Types of Structures and Loads

TYPES OF STRUCTURES
&LOADS
Introduction
There are many different types of structures all around us.
Each structure has a specific purpose or function. Some
structures are simple, while others are complex; however there
are two basic principles of composing structures:
They must be capable of carrying the loads that they are
designed for without collapsing.
They must support the various parts of the external load in the
correct relative position.
A structure refers to a system with connected parts used to
support a load (e.g. buildings, bridges, towers, ship, aircraft
frames, tanks, pressure vessels, mechanicals systems,
electrical supporting structures). However, these structures are
very complex to analyze and design.
Introduction
At first, we will consider simple examples of structures and
parts of structures like beams, trusses, frames, etc. When
designing a structure to serve a specified function for public
use, the engineer must account for its safety, esthetics, and
serviceability, while taking into consideration economic and
environmental constraints. It is important for a structural
engineer to recognize the various types of elements composing
a structure and to be able to classify them as to there form and
function. We will introduce some of these aspects.
Structural Elements
Tie Rods
Structural members subjected to a tensile force. Due to the
nature of the load, these elements are rather slender and are
often chosen from rods, bars, angles, or channels.
Structural Elements
Beams
Straight horizontal members
used primarily to carry vertical
loads, and primarily designed
to resist bending moment,
however, if they are short and
carry large loads, the internal
shear force may become quite
large and this force may
govern their design. Beams
may be designed from several
elements and materials (e.g.
concrete, metal, timber) with
rectangular or other cross
sections.
Structural Elements
Columns
Members that are generally vertical and
resist
axial
compressive
loads.
Occasionally, columns are subjected to
both an axial load and bending moment.
The combination of structural elements
and the materials from which they are
composed is referred to as a structural
system. Each system is constructed of
one or more of four basic types of
structures.
Types of Structures
Trusses
They are composed of slender rods usually arranged in
triangular fashion. Trusses are suitable for constructions with
large span when the depth is not important criterion for design.
Planar trusses are composed of members that lie in the same
plane and are frequently used for bridge and roof support,
where as space trusses have members extending in three
dimensions and are suitable for derricks and towers.
Types of Structures
Cables and Arches
Other forms of structures
used to span long distances.
Cables are usually flexible
and carry their loads in
tension, and commonly
used to support bridges.
The arch achieves its
strength in compression,
since it has a reverse
curvature to that of the
cable, and frequently used
in bridge structures, dome
roofs, etc.
Types of Structures
Frames
They are often used in buildings and are composed of
beams and columns which are with hinge or rigid
connections. These structures are usually indeterminate and
the load causes generally bending of its members.
Types of Structures
Three-hinged Frame
This structure is simple determinate frame used generally for
base element for complicated frame structures.
Types of Structures
Surface structures
They are made from a material having a very small thickness
compared to its other dimensions. These structures can be
made from flexible or rigid material and can take the form of
a tent or air-inflated structure (flexible) and may be shaped
as folded plates, cylinders, or hyperbolic paraboloids, and
are referred to as thin plates or shells (rigid).
Loads
Important Codes used in Practice
Loads
Dead Loads
Consists of the weights of the various structural members and the weights
of any objects that are permanently attached to the structure. Hence, for a
building, the dead loads include the weights of the columns, beams, and
girders, the floor slab, roofing, walls, windows, plumbing, electrical fixtures,
and other miscellaneous attachments.
Loads
Live Loads
Live loads can vary both in their magnitude and location. They
may be caused by the weights of objects temporarily placed on
a structure, moving vehicles, or natural forces.
Building Loads
The floors of buildings are assumed to be subjected to uniform live loads,
which depend on the purpose for which the building is designed.
Loads
Highway Bridge Loads
The primary live loads on bridge spans are those due to traffic, and the
heaviest vehicle loading encountered is that caused by a series of trucks.
Railroad Bridge Loads

Train loadings involve a complicated series of concentrated forces, hence,
tables and graphs are sometimes used in conjunction with influence lines to
obtain the critical load.
Impact Loads
Moving vehicles may bounce or sidesway as they move over a bridge, and
therefore they impart an impact to the deck.
Wind Loads
When structures block the flow of wind, the winds kinetic energy is
converted into potential energy of pressure, which causes wind loading.
Loads
Snow Loads
In some parts of the country, roof loading due to snow can be quite severe,
and therefore protection against possible failure is of primary concern.
Earthquake Loads
Earthquakes produce loadings on a structure through its interaction with the
ground and its response characteristics.
Hydrostatic and Soil Pressure

