoltDB or JDBC. Youll want some recent version of
SQLite 3. As I type this, the latest stable version is 3.7.11.
This edition of Rebuilding Rails uses Ruby 1.9.3-p327 and
Bundler 1.2.2 for example output. You shouldnt need these exact
versions.
12
1. Zero to It Works!
Now that youre set up, its time to start building. Like Rails, your
framework will be a gem (a Ruby library) that an application can
include and build on. Throughout the book, well call our
framework Rulers, as in Ruby on Rulers.
In the Rough
First create a new, empty gem:
$ bundle gem rulers
create rulers/Gemfile
create rulers/Rakefile
create rulers/LICENSE.txt
create rulers/README.md
create rulers/.gitignore
create rulers/rulers.gemspec
create rulers/lib/rulers.rb
create rulers/lib/rulers/version.rb
Initializating git repo in src/rulers
Rulers is a gem (a library), and so it declares its dependencies in

rulers.gemspec. Open that file in your text editor. You can
customize your name, the gem description and so on if you like.
You can customize various sections like this:
# rulers.gemspec
gem.name = "rulers"
gem.version = Rulers::VERSION
13
gem.authors =
gem.email =
gem.homepage =
gem.summary =
gem.description =
["Singleton Ruby-Webster"]
["webster@singleton-rw.org"]
""
%q{A Rack-based Web Framework}
%q{A Rack-based Web Framework,
but with extra awesome.}
Traditionally the summary is like the description but shorter. The

summary is normally about one line, while the description can go
on for four or five lines.
Make sure to replace FIXME and TODO in the descriptions gem build doesnt like them and they look bad to users.
Youll need to add dependencies at the bottom. They can look
like this:
gem.add_development_dependency "rspec"
gem.add_runtime_dependency "rest-client"
gem.add_runtime_dependency "some_gem", "1.3.0"
gem.add_runtime_dependency "other_gem", ">0.8.2"
Each of these adds a runtime dependency (needed to run the

gem at all) or a development dependency (needed to develop or
test the gem). For now, just add the following:
gem.add_runtime_dependency "rack"
Rack is a gem to interface your framework to a Ruby application

server such as Mongrel, Thin, Lighttpd, Passenger, WEBrick or
Unicorn. An application server is a special type of web server that
14
runs server applications, often in Ruby. In a real production

environment you would run a web server like Apache or NGinX in
front of the application servers. But in development well run a
single application server and no more. Luckily, an application
server also works just fine as a web server.
Well cover Rack in a lot more detail in the Controllers chapter,
and again in the Middleware chapter. For now, you should know
that Rack is how Ruby turns HTTP requests into code running on
your server.
Lets build your gem and install it:
> gem build rulers.gemspec
> gem install rulers-0.0.1.gem
Eventually well use your gem from the development directory

with a Bundler trick. But for now well do it the simple way to get it
in your fingers. Its always good to know the simplest way to do a
task -- you can fall back to it when clever tricks arent working.
Hello World, More or Less

Rails is a library like the one you just built, but what application
will it run? Well start a very simple app where you submit favorite
quotes and users can rate them. Rails would use a generator for
this (rails new best_quotes), but were going to do it manually.
Make a directory and some subdirectories:
> mkdir best_quotes
> cd best_quotes
> git init
15
Initialized empty Git repository in src/

best_quotes/.git/
> mkdir config
> mkdir app
You'll also want to make sure to use your library. Add a Gemfile:
# best_quotes/Gemfile
source 'https://rubygems.org'
gem 'rulers' # Your gem name
Then run "bundle install" to create a Gemfile.lock and make sure

all dependencies are available.
We'll build from a trivial rack application. Create a config.ru file:
# best_quotes/config.ru
run proc {
[200, {'Content-Type' => 'text/html'},
["Hello, world!"]]
}
Racks run means call that object for each request. In this
case the proc returns success (200) and Hello, world! along with
the HTTP header to make your browser display HTML.
Now you have a simple application which shows "Hello, world!"
You can start it up by typing "rackup -p 3001" and then pointing a
web browser to "http://localhost:3001". You should see the text
"Hello, world!" which comes from your config.ru file.
16
(Problems? If you cant find the rackup command, make sure you
updated your PATH environment variable to include the gems
directory, back when you were installing Ruby and various gems!
A ruby manager like rvm or rbenv can do this for you.)
Making Rulers Use Rack

In your Rulers directory, open up lib/rulers.rb. Change it to the
following:
# rulers/lib/rulers.rb
require "rulers/version"
module Rulers
class Application
def call(env)
["Hello from Ruby on Rulers!"]]
end
end
end
Build the gem again and install it (gem build rulers.gemspec; gem
install rulers-0.0.1.gem). Now change into your application
directory, best_quotes.
Now you can use the Rulers::Application class. Under config,
open a new file config/application.rb and add the following:
# best_quotes/config/application.rb
require "rulers"
17
module BestQuotes
class Application < Rulers::Application
end
end
The "BestQuotes" application object should use your Rulers

framework and show Hello from Ruby on Rulers when you use
it. To use it, open up your config.ru, and change it to say:
# best_quotes/config.ru
require './config/application'
run BestQuotes::Application.new
Now when you type "rackup -p 3001" and point your browser to
"http://localhost:3001", you should see "Hello from Ruby on
Rulers!". You've made an application and it's using your
framework!
Review
In this chapter, you created a reusable Ruby library as a gem.
You included your gem into a sample application. You also set up
a simple Rack application that you can build on using a Rackup
file, config.ru. You learned the very basics of Rack, and hooked
all these things together so that they're all working.
From here on out you'll be adding and tweaking. But this chapter
was the only time you start from a blank slate and create
something from nothing. Take a bow!
18
In Rails
By default Rails includes not one, but five reusable gems. The
actual "Rails" gem contains very little code. Instead, it delegates
to the supporting gems. Rails itself just ties them together.
Rails allows you to change out many components - you can
specify a different ORM, a different testing library, a different Ruby
template library or a different JavaScript library. So the
descriptions below arent always 100% accurate for applications
that customize heavily.
Below are the basic Rails gems -- not dependencies and libraries,
but the fundamental pieces of Rails itself.
ActiveSupport is a compatibility library including methods that
aren't necessarily specific to Rails. You'll see ActiveSupport
used by non-Rails libraries because it contains such a lot of
useful baseline functionality. ActiveSupport includes methods
like how Rails changes words from single to plural, or
CamelCase to snake_case. It also includes significantly
better time and date support than the Ruby standard library.
ActiveModel hooks into features of your models that aren't
really about the database - for instance, if you want a URL for
a given model, ActiveModel helps you there. It's a thin
wrapper around many different ActiveModel implementations
to tell Rails how to use them. Most commonly, ActiveModel
implementations are ORMs (see ActiveRecord, below), but
they can also use non-relational storage like MongoDB,
Redis, Memcached or even just local machine memory.
ActiveRecord is an Object-Relational Mapper (ORM). That
means that it maps between Ruby objects and tables in a
SQL database. When you query from or write to the SQL
19
database in Rails, you do it through ActiveRecord.

ActiveRecord also implements ActiveModel. ActiveRecord
supports MySQL and SQLite, plus JDBC, Oracle,
PostgreSQL and many others.
ActionPack does routing - the mapping of an incoming URL to
a controller and action in Rails. It also sets up your controllers
and views, and shepherds a request through its controller
action and then through rendering the view. For some of it,
ActionPack uses Rack. The template rendering itself is done
through an external gem like Erubis for .erb templates, or
Haml for .haml templates. ActionPack also handles action- or
view-centered functionality like view caching.
ActionMailer is used to send out email, especially email based
on templates. It works a lot like you'd hope Rails email would,
with controllers, actions and "views" - which for email are textbased templates, not regular web-page templates.
Not everything is in Rails, of course.
Some of what you built in this chapter was in the application, not
in Rulers. Go ahead and make a new Rails 3 app - type "rails
new test_app". If you look in config/application.rb, you'll see Rails
setting up a Rails Application object, a lot like your Rulers
Application object. You'll also see Rails' config.ru file, which looks
a lot like yours. Right now is a good time to poke through the
config directory and see what a Rails application sets up for you
by default. Do you see anything that now makes more sense?
20
Exercises
Exercise One: Reloading Rulers
Let's add a bit of debugging to the Rulers framework.
module Rulers
class Application
def call(env)
`echo debug > debug.txt`;
["Hello from Ruby on Rulers!"]]
end
end
end
When this executes, it should create a new file called debug.txt in