When structures are used to retain water, soil, or granular materials, the
pressure developed by these loadings becomes an important criterion for
their design.
Other Natural Loads

These include the effects of blast, temperature changes, and differential
settlement of the foundation.
Loads
Problem Set 1
1. The floor of a heavy storage warehouse building is made of 6-in thick
stone concrete. If the floor is a slab having a length of 15 ft and width of 10
ft, determine the resultant force caused by the dead load and the live load.
Loads
Problem Set 1
2. The floor of the office building is made of 4-in thick lightweight concrete. If
the office floor is a slab having a length of 20 ft and width of 15 ft, determine
the resultant force caused by the dead load and the live load.
Loads
Problem Set 1
3. The T-beam is made from concrete having a specific weight of 150 lb/ft3.
Determine the dead load per foot length of beam. Neglect the weight of the
steel reinforcement.
Loads
Problem Set 1
4. The New Jersey barrier is commonly used during highway construction.
Determine its weight per foot of length if it is made from plain stone concrete.
Loads
Problem Set 1
5. The prestressed concrete girder is made from plain stone concrete and
four in cold-form steel reinforcing rods. Determine the dead weight of the
girder per foot of its length.
Structural Design
ASD
Allowable-stress design (ASD) methods include both the
material and load uncertainties into a single factor of safety.
LRFD
Since uncertainty can be considered using probability theory,
there has been an increasing trend to separate material
uncertainty from load uncertainty. This method is called
strength design or LRFD (load and resistance factor design).
Idealized Structures
Rigid (Fixed) Support
This support carry moment, shear and axial forces between
different members. This kind of support doesnt allow any nodal
rotations and displacements of the support point.
Hinged (Pin) Support
This support carry shear and axial forces but not moment
between different members. The hinged support allows rotation
of the support point but the two displacement are equal to zero.
Roller Support
This support carry only shear forces between jointed members.
The roller support allows rotation and one displacement of the
support point.
Spring Supports
These supports are like the previous but with the difference
that they are not ideally rigid but with some real stiffness. The
spring has a stiffness constant c equals to the force caused by
displacement d = 1.
Structure Idealization
The main idea of this idealization
is to made a mathematical model
of the real construction to be
convenient for analysis and
calculation. After we know the
idealization of different joints and
supports, we will take care about
whole structure idealization. To
make this we follow the middle
axis of the elements of the
structure. In the following figure
are shown some real and
idealized structures:
Principles and Preconditions

Displacements
Every two dimensional deformable
element has three degrees of
freedom (two displacements and one
rotation) of each its end node. With
using different support links, we
control these degrees of freedom so
the elements cannot move on the
limited direction or it moves with
controlled value. These limitations
are called boundary conditions. On
the following figure are shown the
degrees of freedom and some
boundary conditions for elements:

Deformation
Deformation or strain is the change in the metric properties of
a continuous body (element) caused by some load. A change in
the metric properties means that the element changes its
length and shape when displaced to a curve in the final position
the deformed shape.

Preconditions about displacements and deformations
We presume that the displacements are small according to the
dimensions of the element and deformations are small
according to the unit. These preconditions allow us to write
equilibrium conditions for the initial shape of the structure and
also to neglect the small displacement of the structure.

Precondition about the material
We suppose that the connection between stress and strain is
linear so the Hooks law is valid. This is acceptable because of
presumption of small deformation.

Principle of superposition
The previous two preconditions allow us to use the principle of
superposition. It may be stated as follow: The total
displacement or internal forces at a point in a structure
subjected to several external loadings can be determined by
adding together the displacements or internal forces caused by
each of the external loads acting separately.

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What are the different types of structural elements discussed?

What principles must be considered when idealizing a structure?

TYPES OF STRUCTURES

Railroad Bridge Loads

Hydrostatic and Soil Pressure

Other Natural Loads

Principles and Preconditions

Principles and Preconditions

Principles and Preconditions

Principles and Preconditions

Principles and Preconditions

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