best_quotes, where you ran rackup .
Try restarting your server and reloading your browser at "http://
localhost:3001". But you won't see the debug file!
Try rebuilding the gem and reinstalling it (gem build rulers; gem
install rulers-0.0.1.gem). Reload the browser. You still won't see it.
Finally, restart the server again and reload the browser. Now you
should finally see that debug file.
Rails and Rulers can both be hard to debug. In chapter 3 we'll
look at Bundlers :path option as a way to make it easier. For now
you'll need to reinstall the gem and restart the rack server before
your new Rulers code gets executed. When the various
conveniences fail, youll know how to do it the old-fashioned way.
21
Exercise Two: Your Librarys Library

You can begin a simple library of reusable functions, just like
ActiveSupport. When an application uses your Rulers gem and
then requires it ("require rulers"), the application will automatically
get any methods in that file. Try adding a new file called lib/rulers/
array.rb, with the following:
# rulers/lib/rulers/array.rb
class Array
def sum(start = 0)
inject(start, &:+)
end
end
Have you seen &:+ before? Its a fun trick. :+ means the
symbol + just like :foo means the symbol foo. The & means
pass as a block -- the code block in curly-braces that usually
comes after. So youre passing a symbol as if it were a block.
Ruby knows to convert a symbol into a proc that calls it. When
you do it with plus, you get add these together.
Now add require "rulers/array" to the top of lib/rulers.rb.
That will include it in all Rulers apps.
Youll need to go into the rulers directory and git add . before you
rebuild the gem (git add .; gem build rulers.gemspec; gem install
rulers-0.0.1.gem). Thats because rulers.gemspec is actually
calling git to find out what files to include in your gem. Have a
look at this line from rulers.gemspec:
gem.files = `git ls-files`.split($/)
22
git ls-files will only show files git knows about -- the split is just to
get the individual lines of output. If you create a new file, be sure
to git add . before you rebuild the gem or you wont see it!
Now with your new rulers/array.rb file, any application including
Rulers will be able to write [1, 2, 37, 9].sum and get the sum of the
array. Go ahead, add a few more methods that could be useful to
the applications that will use your framework.
Exercise Three: Test Early, Test Often
Since were building a Rack app, the rack-test gem is a
convenient way to test it. Lets do that.
Add rack-test as a development (not runtime) dependency to your
gemspec:
# rulers/rulers.gemspec, near the bottom
# ...
gem.add_runtime_dependency "rack"
gem.add_development_dependency "rack-test"
gem.add_development_dependency "test-unit"
end
(On Ruby 2.0 and higher, youll need to explicitly declare a

dependency on Test/Unit as well -- its not automatic any more.)
Why use the Gemspec when you have a Gemfile? The gemspec
is taken into account by apps and libraries that depend on your
gem, so its a good habit. In this case its a development
dependency, so it doesnt matter much, though.
Now run bundle install to make sure youve installed rack-test.
Well add one usable test for Rulers. Later youll write more.
23
Make a test directory:
# From rulers directory

> mkdir test
Now well create a test helper:

# rulers/test/test_helper.rb
require "rack/test"
require "test/unit"
# Always use local Rulers first
d = File.join(File.dirname(__FILE__), "..", "lib")
$LOAD_PATH.unshift File.expand_path(d)
require "rulers"
The only surprising thing here should be the $LOAD_PATH

magic. It makes sure that requiring rulers will require the local
one in the current directory rather than, say, the one you installed
as a gem. It does that by unshifting (prepending) the local path
so its checked before anything else in $LOAD_PATH.
We also do an expand_path so that its an absolute, not a relative
path. Thats important if anything might change the current
directory.
Testing a different local change to a gem you have installed can
be annoying -- what do you have installed? Whats being used?
By explicitly prepending to the load path, you can be sure that the
local not-necessarily-installed version of the code is used first.
24
Now youll need a test, which well put in test_application.rb:

# rulers/test/test_application.rb
require_relative "test_helper"
class TestApp < Rulers::Application
end
class RulersAppTest < Test::Unit::TestCase
include Rack::Test::Methods
def app
TestApp.new
end
def test_request
get "/"
assert last_response.ok?
body = last_response.body
assert body["Hello"]
end
end
The require_relative just means require, but check from this files
directory, not the load path. Its a fun, simple trick.
This test creates a new TestApplication class, creates an
instance, and then gets / on that instance. It checks for error
with last_response.ok? and that the body text contains Hello.
25
To run the test, type ruby test/test_application.rb. It should run

the test and display a message like this:
# Running tests:
.
Finished tests in 0.007869s, 127.0810 tests/s,
254.1619 assertions/s.
1 tests, 2 assertions, 0 failures, 0 errors, 0
skips
The line get / above can be post /my/url if you prefer, or any
other HTTP method and URL.
Now, write at least one more test.
26
2. Your First Controller

In this chapter you'll write your very first controller and start to see
how Rails routes a request.
You already have a very basic gem and application, and the gem
is installed locally. If you don't, or if you don't like the code you
wrote in the first chapter, you can download the sample source.
We'll bump up the gem version by 1 for every chapter of the book.
If you're building the code on your own, you can do this or not.
To change the gem version, open up rulers/lib/rulers/version.rb
and change the constant from "0.0.1" to "0.0.2". Next time you
reinstall your gem, you'll need to type "gem build rulers.gemspec;
gem install rulers-0.0.2.gem". You should delete rulers/
rulers-0.0.1.gem, just so you don't install and run old code by
mistake.
Sample Source
Sample source for all chapters is on GitHub:
http://github.com/noahgibbs/rulers
http://github.com/noahgibbs/best_quotes
Once youve cloned the repositories, in EACH directory do git
checkout -b chapter_2_mine chapter_2 to create a new branch
called chapter_2_mine for your commits.
On the Rack
Last chapters big return values for Rack can take some
explaining. So lets do that. Heres one:
27
[200, {Content-Type => text/html},

[ Hello! ]]
Lets break that down. The first number, 200, is the HTTP status
code. If you returned 404 then the web browser would show a
404 message -- page not found. If you returned 500, the browser
should say that there was a server error.
The next hash is the headers. You can return all sorts of headers
to set cookies, change security settings and many other things.
The important one for us right now is Content-Type, which must
be text/html. That just lets the browser know that we want the
page rendered as HTML rather than text, JSON, XML, RSS or
something else.
And finally, theres the content. In this case we have only a single
part containing a string. So the browser would show Hello!
Soon well examine Racks env object, which is a hash of
interesting values. For now all you need to know is that one of
those values is called PATH_INFO, and its the part of the URL
after the server name but minus the query parameters, if any.
Thats the part of the URL that tells a Rails application what
controller and action to use.
Routing Around
A request arrives at your web server or application server. Rack
passes it through to your code. Rulers will need to route the
request -- that means it takes the URL from that request and
answers the question, "what controller and what action handle
this request?" We're going to start with very simple routing.
28
Specifically, were going to start with what was once Rails default
routing. That means URLs of the form http://host.com/category/
action are routed to CategoryController#action.
Under "rulers", open lib/rulers.rb.
require "rulers/version"
require "rulers/routing"
module Rulers
class Application
def call(env)
klass, act = get_controller_and_action(env)
controller = klass.new(env)
text = controller.send(act)
[text]]
end
end
class Controller
def initialize(env)
@env = env
end
def env
@env
end
end
end
29
Our Application#call method is now getting a controller and action

from the URL and then making a new controller and sending it the
action. With a URL like http://mysite.com/people/create, youd
hope to get PeopleController for klass and create for the action.
Well make that happen in rulers/routing.rb, below.
The controller just saves the environment we gave it. Well use it
later.
Now in lib/rulers/routing.rb:
# rulers/lib/rulers/routing.rb
module Rulers
class Application
def get_controller_and_action(env)
_, cont, action, after =
env["PATH_INFO"].split('/', 4)
cont = cont.capitalize # "People"
cont += "Controller" # "PeopleController"
[Object.const_get(cont), action]
end
end
end
This is very simple routing, so well just get a controller and action
as simply as possible. We split the URL on /. The 4 just
means split no more than 4 times. So the split assigns an empty
string to _ from before the first slash, then the controller, then
the action, and then everything else un-split in one lump. For now
we throw away everything after the second / - but its still in the
environment, so its not really gone.
30
The method const_get is a piece of Ruby magic - it just means

look up any name starting with a capital letter - in this case, your
controller class.
Also, youll sometimes see the underscore used to mean a value
I dont care about, as I do above. Its actually a normal variable
and you can use it however you like, but many Rubyists like to
use it to mean something Im ignoring or dont want.
Now youll make a controller in best_quotes. Under app/
controllers, make a file called quotes_controller.rb:
# best_quotes/app/controllers/quotes_controller.rb
class QuotesController < Rulers::Controller
def a_quote
"There is nothing either good or bad " +
"but thinking makes it so."
end
end
That looks like a decent controller, even if its not quite like Rails.
Youll need to add it to the application manually since you havent
added magic Rails-style autoloading for your controllers yet. So
open up best_quotes/config/application.rb. Youre going to add
the following lines after require rulers and before declaring your
app:
# best_quotes/config/application.rb (excerpt)
$LOAD_PATH << File.join(File.dirname(__FILE__),
"..", "app",
"controllers")
require "quotes_controller"
31
The LOAD_PATH line lets you load files out of app/controllers

just by requiring their name, as Rails does. And then you require
your new controller.
Now, go to the rulers directory and type git add .; gem build
rulers.gemspec; gem install rulers-0.0.2.gem. Then under
best_quotes, type rackup -p 3001. Finally, open your browser to
http://localhost:3001/quotes/a_quote.
If you did everything right, you should see a quote from Hamlet.
And youre also seeing the very first action of your very first
controller.
If you didnt quite get it, please make sure to include quotes/
a_quote in the URL, like you see above -- just going to the root
no longer works.
It Almost Worked!
Now, have a look at the console where you ran rackup. Look up
the screen. See that error? Its possible you wont on some
browsers, but its likely you have an error like this:
NameError: wrong constant name
Favicon.icoController
.../gems/rulers-0.0.3/lib/rulers/routing.rb:9:in
`const_get'
.../gems/rulers-0.0.3/lib/rulers/routing.rb:9:in
`get_controller_and_action'
.../gems/rulers-0.0.3/lib/rulers.rb:7:in `call'
.../gems/rack-1.4.1/lib/rack/lint.rb:48:in
`_call'
(...more lines...)
32
127.0.0.1 - - [21/Feb/2012 19:46:51] "GET /

favicon.ico HTTP/1.1" 500 42221 0.0092
Youre looking at an error from the browser fetching a file... Hm...

Check that last line... Yup, favicon.ico. Most browsers do this
automatically. Eventually well have our framework or our web
server take care of serving static files like this. But for now, well
cheat horribly.
Open up rulers/lib/rulers.rb, and have a look at
Rulers::Application#call. We can just check explicitly for
PATH_INFO being /favicon.ico and return a 404:
module Rulers
class Application
def call(env)
if env['PATH_INFO'] == '/favicon.ico'
return [404,
{'Content-Type' => 'text/html'}, []]
end
klass, act = get_controller_and_action(env)
controller = klass.new(env)
text = controller.send(act)
[text]]
end
end
33
A horrible hack? Definitely. And eventually well fix it. For now,
that will let you see your real errors without gumming up your
terminal with unneeded ones.
Review
Youve just set up very basic routing, and a controller action that
you can route to. If you add more controller actions, you get more
routes. Rulers 0.0.2 would be just barely enough to set up an
extremely simple web site. Well add much more as we go along.
Youve learned a little more about Rack -- see the Rails section
of this chapter for even more. Youve also seen a little bit of Rails
magic with LOAD_PATH and const_get, both of which well see
more of later.
Exercises
Exercise One: Debugging the Rack Environment
Open app/controllers/quotes_controller.rb, and change it to this:
def a_quote
"There is nothing either good or bad " +
"but thinking makes it so." +
"\n<pre>\n#{env}\n</pre>"
end
end
Now restart the server -- you dont need to rebuild the gem if you
just change the application. Reload the browser, and you should
34
see a big hash table full of interesting information. Its all in one
line, so Ill reformat mine for you:
{"GATEWAY_INTERFACE"=>"CGI/1.1", "PATH_INFO"=>"/
quotes/a_quote", "QUERY_STRING"=>"",
"REMOTE_ADDR"=>"127.0.0.1",
"REMOTE_HOST"=>"localhost",
"REQUEST_METHOD"=>"GET", "REQUEST_URI"=>"http://
localhost:3001/quotes/a_quote", "SCRIPT_NAME"=>"",
"SERVER_NAME"=>"localhost", "SERVER_PORT"=>"3001",
"SERVER_PROTOCOL"=>"HTTP/1.1",
"SERVER_SOFTWARE"=>"WEBrick/1.3.1 (Ruby/
1.9.3/2012-11-10)", "HTTP_HOST"=>"localhost:3001",
"HTTP_CONNECTION"=>"keep-alive",
"HTTP_CACHE_CONTROL"=>"max-age=0",
"HTTP_USER_AGENT"=>"Mozilla/5.0 (Macintosh; Intel
Mac OS X 10_6_8) AppleWebKit/537.11 (KHTML, like
Gecko) Chrome/23.0.1271.64 Safari/537.11",
"HTTP_ACCEPT"=>"text/html,application/xhtml
+xml,application/xml;q=0.9,*/*;q=0.8",
"HTTP_ACCEPT_ENCODING"=>"gzip,deflate,sdch",
"HTTP_ACCEPT_LANGUAGE"=>"en-US,en;q=0.8",
"HTTP_ACCEPT_CHARSET"=>"ISO-8859-1,utf-8;q=0.7,*;q=
0.3", "rack.version"=>[1, 1], "rack.input"=>#>,
"rack.errors"=>#>>, "rack.multithread"=>true,
"rack.multiprocess"=>false, "rack.run_once"=>false,
"rack.url_scheme"=>"http", "HTTP_VERSION"=>"HTTP/
1.1", "REQUEST_PATH"=>"/quotes/a_quote"}
That looks like a lot, doesnt it? Its everything your application
gets from Rack. When your Rails controller uses accessors like
post?, under the covers its checking the Rack environment. If
35
your controller checked whether env[REQUEST_METHOD] ==

POST, you could easily add your own post? method.
Better yet, you can now see everything that Rails has to work
with. Everything that Rails knows about the request coming in is
extracted from the same hash you get.
Exercise Two: Debugging Exceptions
Lets add a new method to our controller to raise an exception:
def exception
raise "It's a bad one!"
end
end
Re-run rackup, and go to http://localhost:3001/quotes/exception

in your browser, which should raise an exception. Youll probably
see a prettily-formatted page saying there was a RuntimeError at /
quotes/exception and a big stack trace.
In chapter 8 well look very deeply into Rack middleware and why
youre seeing that. Its not built into your browser, and you can
actually turn it off by setting RACK_ENV to production in your
environment. Basically, its a development-only debugging tool
that youre benefiting from.
However, you dont have to use it. You could add a begin/rescue/
end block in your Rulers application request and then decide what
to do with exceptions.
Go into rulers/lib/rulers.rb and in your call method, add a begin/
rescue/end around the controller.send() call. Now you have to
36
decide what to do if an exception is raised -- you can start with a

simple error page, or a custom 500 page, or whatever you like.
What else can your framework do on errors?
Exercise Three: Roots and Routes
Its inconvenient that you cant just go to http://localhost:3001
any more and see if things are working. Just getting an exception
doesnt tell you if you broke anything.
Head back into rulers/lib/rulers.rb. Under the check for
favicon.ico, you could put a check to see if PATH_INFO is just /.
First, try hard-coding it to always go to /quotes/a_quote and test
in your browser. Then, try one of the following:
Return the contents of a known file -- maybe public/index.html?
Look for a HomeController and its index action.
Extra credit: try a browser redirect. This requires returning a
code other than 200 or 404 and setting some headers.
In chapter 9 well build a much more configurable router, more like
how Rails does it. Until then, its pretty easy to hack a router in
Ruby in your framework.
In Rails
ActionPack in Rails includes the controllers. Rails also has an
ApplicationController which inherits from its controller base class,
and then each individual controller inherits from that. Your
framework could do that too!
Different Rails versions had substantially different routers. You
can read about the current one in Rails Routing from the Outside
In: http://guides.rubyonrails.org/routing.html. The routing
Rulers is doing is similar to the old-style Rails 1.2 routes (still the
37
default in Rails 2.3) which would automatically look up a controller

and action without you specifying the individual routes. Thats not
great security, but its not a bad way to start, either. Rails 3
default routes work by generating a lot of individual matched
routes, so theyre not quite like this either.
Rails encapsulated the Rack information into a request object
rather than just including the hash right into the controller. Thats
a good idea when you want to abstract it a bit -- normalize values
for certain variables, for instance, or read and set cookies to store
session data. Rails does a lot of that, and in chapter 6 youll see
how to make Rulers do it too. Rails also uses Rack under the
hood, so its working with the same basic information you are.
Rack is a simple, CGI-like interface, and theres less to it than
youd think. If youre curious, have a look at http://
rack.rubyforge.org/doc/SPEC.html for all the details. Its a little
hard to read, but it can tell you everything you need to know.
Youll learn more about Rack as we go along, especially in
chapter 8. But for the impatient, Rails includes a specific guide to
how it uses Rack: http://guides.rubyonrails.org/
rails_on_rack.html. Its full of things you can apply to your own
framework. Some of them will be added in later chapters of this
book.
38
3. Rails Automatic Loading

If youve used Rails much, it probably struck you as odd that you
had to require your controller file. And that you had to restart the
server repeatedly. In fact, all kinds of too manual. Whats up
with that?
Rails actually does all kinds of neat automatic loading for you
when it sees something it thinks it recognizes. If it sees
BoboController and doesnt have one yet it loads app/controllers/
bobo_controller.rb. Were going to do that in this chapter.
You may already know about Rubys method_missing. When you
call a method that doesnt exist on an object, Ruby tries calling
method_missing instead. That lets you make invisible
methods with unusual names.
It turns out that Ruby also has const_missing, which does the
same thing for constants that dont exist. Class names in Ruby...
are just constants. Hmm...
Sample Source
Sample source for all chapters is on GitHub:
http://github.com/noahgibbs/rulers
http://github.com/noahgibbs/best_quotes
Once youve cloned the repositories, in EACH directory do git
checkout -b chapter_3_mine chapter_3 to create a new branch
called chapter_3_mine for your commits.
Wheres My Constant?
First, lets see how const_missing works.
39
Try putting this into a file called const_missing.rb and running it:
# some_directory/const_missing.rb
class Object
def self.const_missing(c)
STDERR.puts "Missing constant: #{c.inspect}!"
end
end
Bobo
When you run it, you should see Missing constant: :Bobo. So
that would let us know the class was used but not loaded. That
seems promising. But we still get an error.
By the way -- youll see STDERR.puts repeatedly through this
book. When debugging or printing error messages I like to use
STDERR because its a bit harder to redirect than a normal puts
and so youre more likely to see it even when using a log file,
background process or similar.
Youll also see a lot of inspect. For simple structures, inspect
shows them exactly as youd type them into Ruby -- strings with
quotes, numbers bare, symbols with a leading colon and so on.
Much like STDERR.puts, its great to get inspect into your
fingers every time youre debugging -- then when you have a
problem where something is the wrong type, youll generally know
exactly whats wrong. Make it a habit now!
Try creating another file, this one called bobo.rb, next to
const_missing.rb. It should look like this:
# some_directory/bobo.rb
40
class Bobo
def print_bobo
puts "Bobo!"
end
end
Pretty simple. Lets change const_missing.rb:
Enjoying the book? You can purchase the

full version from http://rebuilding-rails.com.
Youve read 40 pages for free. The full
version is over 130. With more topics, more
exercises and an even deeper
understanding of Rails, how can you lose?
Each chapter can be read separately, and
you can download starter source for any
chapter.
On the fence? Check the contents at http://
rebuilding-rails.com/book_toc.html. If you
like what youve read so far, theres even
better stuff ahead.
41
Appendix: Installing Ruby 2.0,

Git, Bundler and SQLite3
Ruby 2.0
Ruby 2.0 is the latest, fastest, best version of Ruby out there as I
write this. But it may not be installed on your machine. Lets get
it. If you cant get 2.0, anything 1.9.2 or higher should be fine.
(You can also install through RVM. But RVM can be complicated,
so Im not recommending it if you dont already use it.)
Windows
To install Ruby on Windows, go to http://rubyinstaller.org/, hit
download, and choose version 1.9.3 or later. This should
download an EXE to install Ruby.
Mac OS X
To install Ruby on Mac OS X, you can first install Homebrew
(http://mxcl.github.com/homebrew/) and then brew install ruby.
For other ways, you can Google mac os x install ruby or several
similar phrases.
Ubuntu Linux
To install Ruby 1.9 on Linux , use apt-get:
> sudo apt-get install ruby-1.9.1
Despite the package name, this actually installs Ruby 1.9.2, which
should work great.
42
Others
Google for install Ruby on <my operating system>. If youre
using an Amiga, email me!
Git (Source Control)

Windows
To install git on Windows, we recommend GitHubs excellent
documentation with lots of screenshots: http://help.github.com/
win-set-up-git/. It will walk you through installing msysgit (http://
code.google.com/p/msysgit/), a git implementation for Windows.
Mac OS X
To install git on Mac OS X, download and install the latest version
from http://git-scm.com/. You wont see an application icon for
git, which is fine - its a command-line application that you run
from the terminal. You can also install through Homebrew.
Ubuntu Linux
To install git on Ubuntu Linux, use apt.
> sudo apt-get install git-core
Others
Google for install git on <my operating system>.
Bundler
Bundler is a gem that Rails 3 uses to manage all the various Ruby
gems that a library or application in Ruby uses these days. The
43
number can be huge, and there wasnt a great way to declare

them before Gemfiles, which come from Bundler.
To install bundler:
> gem install bundler
Fetching: bundler-1.0.21.gem (100%)
Successfully installed bundler-1.0.21
1 gem installed
Other gems will be installed via Bundler later. It uses a file called
a Gemfile that just declares what gems your library or app uses,
and where to find them.
SQLite
Windows
Go to sqlite.org. Pick the most recent stable version and scroll
down until you see Precompiled Binaries for Windows. There is
a This is what youll be using.
Mac OS X
Mac OS X ships with SQLite3. If the SQLite3 gem is installed
correctly it should use it without complaint.
Ubuntu Linux
Youll want to use apt-get (or similar) to install SQLite. Usually
thats:
> sudo apt-get install sqlite3 libsqlite3-dev
44
Others
Google for install sqlite3 on <my operating system>.
Other Rubies
If youre adventurous, you know about other Ruby
implementations (e.g. JRuby, Rubinius). You may need to adjust
some specific code snippets if you use one.
45

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Get Your Hands Dirty and Build

Locomotive Construction, New South Wales State Records

(C) Noah Gibbs, 2012-2013

0. Rebuilding Rails for Yourself!

Why Rebuild Rails?!

Who Should Rebuild Rails?!

0.5 Getting Set Up!

Hello World, More or Less!

Making Rulers Use Rack!

Exercise One: Reloading Rulers!

Exercise Two: Your Librarys Library!

Exercise Three: Test Early, Test Often!

2. Your First Controller!

Exercise One: Debugging the Rack Environment!

Exercise Two: Debugging Exceptions!

Exercise Three: Roots and Routes!

3. Rails Automatic Loading!

CamelCase and snake_case!

Reloading Means Convenience!

Exercise One: Did It Work?!

Exercise Two: Re-re-reloading!

Erb and Erubis!

And Now, Back to Our Program!

More Quotes, More Better!

Exercise One: Mind Those Tests!!

Exercise Two: View Variables!

Exercise Three: Rake Targets for Tests!

Inclusion and Convenience!

Where Do New Quotes Come From?!

Exercise One: Object Updates!

Exercise Two: Caching and Sharing Models!

Exercise Three: More Interesting Finders!

Requests with Rack!

Responses with Rack!

Exercise One: Automatic Rendering!

Exercise Two: Instance Variables!

7. The Littlest ORM!

What Couldnt FileModel Do? (Lots)!

No Migrations? But How Can I...?!

Read That Schema!

When Irb Needs a Boost!

Schema and Data!

Seek and Find!

I Might Need That Later!

Exercise One: Column Accessors!

Exercise Two: method_missing for Column Accessors!

Exercise Three: from_sql and Types!

Care and Feeding of Config.ru!

The Real Thing!

Powerful and Portable!

More Complicated Middleware!

Middleware Fast and Slow!

Exercise One: Do It With Rulers!

Exercise Two: Middleware from Gems!

Exercise Three: More Benchmarking!

Controller Actions are Rack Apps!

Rack::Map and Controllers!

Playing with Matches!